Lecture #01; History of Architecture-Roman Architecture

(750BC - 400AD):

Basically, Architectural History is the discipline that records, studies and

interprets architecture. It studies its forms, purposes, and most importantly
its evolution. Fortunately, ancient architecture can easily be observed and
recorded. Studying architectural history enables us to understand the
society and culture they represent which is very useful when working as a
contemporary civil engineer, and as an architect. Comparing and studying
ancient and contemporary architecture is essential. It allows civil engineers
and architects to consider a buildings or cities as more than a visual
phenomenon.

Looking at the Roman Architecture; unlike the more creative and

intellectual Greeks, the Romans were essentially practical people with a
flair for engineering, construction and military matters. In their
architecture, as in their art, they borrowed heavily from both the Etruscans
(eg. in their use of hydraulics for swamp-clearing and in the construction of
arches), and also the Greeks, whom they regarded as their superiors in all
visual arts. However, without Roman Art - with its genius for copying and
adapting Greek styles - most of the artistic achievements of Greek antiquity
would have been lost.

Roman architecture was assisted by major advances in both design and new
materials. Design was enhanced through architectural developments in the
construction of arches and roof domes. Arches improved the efficiency and
capability of bridges and aqueducts (fewer support columns were needed to
support the structure), while domed roofs not only permitted the building of
larger open areas under cover, but also lent the exterior an impressive
appearance of grandeur and majesty, as in several important secular and
Christian basilicas, like the Pantheon.
Developments in materials were also crucial, as chronicled by the Roman
architect Vitruvius (78-10BC) in his book De-Architectura. This is
exemplified by the Roman invention of concrete (opus cementicium), a
mixture of lime mortar, sand, water, and stones, in the 3rd century BC. This
exceptionally strong and convenient substitute for stone revolutionized
Roman engineering and architecture. As tile-covered concrete began to
replace marble as the main building material, architects could be more
daring. Buildings were freed from the rectangular Greek design-plan (with
its undomed roofs and lines of pillars supporting flat architraves) and
became less geometric and more free-flowing. Like their Egyptian and the
Greek predecessors, architects in ancient Rome embellished their public
buildings with a wide range of artworks, including: Roman
sculpture (especially reliefs, statues and busts of the Emperor), fresco
murals, and mosaics.

Most literature notes that; the Romans conquered the Greek cities in Italy
around 300 years BC and much of the Western world after that. Roman Art
and Architecture was shaped by extensive borrowing, although it is
contrary to both Egypt and Greece architecture in the sense that it does not
copy exactly the Architecture of Egypt and Greece, which concentrated on
sculptural masses meant to empower or glorify a group of people or elites.
Also the Romans did not mark their beginning from the decisive battle or
reign of a particular king, but from the founding of the city of Rome.
Romans took great pride and power because they were free and self-
governing. Historically, Roman history is divided into three different
phases which includes:
 The rule of the early kings
(Kingship),
 The Republic, and

 The Empire.
In about 1100BC there existed the kingship leadership that started as
people were moving in groups called the Balkan settlers who moved into the
Italian peninsula and among them were the Latins who lived in hilly land far
from the sea with their own king. 450 years later another group called
Etruscan moved into the north of Rome possessing a more advanced
culture, and came to dominate the neighboring tribes including the Latins
and also placed their king. The Republic governance came into being in 509
BC when the inhabitants of the city of Rome rebelled, deposing the king and
instituted the Republic governance by the senate of patricians.

This leadership did not stay longer rather after almost one year, problems
began to arise due to invaders and intruders from other places where
Etruscans in north and the Greece from south all together mingled with
some indigenous, creating strong colonies which united and became more
powerful such that Rome became no more a city but a series annexed
colonies and federated cities not as thought before. Now Rome became a
unity and independent Empire led by different Emperors from period to
period.

In the leadership of Marcus Aurelius the empire began to suffer growing the
internal rigidity and pressure from invaders until Diocletian divided the
empire into two sections in AD 285 into two coequal empires and later
retired and the system he left failed apart but the empire was pulled
together once more in AD 324 by Constantine I. In 330 CE, about the time
St Peter's Basilica was completed, the Roman Emperor Constantine I
declared new city at the entrance of the Black sea on the old Greek city of
Byzantium (later renamed as Constantine’s city or Constantinople, now
Istanbul in Turkey).

Ancient Roman Architecture

The Architecture of Ancient Rome adopted the external language of
classical Greek architecture for their own purposes, which were so different
from Greek buildings as to create a new architectural style. Certainly, the
Romans absorbed Geek influence in many aspects closely related to
architecture, for example in the introduction and use of the Triclinium in
Roman villas as a place and manner of dining. Adopting this broader view
of architecture, we can see that social elements such as wealth and high
population densities in cities forced the ancient Romans to discover new
(architectural) solutions of their own. For example, the use of vaults and
arches together with a sound knowledge of building materials enabled them
to achieve unprecedented successes in the construction of imposing
structures for public use.

