SUMMARIZED PHYSICS FORM 3 NOTES

Chapter 1
Note:
LINEAR MOTION
The distance covered by the body is the
Specific Objectives length of its path, regardless of the direction.

By the end of this topic, the learner should 2. Speed

be able to:  This refers to the distance covered
(a) define distance, displacement, speed, by a body per unit time.
velocity and acceleration  Thus;
(b) describe experiments to determine
velocity and acceleration Speed =
(c) determine acceleration due to gravity  This definition applies to a body
(d) plot and explain motion-time graphs moving uniformly over a period of
(e) apply the equations of uniformly time. However, this is not always the
accelerated motion case.
(f) solve numerical problems involving
linear motion.
 It is therefore important to consider
the average speed of the body.
Introduction
Average speed =
 Linear motion refers to motion
(movement) in a straight line.
Speed is a scalar quantity.
 Some of the terms used in linear
Its SI unit is metres per second (m/s
motion include:
or ms⁻1).
(i) Displacement,
(ii) Speed,  It may also be expressed in
(iii) Velocity, kilometers per hour (km/h or kmh⁻1).
(iv) Acceleration. Example 1
Express 90 kmh⁻1 in ms⁻1:
Definition of the Terms used in
Solution
Linear Motion
90 kmh⁻1 = = 25 ms⁻1
1. Displacement

 This refers to distance moved by a Example 2

body in a specified direction. Express 15 ms⁻1 in kmh⁻1.
 It is denoted by letter „s‟. Solution
 It has both magnitude and direction. 15 ms⁻1 = = 54 kmh⁻1
Hence it is a vector quantity.
 Its SI unit is the metre (m).

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Example 3
A body covers a distance of 10 m in 4 3. Velocity
seconds. it rests for 10 seconds and finally  This is defined as the change of
covers a distance of 90 m in 6 seconds. displacement per unit time.
Calculate its average speed.  It is also defined as speed in a
Solution specified direction.
Total distance covered = 10 + 90 = 100 m  Thus;
Total time taken = 4 + 10 + 6 = 20 s
Average speed = Velocity =

 It is a vector quantity.
Average speed =

Its SI unit is metres per second (m/s
or ms⁻1)
Average speed = 5 ms⁻1
 However, it may also be expressed in
kilometers per hour (km/h or kmh⁻1).
Example 4  A body is said to have uniform
Calculate the distance in metres covered by (constant) velocity if its
a body moving with uniform speed of 180 displacement is the same at equal
kmh⁻1 in 30 seconds. intervals of time, no matter how
Solution small the intervals are.
180 kmh⁻1 = = 50 ms⁻1  The velocity of a body at a
particular time is referred to as
Distance covered = speed x time
instantaneous velocity.
d = 50 ms⁻1 x 30 s
 If the velocity of a body is non-
d = 1 500 m
uniform, then its displacement is
given by;
Example 5
Calculate the time in seconds taken by a Displacement = average velocity x
body moving with uniform speed of 360 time, or;
kmh⁻1 to cover a distance of 3 000 km. Average velocity =
Solution
Time =  Thus, v =

t= ⁻

t= s

t = 30 000 s

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 The acceleration of a body at any

instant is referred to as
4. Acceleration instantaneous acceleration.
 This is defined as the change of  If the velocity of a body decreases
velocity per unit time. with time, i.e., the body is slowing
down, then the body is said to have a
Acceleration = negative acceleration.
 Negative acceleration is called
deceleration or retardation
If the initial velocity of a body is u  For example if the acceleration is
and the velocity after time t is v ⁻5 ms⁻2, then the retardation
(final velocity), then the acceleration (deceleration) is +5 ms⁻2.
is given by; Example 6
The velocity of a body increases from 20
Acceleration =
ms⁻1 to 40 ms⁻1 in 10 seconds. Calculate its
– acceleration.
Solution
 Thus; a=
a=
a=
 It is a vector quantity.
 Its SI unit is metres per square a=
second (m/s2 or ms⁻2) a = 2 ms⁻2

Note: Example 7
 If the velocity of a body does not A car travelling at a velocity of 50 ms⁻1 is
change with time, then the brought to rest in 20 seconds. Calculate its:
acceleration of the body is zero. (a) Acceleration.
Thus, the acceleration of a body Solution
moving with uniform velocity is a=
zero.
a=
 If the velocity of a body changes in a = ⁻2.5 ms⁻2
same magnitude at equal intervals
of time, no matter how small the (b) Retardation.
intervals are, then the body is said to +
2.5 ms⁻2
have uniform or constant
acceleration.
LINEAR MOTION GRAPHS

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 The variation of distance,  The distance covered by a body

displacement, speed, velocity or moving with uniform speed changes
acceleration of a body with time can uniformly at equal intervals of time.
be represented graphically.  The graph of distance against time is
 The common motion graphs are therefore an upward sloping straight
displacement – time graphs and line as shown in figure 1.2.
velocity – time graphs.
 However, distance – time graphs
and speed – time graphs may also
be used to represent motion.

(a) Distance – Time Graphs

 The slope of a distance against time
graph represents the speed of the
body.
 Thus;
Gradient (slope) = = speed
Figure 1.2
(i) A Stationary Body
 The distance of a stationary body (iii) A Body moving with Increasing Speed.
does not change with time. The graph is a smooth curve curving
 The graph of distance against time is upwards. (Figure 1.3)
therefore a horizontal line parallel to
and above the time axis. (Figure 1.1)

Figure 1.1 Figure 1.3

(ii) A Body moving with Uniform (iv) A Body moving with Decreasing Speed.
(constant) Speed. The graph is a smooth curve as shown in
figure 1.4.

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Figure 1.4 Figure 1.6

(b) Speed – Time Graphs (iii) A Body moving with Increasing Speed.
 The change in distance is increasing
(i) A Stationary Body for equal time intervals.
 The distance does not change with
 The rate of change of speed is
time. constant.
 Its speed is therefore zero.  The graph of speed against time is
 The graph of speed against time is a therefore an upward sloping straight
straight line along the time – axis. line as shown in figure 1.7.
(Figure 1.5)

Figure 1.5 Figure 1.7

(ii) A Body moving with Uniform

(constant) Speed.
 The change in distance is the same
for equal time intervals.
 The graph of speed against time is
therefore a horizontal line above the
time –axis. (Figure 1.6)

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(iv) A Body moving with Decreasing Speed.