Examples include the aqueducts of Rome, the Baths of Diocletian and the
Baths of Caracalla, the Pantheon, Rome (largest single span dome for well
over a millennium), the basilicas and perhaps most famously of all, the
Colosseum. They were reproduced at smaller scale in most important towns
and cities in the Empire. Political propaganda demanded that these
buildings should be made to impress as well as perform a public function.
The Romans didn't feel restricted by Greek aesthetic axioms alone in order
to achieve these objectives. The Pantheon is a supreme example of this,
particularly in the version rebuilt by Hadrian and which still stands in its
celestial glory as a prototype of several other great buildings of Western
architecture.

Romans are known for their engineering expertise, particularly the

development of roads and aqueducts adapted from Greek designs. The
invention of concrete helped the Romans build arches (oblouky) and domes
(kupole). The Roman Colosseum is a famous example of Roman classical
architecture. Symmetry ruled the ancient Greek and Roman buildings.

Roman architecture served the needs of the Roman state, which was keen
to impress, entertain and cater for a growing population in relatively
confined urban areas. Drainage was a common problem, as was security.
This, together with Rome's growing desire to increase its power and
majesty throughout Italy and beyond, required public buildings to be
imposing, large-scale and highly functional. This is exemplified by Roman
architectural achievements in drainage systems, aqueducts (eg. the
aqueduct at Segovia, 100 CE, and over 11 aqueducts in the city of Rome
itself, such as Aqua Claudia and Anio Novus), bridges (eg. the Pont du
Gard) roads, municipal structures like public baths (eg. the Baths of
Caracalla and the Baths of Diocletian), sports facilities, colosseum, and
amphitheatres (eg. the Colosseum 72-80 CE), even central heating
systems. Numerous temples and theatres were also built.

THEATRES/AMPHITHEATRE/COLOSSEUM: Roman theaters are public

buildings meant to accommodate public amusement. They were not
covered, but others had large volumes covered with concrete vaults of
various shapes. Roman theaters, derived from Greek models but they never
served the religious functions, so they were not located near temples but
instead near the business center of the roman city. Unlike Greek theaters,
Roman theaters were exactly semicircular, with a half–circle orchestra
where senators where often seated. Later on, Roman came into innovation
in the design, where they combine two theaters to form the oval
amphitheater. The word amphitheater became nearly synonymous with the
huge flavian amphitheater in Rome, called the colosseum.
Fig #01; (LEFT)The Romans Ampitheater, (RIGHT)The Romans Colloseum.

PUBLIC BATHS: These were used for washing and many other activities.
They combined aspects of modern health club with that of a public library
and school, for the biggest baths like that of Caracalla in Rome which also
contained shops, restaurants, exercise yards, lecture halls and reading
rooms. All were arranged around specious gardens filled with sculptures.
Fig #02; The Romans Public bath.

ROMAN RELIGION AND TEMPLE: Religions in Rome were connected in

the home. It was originally an animistic religion in which gifts were
rendered /given to spirits that governed every aspect of nature (trees,
rocks, water, and the fire of the domestic health). In each house were small
shrines where offerings were made to these spirits. Later the Etruscans
introduced a pantheon of Greek like gods and began the construction of
temples raised on high platforms with columnar front porticoes. (A roof that
is supported by columns especially one that forms the entrance to a large
building. The Roman temple (templum), derived from Etruscans prototype
(origin) was similar to the Greek temple and thus was embellished with
Greek orders and architectural details. The only difference in the Roman
temple was the way in which the sacred precinct around the temple was
consecrated, through actions that set up an axis that dominated the
orientation of the temple was and the space in front of it, and how the
temple was placed in relation to that space. At the dedication of a temple
site the priest, or augur, would survey the intended plot and name the
boundary lines.

He would draw a circle in the earth, dividing it with two perpendicular

lines to mark the quadrants of the temple enclosure, laying out an axis in
front of him, and a cross axis determining front and back, left and right.
Whereas the Greek temple was set down in an open area and approached
from all sides the roman temple was placed at the end of a clearly defined
open space aligned on the axis of the space. It was set back against the rear
of this space high on a podium – unlike the Greek temple, with its three
equal steps all around –and could be approached only from the front up a
long flight of stairs. Like the Greek temple however, the Roman temple had
columns, but these were primarily at the front supporting the gable roof
over the entrance to the sides and real the wall was dominant, with the
columns merged into the wall to form engaged columns integral with the
wall of the cella. Among the best preserved of such Roman temple is that
built about 19 B.C. in the provincial town of Nemausus in Gaul (Nimes,
France), called today the Maison Carree the square house because of its
clear rectangular geometry (12.1).
Fig #03; The Romans Temple.