The graph of speed against time is a
downward sloping straight line as shown in
figure 1.8.

Figure 1.9

(ii) A Body moving with Uniform

(constant) Velocity
Figure 1.8
 The displacement changes uniformly
(c) Displacement – Time Graphs at equal intervals of time.
 The graph is therefore an upward
 The slope of a displacement against sloping straight line as shown in
time graph represents the velocity of figure 1.10
the body.
 Thus;
Gradient (slope) = = velocity
(i) A Stationary Body

 The displacement does not change

with time.
 However, since displacement is a
vector quantity, the position of the
body may be positive or negative
relative to the observer. Figure 1.10
 Therefore the graph is a horizontal
line above or below the time-axis. (iii) A Body moving with Increasing
(Figure 1.9) Velocity
 The graph is a smooth curve with
increasing gradient. (Figure 1.11)
 The velocity at any point along the
curve is the instantaneous velocity.

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 Instantaneous velocity = Gradient Example 8

of the tangent to the curve at that Figure 1.13 shows a displacement-time
point. graph of the motion of a particle.

Figure 1.13

State the nature of the motion of the particle

Figure 1.11 between:
(a) A and B (1 mark)
(iv) A Body moving with Decreasing The particle is stationary (velocity equal
Velocity. to zero)
 The graph is a smooth curve with
(b) B and C (1 mark)
decreasing gradient. (Figure 1.12) The particle is uniformly accelerated.
 The velocity at any point along the
(c) C and D (2 marks)
curve is the instantaneous velocity.
The particle is moving back with constant
 Instantaneous velocity = Gradient velocity.
of the tangent to the curve at that
point. Example 9
On the axes provided in figure 1.14, sketch
a graph of velocity (v) versus time for
uniformly accelerated motion, given that
when t = 0, v is greater than zero.

Figure 1.12

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Example 11

Figure 1.16 (a) shows the acceleration-time

graph for a certain motion.

Figure 1.14

Example 10

Figure 1.15 (a) shows a velocity-time graph

of an object in motion.
Figure 1.16(a)

On the axes provided in figure 1.16 (b),

sketch the displacement-time graph of the
motion. (Motion upwards is taken as
positive). (1 marks)

Figure 1.15 (a)

On the axes provided in figure 1.15 (b),

sketch the displacement-time graph of the
motion. (Motion upwards is taken as
positive). (2marks)

Figure 1.16 (b)

(d) Velocity – Time Graphs

 The slope of a velocity against time
Figure 1.15 (b) graph represents the acceleration of
the body.
 Thus;
Gradient (slope) = = acceleration

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 The graph is an upward sloping

(i) A Stationary Body straight line. (Figure 1.19)
The graph is a horizontal line along the
time-axis.
(Figure 1.17)

Figure 1.19

(iv) A Body moving with Velocity

Figure 1.17 Increasing Non-uniformly
(ii) A Body moving with Uniform  The graph is a smooth curve with
(constant) Acceleration increasing gradient. (Figure 1.20)
 Initial velocity = final velocity.  The acceleration at any point along
 Therefore the acceleration is zero. the curve is the instantaneous
 The graph is a horizontal line above acceleration.
the time-axis. (Figure 1.18)  Instantaneous acceleration =
Gradient of the tangent to the
curve at that point.

Figure 1.18

(iii) A Body moving with Velocity Figure 1.20

Increasing Uniformly (v) A Body moving with Velocity
Decreasing Non-uniformly

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 The graph is a smooth curve with (a) OA; (1 mark)

decreasing gradient. (Figure 1.21) The body moves with uniformly
 The acceleration at any point along increasing velocity OR the body moves
the curve is the instantaneous with constant acceleration.
acceleration. (b) AB; (1 mark)
Instantaneous acceleration = Gradient of The body moves with non-uniform
the tangent to the curve at that point. decreasing velocity OR the body moves
with decreasing acceleration.

(c) BC; (1 mark)

The body moves with constant velocity OR
the body moves with zero acceleration.

Area under Velocity-Time Graph

 Consider a body starting from rest
(u = 0) and moving with a constant
acceleration for time t seconds.
 Figure 1.23 shows the velocity-time
graph for the body.

Figure 1.21

Example 12
Figure 1.22 shows a velocity-time graph for
the motion of a certain body.
Figure 1.23

 If the velocity of the body after t

seconds is v ms⁻1, then;
Distance travelled = average
velocity x time

d= ( )xt
Figure 1.22
Describe the motion of the body in the d = vt
region:

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a=
Conclusion a=
The area A under the velocity-time graph ⁻
a=
is therefore numerically equal to the
distance covered by the body after t a = ⁻3.333 ms⁻2
seconds. Retardation = +3.333 ms⁻2
Example 13 (iii) Total distance moved by the lift.
Figure 1.24 represents the velocity-time Total distance travelled = area under the
graph for a lift in a department store. graph
d= ( ) + (5 x 20) + (
)
d = 100 + 100 + 60
d = 260 m

Alternative method;
Total distance travelled = area of
trapezium
d = (a + b) h
d = (21 + 5) x 20
Figure 1.24
d = 260 m
(a) Briefly describe the motion of the lift
represented by OA, AB and BC on the Example 14
graph. A car decelerates uniformly from a velocity
(i) OA – The lift accelerates uniformly of 10 ms⁻1 to rest in 2 seconds. It takes 2
seconds to reverse with uniform acceleration
from rest.
to its original starting point.
(ii) The lift is at rest.
(iii) The lift decelerates uniformly to rest. (a) Sketch a velocity-time graph for the
motion of the car.
(b) From the graph, calculate the:
(i) Acceleration of the lift.
a=

a=
a = 2 ms⁻2

(ii) Retardation of the lift.

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(d) Determine the:

(i) Distance travelled by the car.
Area = [ x 2 x (+10)] + [ x 2 x (+10)]
Area = +10 + (+10)
Area = 20
Therefore, distance travelled = 20 m

(ii) Average speed of the car.

Figure 1.25 Average speed =

Average speed =
(b) Determine the:
(i) Displacement of the car. Average speed = 5 ms⁻1
Solution
Example 15
Area = [ x 2 x (+10)] + [ x 2 x (⁻10)]
Figure 1.27 shows a speed-time graph for
Area = +10 + (⁻10) the journey of a motor car.
Area = 0
Therefore, displacement = 0 m

(ii) Average velocity of the car.

Average velocity =

Average velocity =
Average velocity = 0 ms⁻1 Figure 1.27

(c) Sketch a speed-time graph for the motion Determine the distance the car travels in the
of the car. first 40 seconds.
Solution
d = (a + b) h

d = (40 + 20) x 25
d = 750 m

Figure 1.26

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Example 16 Figure 1.29

Figure 1.28 shows a graph of velocity
against time for a moving body.

(a) Use the graph to determine the:

(i) Displacement of the body after 8 seconds.
(3 marks)
Displacement, s = (2 x 20) + ( x 4 x 20)
s = 40 + 40
s = 80 m

(ii) Acceleration after point B. (3 marks)

a = gradient =
Figure 1.28 ⁻
a=
(a) Describe the motion of the body during a = ⁻5 ms⁻2
the 10 seconds. (2 marks)
The body moved with uniform decreasing (iii) Force acting on the body in part (a) (ii).
velocity for 5 seconds and then reversed (3 marks)
with uniform increasing velocity for F = ma
another 5 seconds. F = 2 x ⁻5
F = ⁻10 N
(b) Calculate the total distance moved by the
body. (2 marks) (b) Sketch a displacement-time graph for the
Total distance, d = 2 x x 5 x 20 motion from point A to C. (3 marks)
d = 100 m

Example 17
Figure 1.29 shows a velocity-time graph for
the motion of a body of mass 2 kg.

Figure 1.30

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Figure 1.31

 It has a steel arm which vibrates

DETERMINATION OF SPEED, regularly due to changing current in
VELOCITY AND the mains supply (a.c.).
ACCELERATION  The steel arm has stylus at the free
end which strikes a strip of paper
tape pulled by a trolley under a
(a) Speed
carbon paper disc and so prints dots
 The total distance covered by a body
on the paper tape.
and the time taken are measured.
 The spacing between successive dots
 Then, the average speed is calculated
varies when the speed of the tape
as follows;
varies but the time interval between
Average speed = the dots is constant.
 Most ticker-timers operate at a
frequency of 50 hertz (50 Hz), i.e.,
(b) Velocity
50 cycles per second. Such a ticker-
Method 1 timer makes 50 dots every second.
 The time interval between two
Average velocity = consecutive dots for a 50 Hz ticker-
timer is s = 0.02s.
Method 2
 Using a ticker-timer.  This time (0.02 s) is called a tick.
 This method is used to determine  Since the distance between two
velocity for short displacements. consecutive dots is usually very
small, it is necessary to measure
The Ticker-Timer distances moved in ten-tick
 The ticker-timer is simply a piece of intervals. (Figure 1.32)
apparatus used to measure short
intervals time. (Figure 1.31)

Figure 1.32
 One ten-tick contains 11 dots,
numbered from dot 0 to dot 10 (10
intervals or spaces). (Figure 1.33)

Figure 1.33

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 The time taken to cover a distance

one ten-tick is 0.02 x 10 = 0.2 s.

Note:
(i) When the tape is pulled with uniform
speed (velocity), the dots are equally spaced.
[(Figure 1.34 (a)]
(ii) When the tape is pulled with increasing
Figure 1.35 (a)
speed (accelerating), the spacing between
the dots increases. [(Figure 1.34 (b)].
(iii) When the tape is pulled with decreasing
speed (decelerating), the spacing between
the dots decreases. [(Figure 1.34(c)].

Figure 1.35 (b)

Figure 1.34 Tape charts can be used to calculate the

acceleration of the paper tape.
Task:
(a) Cut the paper tape pulled at uniform
To determine speed (or velocity)
speed into lengths ten-ticks long and label
them accordingly.
using a ticker-timer
(b) Paste each section of the tape you have
cut in order on a sheet of paper. Velocity is determined using the expression;
(c) Repeat steps (a) and (b) above for a Average velocity =
paper tape pulled with increasing speed.

Observation
The resulting patterns are called tape
charts. [Figure 1.35 (a)] and [Figure 1.35 Example 18
(b)] Figure 1.36 (not drawn to scale) shows a
section of a tape attached to a trolley after
passing through a ticker-timer operated at a
frequency of 50 Hz.

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(c) C and D
VCD = = 40 cms⁻1
Figure 1.36
(d) A and D
Determine the velocity of the trolley.
VAD = = 25 cms⁻1
Time taken for 1 ten-tick = x 10
Thus, the trolley is moving with
= 0.20 s increasing non-uniform velocity.
Average velocity =
Example 20
Average velocity = Figure 1.38 (not drawn to scale) shows a
section of a tape attached to a trolley after
Average velocity = 25 cms⁻1 passing through a ticker-timer operated at a
frequency of 50 Hz.(The tape is pulled to the
Thus, the trolley is moving with uniform left)
velocity.

Example 19
Figure 1.37 (not drawn to scale) shows a Figure 1.38
section of a tape attached to a trolley after
Determine the average velocity between:
passing through a ticker-timer operated at a
(a) A and B
frequency of 50 Hz.(The tape is pulled to the
left) x 10 = 0.20 s

VAB = = 50 cms⁻1

Figure 1.37 (b) B and C

Determine the average velocity between:
VBC = = 10 cms⁻1
(a) A and B
x 10 = 0.20 s
(c) A and C
VAB = = 15 cms⁻1
VAC = = 30 cms⁻1
(b) B and C
Thus, the trolley is moving with
VBC = = 20 cms⁻1
decreasing non-uniform velocity

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Note: Note:
If the diagram is drawn to scale, then The velocities u and v are average
measure the distance between the required velocities and correspond to the midpoints
points. of A and B.
Time at midpoint of A =
To Determine Acceleration using a
Ticker-Timer tA = 0.01s

Time at midpoint of B =
Acceleration, a =
tB = 0.19 s
Hence, change in time = 0.19 – 0.01
= 0.18 s
a=
Alternatively,
Example 21 Change in time, = time at the end of part
Figure 1.39 (not drawn to scale) shows a
B – time at the end of part A.
section of a tape attached to a trolley after
passing through a ticker-timer operated at a Change in time = 0.20 – 0.02 = 0.18 s
frequency of 50 Hz.(The tape is pulled to the Therefore, a =
left)
a = 277.8 cms⁻2