BASILICA: Normally a long rectangular building placed adjacent to a

forum, it had an internal encircling colonnade, with an apse or cylindrical
projection at one end (or both ends) where the judges would sit. At the
geometrical centre of the semicircular apse would be an alter
acknowledging the spiritual presence of the emperor and for only in his
symbolic presence cases could be heard.
Fig #01; The Romans Basillica.

ARCHITECTURAL ELEMENTS
The Arch and the Dome: The Roman use of the arch together with their
improvements in the use of concrete and construction of vaulted ceilings
also enabled huge (covered) public spaces such as the public baths and
basilicas. The Romans also based much of their architecture on the dome,
such as Hadrian's Pantheon in the city of Rome, and the Baths of Diocletian.
Art historians such as Gottfried Richter in the 20's identified the Roman
architectural innovation as being the Triumphal Arch and it is poignant to
see how this symbol of power on earth was transformed and utilized within
the Christian basilicas when the Roman Empire of the West was on its last
legs: The arch was set before the altar to symbolize the triumph of Christ
and the afterlife. On a less visible level for the modern observer, ancient
Roman developments in housing and public hygiene are impressive,
especially given their day and age. Clear examples are baths and latrines
which could be either public or private, not to mention developments in
under-floor heating, in the form of the hypocaust, double glazing (examples
in Ostia) and piped water (e.g. in Pompeii)
Possibly most impressive from an urban planning point of view were the
multi-story apartment blocks called insulae built to cater for a wide range of
situations. These buildings solely intended as large scale accommodation
could reach several floors in height. Although they were often dangerous,
unhealthy and prone to fires. Roman architecture was sometimes
determined based upon the requirements of Roman religion. For example,
the Pantheon was an amazing engineering feat created for religious
purposes, and its design (the large dome and open spaces) were made to fit
the requirements of the religious services.

But in Hellenistic Architecture (transition period between Greece and

Roman) the public spaces began to be shaped in a conscious and deliberate
way, which marks the beginning of Roman architecture where public
architecture was valued for both enclosed spaces and public spaces . The
main reasons was due to the fact that from the beginning Roman civilization
focused on the city as its basic and major constituent element.

The Roman Buildings we study today would not have been possible without
the advances of Roman engineering and construction or the newly found
marble quarries which were the spoils of war; inventions like the arch and
concrete gave a whole new form to Roman architecture, fluidly enclosing
space in taut domes and colonnades, clothing the grounds for imperial
rulership and civic order. This was also a response to the changing social
climate which demanded new buildings of increasing complexity —the
colosseum, the residential block, bigger hospitals and academies. General
civil construction such as roads and bridges began to be built.

The Romans widely employed, and further developed, the arch, vault and
dome, all of which were little used before, particularly in Europe. Their
innovative use of Roman concrete facilitated the building of the many public
buildings of often unprecedented size throughout the empire. These include
Roman temples, Roman baths, Roman bridges, Roman aqueducts, Roman
harbours, triumphal arches, Roman amphitheatres, Roman circuses palaces,
mausolea and in the late empire also churches. Roman domes permitted
construction of vaulted ceilings and enabled huge covered public spaces
such as the public baths like Baths of Diocletian or the monumental
Pantheon in the city of Rome.

Art historians such as Gottfried Richter in the 1920s identified the Roman
architectural innovation as being the Triumphal Arch and it is poignant to
see how this symbol of power on earth was transformed and utilized within
the Christian basilicas when the Roman Empire of the West was on its last
legs: The arch was set before the altar to symbolize the triumph of Christ
and the afterlife. It is in their impressive aqueducts that we see the arch
triumphant, especially in the many surviving examples, such as the Pont du
Gard, the aqueduct at Segovia and the remains of the Aqueducts of Rome
itself. Their survival is testimony to the durability of their materials and
design.

The Roman architecture is utilitarian, practical, because the Romans are

pragmatic or realistic in spirit. Most of the Roman buildings are for civil
use, not religious. Romans invented materials and construction techniques
that allow them to build multi-storey buildings –concrete, brick and the
arch. Ceramic is the most durable material in the world. Indoor plumbing,
hypocaust heating. Roman Utilities; Aqueducts – using arcades to deliver
water to cities from mountain sources.
Fig #04; The Roman Aquaduct and Amphitheater

The Roman aqueduct at Pont du Gard near Nîmes, France, was built
between the late 1st century BC and the early 1 st century AD. The Romans
built extensive systems of aqueducts to carry water to their residential
areas from distant sources. They also built
 Bridges – permanent crossings of rivers.
 Roads – for army use and trade.