Example 22
The tape in figure 1.40 was produced by a
Figure 1.39 ticker-timer with a frequency of 100 Hz.
Determine the acceleration of the trolley.
Solution
= 0.02 s

Time for 1 ten-tick = 0.02 s x 10 = 0.20 s Figure 1.40

Determine the acceleration of the object
Velocity at A = initial velocity, u = =
which was pulling the tape.
50 cms⁻1 Solution

Velocity at B = Final velocity, u = = Time between consecutive dots =

= 0.01 s
100 cms⁻1
Initial velocity, u = = 50 cms⁻1
Change in velocity = 100 – 50 = 50 cms⁻1

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(3 marks)
Final velocity, v = = 250 cms⁻1
a=
Change in velocity = 250 – 50 = 200 cms⁻1
Change in time = (0.01 x 5) – 0.01 = 0.04 s a=

a= ⁻
a=
a = 5 000 cms⁻2 a = ⁻1 250 cms⁻2

Example 23
Figure 1.41 (drawn to scale) shows a Example 24
Figure 1.42 shows a tape chart obtained
section of tape after passing through a ticker
from a paper tape operated by a ticker timer
timer operated at a frequency of 50 Hz. The
of frequency 50 Hz.
tape is attached to a trolley moving in the
direction shown.

Figure 1.41

(a) Determine the velocity between:

(i) P and Q; (4 marks)
Velocity =

Displacement PQ = 3 cm (measured)

Time between successive dots = = 0.02

Figure 1.42
s
Determine the:
Therefore, initial velocity, u = (a) Average initial velocity of the trolley.
u = 150 cms⁻1 Time for 10 ticks = x10 = 0.2 s

(ii) X and Y. (2 marks) u=

Displacement XY = 0.5 cm (measured)
u = 10 cms⁻1
Therefore final velocity, v =

v = 25 cms⁻1 (b) Average final velocity of the trolley.

v=
(b) Determine the acceleration of the trolley.
v = 60 cms⁻1

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(c) Acceleration of the trolley.  From s = ( ) x t and t = ,

a= displacement s is given by;

a= s=( )x( )

a= s=
a = 50 cms⁻2
s=
 Therefore, 2as = v2 – u2
EQUATIONS OF LINEAR 2 2
 Hence, v = u + 2as ….(Third
MOTION equation)
 Thus, for a body moving with
 Consider a body moving in a straight uniform acceleration, any of the
line with uniform acceleration a, so three equations may be used,
that its velocity increases from an depending on the quantities given.
initial value u to a final value v in Note:
time t seconds. For retardation (deceleration), a is negative
 Thus, a = and thus changes the positive sign in any of
the equations.
v – u = at
Example 25
 So, v = u + at……………(First
A particle starts from rest and accelerates
equation)
uniformly in a straight line. After 3 seconds,
 The displacement s of the body is
it is 9 m from the starting point. Determine
given by; the acceleration of the particle. (3 marks)
Displacement = average velocity x time Solution
u = 0, t = 3, s = 9, a =?, v =?
s=( )xt
s = ut + at2
 But, v = u + at
9= x a x 32
 Therefore, s = ( )xt
a = 2 ms⁻2
s= ( )xt

 Hence, s = ut + at2…(Second
equation)

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(c) From the graph, determine the distance

Example 26 the car travelled before stopping. (2 marks)
A car moving initially at 10 ms⁻1 decelerates Distance = area under the graph.
at 2.5 ms⁻2. Distance = x 4 x 10
(a) Determine:
(i) Its velocity after 1.5 s. (2 marks) Distance = 20 m
Example 27
u = 10, a = ⁻2.5, t = 1.5, v =?
A car can be brought to rest from a speed of
v = u + at 20 ms⁻1 in a time of 2 seconds.
v = 10 + (⁻2.5 x 1.5) (a) Calculate the average deceleration of the
v = 10 – 3.75 car. (3 marks)
⁻ 1
u = 20 ms , v = 0, t = 2 s, a =?
v = 6.25 ms⁻1
v = u + at

(ii) The distance travelled in 1.5 s. (2 mks) 0 = 20 + 2a

s = ut + at2 2a = ⁻20
a = ⁻10 ms⁻2
2
s = (10 x 1.5) + ( x ⁻2.5 x 1.5 )
Deceleration = 10 ms⁻2
s = 15 – 2.8125
s = 12.1875 m (b) If the driver‟s reaction time is 0.2
seconds, determine the shortest stopping
distance. (4 marks)
(iii) The time taken for the car to stop.
(2 marks) s = ut + at2
v = u + at
s = (20 x 2.2) + ( ⁻ )
0 = 10 + (⁻2.5 x t)
2.5t = 10 s = 44 – 24.2
t=4s s = 19.8 m

(b) Sketch the velocity-time graph for the Example 28

car up to the time the car stopped. (1 mark) A bullet moving at a velocity of 300 ms⁻1
hits a tree trunk of diameter 50 cm. It
emerges from the opposite side with a
velocity of 150 ms⁻1. Determine the average
deceleration of the bullet. (3 marks)
Solution
u = 300 ms⁻1, v = 150 ms⁻1, s = 0.50 m, a
=?, t =?
Figure 1.43 v2 = u2 + 2as
a=

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 Figure 1.44 shows displacement-

a=
time graph for a freely falling body
a = ⁻67 500 ms⁻2 from a height h.
Therefore, deceleration = 67 500 ms⁻2

MOTION UNDER GRAVITY

(a) Free Fall

 All bodies on or near the surface of
the earth experience a force of
attraction towards the centre of the
earth, known as gravitational force.
 This force causes bodies to
accelerate towards the centre of the
earth.
Figure 1.44
 This acceleration is referred to as the
acceleration of free fall due to  The displacement of the body
gravity, denoted by „g‟. changes increasingly for equal
 The numerical value of „g‟ is intervals of time.
approximately 9.8 ms⁻2.  Figure 1.45 shows velocity-time
 Free fall can only occur in vacuum, graph for a freely falling body from
but if air resistance is ignored, all a height h.
bodies fall with this constant
acceleration of 9.8 ms⁻2.
 Thus, in a vacuum, a feather and a
stone released from the same height
will land on the ground at the same
time.
 Since the acceleration is constant, the
three equations of motion of a body
can be applied in free fall.
 Thus, the three equations become:
v = u + gt ………………….. (1) Figure 1.45

s = ut + gt2 ……….…. (2) Example 29

v2 = u2 + 2gs …………….... (3) An object dropped from a height h, attains a
velocity of 6 ms⁻1 just before hitting the
ground. Determine the value of h. (Take g =
10 ms⁻2). (3 marks)

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Solution  The sign of „g‟ is therefore negative

u = 0, v = 6, g = 10, h = s?, t = ? when the body is rising and positive
v2 = u2 + 2gs when it is falling.
62 = 2 x 10 x h  Hence, for a body projected
h= vertically upwards, the following
equations hold;
h = 1.8 m
 v = u - gt …………..….. (1)
Example 30  s = ut - gt2 ………………. (2)
A stone is released from a height h. If the
acceleration due to gravity is g, derive an  v2 = u2 - 2gs ……………..... (3)
expression of the velocity of the stone just  The three equations are useful in
before hitting the ground. (3 marks) deriving expressions for the
Solution following:
v2 = u2 + 2gs (u =0)
v2 = 2gs (i) Time Taken to reach Maximum Height
 At maximum height, the final
v=√ velocity, v = 0.
OR  From the equation v = u – gt;
Gravitational potential energy = kinetic 0 = u – gt
energy
 Therefore; t =
2
mgh = mv
 This is the time taken to reach the
2
v = 2gs maximum height.
v=√
(ii) Time of Flight
Example 31  This is the time taken by the body
State the constant force that opposes the (projectile) to rise to maximum
motion of a stone initially at rest, as it falls height and to fall back to its point of
through air from a tall building. (1 mark) projection.
Upthrust  At the end of the flight, the
displacement of the projectile is zero,
(b) Vertical Projection i.e., s = 0
 When a body is projected vertically
 Using the equation s = ut - gt2;
upwards, it undergoes a uniform
retardation due to the gravitational 0 = ut - gt2
pull.
 The body thus slows down, comes gt2 – 2ut = 0
momentarily to rest at the highest t(gt – 2u) = 0
point and then starts with an
 Therefore, either t = 0 or gt – 2u = 0
increasing velocity.

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 SUMMARIZED PHYSICS FORM 3 NOTES

magnitude but opposite in direction

t=
to the one with which it was
t = 0 corresponds to the start of projection, projected.

while t = is the time of flight. Example 32

A stone is thrown vertically upwards from
Note: the edges of a platform. Eventually, the
The time of flight is twice the time taken by stone lands without bouncing on the ground
the projectile to attain maximum height. below the platform. Taking the upward
velocity to be positive, sketch on the axes
(iii) Maximum Height (Hmax) Reached provided the velocity time graph of the
 The maximum height (Hmax) is motion of the stone. (3 marks)
attained when the final velocity,
v = 0.
 Thus, using the equation
v2 = u2 – 2gs,
0 = u2 – 2gs Figure 1.46
2
0 = u – 2gHmax
Example 33
2gHmax = u2
A stone thrown vertically upwards reaches a
height of 100 m. Determine the:
 Hence, Hmax =
(a) Initial velocity of the stone. (2 mks)
(Neglect air resistance and take g = 10 ms⁻2)
(iv) Velocity of Return to Point of v = 0, s = 100, g = 10 ms⁻2
Projection v2 = u2 – 2gs
 At the instant the projectile returns to
0 = u2 – (2 x 10 x 100)
its point of projection, its total
displacement is zero, i.e., s = 0 u2 = 2 000
 Thus, using the equation u=√
v2 = u2 – 2gs,
u = 44.72 ms⁻1
v2 = u2
 Therefore, v = u (b) Total time the stone is in the air.
(2 marks)
Note: s = ut - gt2 (s = 0)
+
 u is the velocity of projection while
⁻u is the velocity of the body falling t=
back.
 Thus, the projectile hits the point of t=
projection with a velocity equal in

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t = 8.944 s
Example 34
A ball of mass 200 g is thrown vertically
upwards with velocity of 5 ms⁻1. The air
resistance is 0.4 N. Determine the:
(a) Net force acting on the ball as it moves
up. (2 marks)
(Take acceleration due to gravity,
g = 10 ms⁻2)
F = W = mg
F = 0.2 x 10 Figure 1.47
F=2N
Net force = 2 – 0.4  The horizontal velocity u remains
unchanged throughout the flight.
Net force = 1.6 N
 However, the body also experiences
free fall due to the pull of gravity.
(b) Acceleration of the ball. (3 mks)  Therefore, the body describes a
F = ma curved path.
1.6 = 0.2 x a  The path followed by the body
a = 8 ms⁻2 (projectile) is called the trajectory.
 The distance R is known as the
(c) Maximum height reached by the ball. range of the projectile.
(3 marks)  The range is the maximum
2 2
v = u – 2 gs (v = 0) horizontal distance covered.
 The vertical acceleration is the
0 = 52 – (2 x 8 x s)
acceleration due to gravity, g.
16s = 25  The acceleration in the horizontal
s = 1.5625 m direction is zero, i.e., a = 0
 The initial velocity in the vertical
(c) Horizontal Projection direction is zero.
 The initial velocity in the horizontal
 Consider a body projected direction is u.
horizontally with initial velocity u
from a height h above a horizontal (i) Horizontal Displacement, R
surface. (Figure 1.47)  The horizontal displacement, R at
time t is given by;
s = ut + at2 a
= 0, u = u and s = R
 Therefore, R = ut

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(ii) Vertical Displacement, h 50 = u x 3

 The vertical displacement, h at time t u = 16.67 ms⁻1
is given by;
s = ut + at2 a (c) Vertical velocity of the ball just before
striking the ground. (3 mks)
= g, s = h and u = 0
(Take acceleration due to gravity, g, as
2
 Therefore, h = gt 10ms⁻2)
v = u + gt (u =0)
Note: v = 0 + (10 x 3)
The time of flight is the same as the time for v = 30 ms⁻1
free fall.
Example 37
Example 35 Figure 1.48 shows the path of a light ball
A bullet is fired horizontally from a target. projected horizontally.
Neglecting air resistance, give a reason why
the horizontal acceleration is zero. (1 mark)
The component of gravitational
acceleration horizontally is zero.
OR
The horizontal initial velocity remains
unchanged.