 Amphitheaters – for mass entertainment, not

culture or arts. They have 2 parts – Theatron for
spectators and Arena for performance. No
religious significance.
  Baths – community centers with attached library,
gym, swimming pool, spa and conference rooms

The Roman Doric, derived from the Greek, differs from it through the
introduction of an independent base, and certain ornamental additions to
the capital. This order was used in Roman forums, courtyards, etc., and in
the three-quarter columns in arcades, as well as for useful supports in civil
buildings; but no purely Greek temple existed in the entire Roman territory.

The Ionic order suffered absolute degradation at the hands of the Romans,
who appear neither to have understood nor appreciated this column.
However, their structures were so lofty that they found it necessary to use
the three orders of pillars, one above the other, and so placed the Ionic in
the centre. Two capitals from the Temple of Concord, now in the Palace of
the Conservators, having a pair of rams' heads at each corner, show the
degeneration to which Ionic capitals were subjected. It is to be deplored
that the two orders which had reached perfection in Greece were not
appreciated and properly used at Rome.

The Corinthian order it was quite different. That was still incomplete in
the estimation of the Hellenes; for while exquisite in design and grace, the
Greeks had not given it the strength which is an indispensable feature of a
supporting architectural member. Within the Roman territory the
Corinthian order underwent many modifications; and it is stated that as
many as fifty varieties of Corinthian capitals were produced for Roman uses
during the three fruitful centuries mentioned above. They vary from the
elegant simplicity of the Greek artistic taste to that florid ornamentation
loved by the Romans. Those in the portico of the Pantheon have fine
capitals, not over-ornamented; but the incongruity of a plain shaft with a
Corinthian capital affords an example of Roman methods.
Fig #05; The Romans Tuscan order, The Roman paved roads, and rounded
Arches.

From the elements employed from the Greeks, the Romans combined
features of different orders, added two types of columns to the classical
orders, with composite capitals and bases. These were The Tuscan Order
and The Composite Order. The Tuscan order, an inflated modification of
the Doric and The Composite order, which had the Ionic shaft and a more
ornate Corinthian capital. The composite capitals of the Romans combined
the lower half of the Corinthian with the upper half of the Ionic capital.

Ancient roadways were used by the Persians and Romans for strategic and
commercial purposes. Urban streets were mostly paved. Roman roads were
created by using large blocks of stone (called the stratumen) for the base,
over which broken stone or debris (called rudus) was spread and covered by
a layer of sand (referred to as the nucleus) and finally by large polygonal
basalt blocks (summum dorsum), with the polished top surfaces serving as
the road surface. The stones were set in lime mortar. Romans were
generally believed to be masters of road engineering. At the height of their
power, they had constructed 50,000 miles of paved roads. No comparable
road system existed outside the Roman Empire. Overland lines of
communication outside the Roman Empire consisted of beaten paths. The
cost of the roads was defrayed by public costs or private donations.
Augustus, for example, assigned roads to wealthy Senators who were
responsible for their maintenance. The earliest know Roman bridge, the
Pons Sublicius in Rome, was made of wood and was constructed using
columns and beams. The pile foundation was created by following specific
steps: excavate, clear, and then drive previously charred alder, olive, or oak
piles into the ground as close to each other as possible. The spaces were
filled with ashes, as seen below.

Fig #05; Early Timber Bridge Designs

Fig #05; Roman bridge crosses the Afrin River in northern Syria and is still
in use today, and Roman bridge in Vaison la Romaine, South France.

Most ancient Roman bridges used the arch as the basic structure and were
typically made of stone and concrete as seen above. Rounded Arches
replaced the post and Lintel system, hence making a room for developing
the concrete arch and domes.
Originally known as the Flavian Amphitheatre, this arch and dome system
is the largest ever built in the Roman Empire. It is considered by many to be
one of the greatest works of Roman architecture and engineering. Modern
sports arenas are styled after the Colosseum, so named probably due to a
colossal statue of Emperor Nero which is nearby.

The word "arena" is Latin for sand. Sand was spread across the
amphitheater fighting floor to soak up blood. Basilicas were built
throughout the Roman Empire to accommodate the large numbers of
Christian worshipers. Technical advances from Roman architecture made
making larger structures possible. Christian churches were seen as retreats
from the real world as a spiritual experience seen in these churches The
Basilica was design with a large central aisle called a nave. At the end,
there was a semi-circular area called the apse.

Byzantine Architecture
Romanesque Architecture

Gothic Architecture

Renaissance Architecture

Baroque & Rococo Architecture

Mesopotamia Architecture

Islamic Architecture

Chinese, Korean & Japanese Architecture

FOR MORE INSIGHT: PLEASE USE (http://www.visual-arts-cork.com/architecture/roman.htm)