Example 36 Figure 1.48

A ball is thrown horizontally from the top of
a vertical tower and strike the ground at a The ball is then made to spin in an
point 50 m from the bottom of the tower. anticlockwise direction as it moves:
Given that the height of the tower is 45 m, (a) On the same axis, sketch the new path of
determine the: the ball. (1 mark)
(a) Time taken by the ball to hit the ground.
(3 mks) (b) Explain how the ball attains the new
⁻ 2
u = 0, h =s =45 m, g = 10ms , t =? path. (2 mks)
s = ut + gt2
The high speed of the air above the ball
45 = x 10 x t2
creates a region of low pressure above it.
t2 = 9 The atmospheric pressure below the ball
t=3s is thus higher than that above it. Hence
the pressure difference pushes the ball
(b) Initial horizontal velocity of the ball. upwards.
(3 marks)
Range, R = ut

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Example 38
A trolley moving on a horizontal bench of
height 1.2 m, strikes a barrier at the edge of
the bench. The brass mass on the top of the
trolley flies off on impact and lands on the
ground 2.5 m from the edge of the bench.
Determine the:
(a) Time taken by the brass mass to reach
the ground. (2 marks)
(Take acceleration due to gravity, g, as
10ms⁻2)
s = ut + gt2 (u = 0)
1.2 = 0 + ( x 10 x t2)
t2 = 0.24
t = 0.4899 s

(b) Speed at which the trolley struck the

barrier. (2 marks)
s = ut + gt2 (g = 0)
s = ut
2.5 = u x 0.4899
u=
u = 5.103 ms⁻1

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Chapter 2

REFRACTION OF LIGHT  The bending of light at the

interface when it travels from one
Specific Objectives medium to another at an angle is
known as refraction. (Figure 2.1).
By the end of this topic, the learner should
be able to:

(a) describe simple experiments to illustrate

refraction of light
(b) state the laws of refraction of light
(c) verify Snell’s law
(d) define refractive index
(e) determine experimentally the refractive
index
(f) describe experiments to illustrate
dispersion of white light
(g) explain total internal reflection and its Figure 2.1
effects
(h) state the applications of total internal  However, a ray of light that travels
reflection perpendicular to the interface
(i) solve numerical problems involving continues in a straight line since
refractive index and critical angle. there is no change in direction.
(Figure 2.2).
Introduction
 In any given uniform transparent
material (or medium) such as air,
water, glass or perspex, light rays
travel in straight lines.
 However, when the rays of light
travel from one medium to another at
an angle, its direction changes.
 For example, appears bent when part
of it is in water because of this
change in direction.
 Similarly, a coin in a beaker of water
Figure 2.2
appears to be nearer the surface than
it actually is.

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Explanation of Refraction  Angle i is called the angle of

incidence while angle r is called the
 Light travels with different velocities angle of refraction.
in different media.  In figure 2.3 (a), i > r, while in
 In vacuum, light travels with a figure 2.3 (b), i < r.
velocity of 3.0 x 108 ms⁻1.
 Its velocity in air is slightly less than Lateral Displacement, d
3.0 x 108 ms⁻1.  If the block of glass has parallel
 Its velocity is greatly reduced in sides, then the emergent ray will be
other transparent materials such as parallel to the incident ray, but is
water, glass or perspex. laterally displaced. . (Figure 2.4).
 Refraction of light occurs due to the  This displacement is called lateral
change in its velocity when it travels displacement, denoted by ‘d.’ It
from one medium to another. means that the ray is travelling in the
 When light travels from a less same direction but it has been shifted
optically dense medium to a more sideways when it emerges.
optically dense medium, e.g., from
air to glass or water, it is bent
towards the normal. [Figure 2.3 (a)].
 Conversely, when light travels from
a more optically dense medium to a
less optically dense medium, e.g.,
from glass or water to air, it is bent
away from the normal. [Figure 2.3
(b)].

Figure 2.4

 The angle e is called the angle of

Figure 2.3
emergence.
 Figures 2.3 (a) and (b) illustrates  Since the incident ray is parallel to
the principle of reversibility of the emergent ray, if follows that the
light angle of incidence, i is equal to the
 It states that light follows the same angle of emergence, e, i.e., i = e.
path if the direction of travel of light  The width of the glass block = t
is reversed.  From figure 2.4;

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 SUMMARIZED PHYSICS FORM 3 NOTES

Cos r = ⇒ XY =

Sin (i – r) = ⇒ YZ = XY sin (i – r)

So, YZ = d = ( ) sin (i – r)

( – )
d=

LAWS OF REFRACTION Figure 2.5

Law 1
Refractive Index, n
The incident ray, the refracted ray and the
normal at the point of incidence all lie in  It is also called the index of
the same plane. refraction.
Law 2  It is a measure of the bending of a
ray of light when it passes from one
The ratio of the sine of angle of incidence transparent medium into another.
to the sine of the angle of refraction is a  Consider a ray of light travelling
constant for a given pair of transparent from medium 1 to medium 2.
media. (Figure 2.6)

= constant

This law is also known as Snell’s law,

named after its discoverer, who was a Dutch
mathematician.

The constant is referred to as refractive

index, denoted by n.

Note:

The graph of sin I against sin r is a straight Figure 2.6

line through the origin. (Figure 2.5)
 For the pair of media;

= refractive index, n

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 SUMMARIZED PHYSICS FORM 3 NOTES

 The constant n is the refractive index Calculate the refractive indices:

of medium 2 with respect to medium (a)
1, for a ray of light travelling from
=
medium I to medium 2, and is
written as . = 1.321
 Hence, = ………………….(1)
(b)
 depends on both medium 1 and
medium 2. =
 This type of refractive index is =
relative since it compares one
= 0.7570
medium to another.
 By the principle of reversibility of Example 2
light, a ray travelling from medium 2 Calculate the refractive index for light
to medium 1 along the same path travelling from glass to air, given that the
would be refracted, making the same refractive index of glass with respect to air is
angles. 1.5
 Thus, = ………….(2),
Solution
where r becomes the angle of = 1.5
incidence.
= =
 Therefore, =
= 0.6667
 From equations (1) and (2);
=
Example 3
Calculate the angle of refraction for a ray of
Example 1 light from air striking an air-glass interface,
making an angle of 600 with the interface.
A ray of light striking a transparent material
( = 1.5).
is refracted as shown in figure 2.7.
Solution
Angle of incidence, i = 900 – 600 = 300
= 1.5

sin r =
sin r = 0.3333
r = sin⁻1 (0.3333)
r = 19.470
Figure 2.7
Example 4

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 SUMMARIZED PHYSICS FORM 3 NOTES

Calculate the angle of incidence in figure n1 with velocity v1 to medium 2 of

2.8, given that the refractive index of water refractive index n2 with velocity v2,
with respect to air is 1.33. where v1 is greater than v2. (Figure
2.9)

Figure 2.8

= 1.33 Figure 2.9

sin i = 1.33 x sin 450  If c is velocity of light in air, then;

sin i = 0.9404 n1 =
i = sin⁻1 (0.9404)  Therefore, c = n1v1………… (1)
0
i = 70.12
 Also, n2 =

 So, c = n2v2……………….. (2)

Refractive Index in Terms of
 Comparing equations (1) and (2);
Velocity
n1v1 = n2v2
 Therefore,
 Refractive index of a material is
nv = constant = velocity of
given by;
light in air.
n=
 Vacuum has a refractive index of 1.  Now;
 In practice, the velocity of light in air
n1 =
is used instead of velocity of light in
vacuum since the refractive index of
air is very close to that of vacuum.
n2 =
 Thus;

=
n=
= =
 Consider a ray of light travelling
from medium 1 of refractive index  Hence, =

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 SUMMARIZED PHYSICS FORM 3 NOTES

 =

 But, =

 Therefore, =

 Thus, n1 sinθ1 = n2 sinθ2

Figure 2.10
 Hence, nsinθ = constant,
where; Solution
n1 sinθ1 = n2 sinθ2
n = refractive index of the medium.
θ = angle between the ray and the normal in 1.5 x sin 600 = n2 x sin 300
that medium.
 This is the general statement of n2 =
Snell‟s law. n2 = 2.598

Example 5
Given that the refractive index of diamond is Example 7
Given that the velocity of light in water is
2.42 and the velocity of light in air is
2.26 x 108 ms⁻1 and in glass is 2.0 x 108
3.0 x 108 ms⁻1, calculate the velocity of light
ms⁻1, calculate angle θ in figure 2.11.
in diamond. (3 marks)
Solution

n=

vd =

vd = 1.240 x 108 ms⁻1

Example 6
Given that the refractive index of glass is Figure 2.11
1.5, calculate the refractive index of medium
2 in figure 2.10 Solution
n1v1 = n2v2
nwvw = ngvg

= =

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A water wave of wavelength 18 mm is

=
incident on a boundary of shallow water at
= 1.13 right angles. If the wavelength in the
shallow end is 14.4 mm, determine the
= 1.13 refractive index of water for a wave moving
from the deep to the shallow end.
sin θ = 1.13 x sin 300
(3 marks)
sin θ = 0.565 Solution
θ = sin⁻1 (0.565) Refractive index, n =
θ = 34.400

Example 8 But v = fλ, where f = frequency and

A ray of light is incident on a water-glass λ = wavelength
interface as shown in figure 2.12. Given that
the refractive indices of glass and water are n= = =
1.5 and 1.33 respectively, determine the
value of r.
n=

n = 1.25

Refraction Through Successive

Media
 Consider multiple layers of
transparent media whose boundaries
are parallel to each other, as shown
Figure 2.12 in figure 2.13.

Solution
n1 sinθ1 = n2 sinθ2
1.33 x sin 300 = 1.5 x sin r

sin r =

sin r = 0.4433
r = sin⁻1 (0.4433)
r = 26.310 Figure 2.13

Example 9

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 SUMMARIZED PHYSICS FORM 3 NOTES

 Let a ray strike the first medium and Solution

be refracted successively as shown in =
the figure.
 At the interface of medium (1) and = 1.5
(2); = 1.128
= …………………………. (1)
Example 11
 At the interface of medium (2) and A ray of light strikes a glass block as shown
(3); in figure 2.14. The refractive index of glass
is 1.5.
= ………………………….. (2)

 Multiplying equation (1) by (2)

gives;

x = x

= x …………………. (3)

 At the interface of medium (3) and

(1);
Figure 2.14
=
Calculate the:
=
(a) Angle θ.
 Therefore, = …….. (4)
=
 Comparing equations (3) and (4);
= = 1.5
In general,
= … , for k sin θ =

media. sin θ = 0.5001

θ = sin⁻1 (0.5001)
Example 10 θ = 30.000
The refractive index of water is 1.33 and
that of glass is 1.5. Calculate the refractive
index of glass with respect to water.

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 SUMMARIZED PHYSICS FORM 3 NOTES

(b) Distance travelled by the ray in the glass

block.
Consider right-angled triangle ONO’.
cos 300 =

OO’ =

OO’ = 11.55 cm

(c) Lateral displacement.

Consider right-angled triangle OPO’.
Angle POO’ = 48.6 – 30.0 = 18.60

sin 18.60 =
Figure 2.15
d = 11.55 sin 18.60
 A ray ON from a point O on the coin
d = 3.684 cm
meets the water-air interface
normally and passes on undeviated.
Real and Apparent Depth  Other rays such as OP and OR are
 An object under water or under a refracted away from the normal at
glass block when viewed the interface along PQ and RS
perpendicularly (normally) appears respectively.
to be nearer the surface than it  Rays PQ and RS appear to be
actually is. coming from I.
 Consider a coin at the bottom of a  Hence, the coin appears to be at I
tank full of water. (Figure 2.15) and thus seems to be nearer the
surface.
 The depth of the water OM is the
real depth.
 The distance IM is known as the
apparent depth.
 OI is the distance through which the
coin has been displaced, and is
known as the vertical
displacement.
 OI = OM – IM

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Refractive Index in terms of Real is viewed normally through the glass. Given
and Apparent Depths that the refractive index of glass is 1.5,
It can be shown that the refractive index of a calculate the:
material is given by the formula: (a) Apparent depth of the mark.
Solution
n= =

Note: Apparent depth, x =

The formula is true only when the object is
x = 8 cm
viewed normally.

Example 12 (b) Vertical displacement.

A coin in a glass filled with water appears to Vertical displacement, y = 12 – 8
be 24.0 cm from the surface of the water. y = 4 cm
Calculate the height of the water in the jar,
given that refractive index of water is 1.33. Example 15
Solution A glass beaker placed over a coin contains a
block of glass of thickness 12 cm. Over this
=
block is water of depth 20 cm. The
Real depth = 1.33 24 boundaries of the media are parallel and the
refractive indices of water and glass are 1.33
Real depth = 31.92 cm and 1.5 respectively. If the coin is viewed
normally, calculate its:
Example 13 (a) Vertical displacement.
A tank full of water appears to be 1.5 m Solution
deep. If the height of the water in the tank is Vertical displacement = real depth –
2.0 m, calculate the refractive index of apparent depth
water.
Solution
=

= 1.333

Example 14
A glass block of thickness 12 cm is placed Figure 2.16
on a mark drawn on a plain paper. The mark

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Since the boundaries are parallel, the placed on top of the glass block, the
total vertical displacement, dt of the coin microscope is raised by 3.0 cm when
focused on the chalk dust. Calculate the
will be given by: refractive index of the glass block.
dt = dg + dw Solution
Apparent depth = 3.0 cm
(i) For the glass:
Real depth = 5.0 cm
Apparent depth, x =
=
x=
=
x = 8 cm
dg = 12 – 8 = 1.667
dg = 4 cm
(ii) For the water: Example 17
A nail at the bottom of a beaker containing
Apparent depth, y = glycerine appears to be 6.8 cm below the
surface of glycerine. Determine the height of
y=
the column of glycerine in the beaker. (Take
y = 15.04 cm the refractive index of glycerine as 1.47).
(3 marks)
dw = 20 – 15.04
Solution
dw = 4.96 cm
=
Therefore, dt = 4 + 4.96
dt = 8.96 cm R.d. = 6.8 cm 1.47
R.d. = 9.996 cm
(b) Apparent depth.
Apparent depth = real depth – vertical Example 18
displacement Figure 2.17 shows an object O at the bottom
of a beaker full of a liquid. An observer
Apparent depth = (12 + 20) – 8.96
above the beaker sees its image at point X
Apparent depth = 23.04 cm inside the liquid.

Example 16
A travelling microscope is focused on
coloured chalk dust placed on a plain paper.
A glass block is placed on the chalk dust and
the microscope raised by 2.0 cm to refocus
on the chalk dust. When the chalk dust is

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 SUMMARIZED PHYSICS FORM 3 NOTES

the container from the position shown is

unable to see the coin.

Figure 2.17

Determine the refractive index of the liquid. Figure 2.18

(3 marks)
Solution Sketch two rays from a point on the coin to
show how the observer is able to see the
n=
image of the coin after the container is filled
n= with water. (2 marks)
n = 1.333
Example 19
TOTAL INTERNAL
A pin is placed at the bottom of a beaker of REFLECTION
depth 11.5 cm. By using another pin on the
side of the beaker and observing from the  This refers to the complete
top, the distance of the image of the pin in reflection of a ray of light travelling
the beaker is found to be 3.5 cm from the within an optically denser medium
bottom. Determine the refractive index of e.g. glass at an interface with a less
kerosene. (3 marks) dense medium e.g. air when the
angle of incidence exceeds the
Solution critical angle.
n=  Consider figure 2.19.

n=
–

n = 1.4375

Example 20
Figure 2.18 shows a coin placed in a large
empty container. An observer looking into

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 SUMMARIZED PHYSICS FORM 3 NOTES

 A weak internally reflected ray is

produced as well as the strong
refracted ray.
 The angle of refraction r is greater
than the angle of incidence i.

Figure 2.19 (b)

 If the angle of incidence i in figure
2.19 (a) is increased, it will reach a
critical value where the angle of
refraction is just 900 and the
refracted ray grazes along the surface
of the glass.
 This value of the angle of incidence
for which the angle of refraction is
900 is called the critical angle,
denoted by c.
 Critical angle is defined as the angle
of incidence in the optically denser
medium for the angle of refraction
in the optically less dense medium is
900.
Figure 2.19 (c)
 If the angle of incidence i is further
increased, becoming greater than the
critical angle, i.e., i > c, it is
impossible for the angle of refraction
to exceed 900.
 At this point, no light emerges and
all the light is totally internally
reflected within the denser medium,
he laws of reflection being obeyed.
 The inside surface of the glass
Figure 2.19 behaves like a perfect mirror.

Figure 2.19 (a)

 In figure 2.19 (a), a ray of light
travelling through the glass meets the
glass-air interface at a small angle of
incidence i.

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Conditions necessary for total Calculate the critical angle for diamond
internal reflection to occur: given that its refractive index is 2.42.
Solution
(i) A ray of light must be travelling from an sin c =
optically denser medium to a less optically
denser medium. sin c =
(ii) The angle of incidence i at the interface sin c =
must be greater than the critical angle for c = sin⁻1 (0.4132)
the pair of media. c = 24.410

Relationship between Critical Angle

Example 22
and Refractive Index The critical angle for water is 48.60.
Calculate the refractive index of water.
 Consider a ray of light incident on a
Solution
glass-air interface at critical angle c.
(Figure 2.20) n=

n=
n = 1.333

Example 23
A ray of light travels through air into a
medium as shown in figure 2.21.

Figure 2.20

 From Snell‟s law;

=

 But = and sin 900 = 1

Figure 2.21
 Therefore, =
Calculate the critical angle for the medium.
 Thus, Solution
sin c = or n = n=

n=
Example 21 n = 1.997

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sin c =

sin c =
sin c = 0.5008
c = sin⁻1 (0.5008)
c = 30.050

Example 24
Calculate the critical angle for glass-water
Figure 2.23
interface (refractive indices of glass and
water are 1.5 and 1.333 respectively).
(a) Determine the refractive index of the
Solution
prism material for light (speed of light in
If c is the critical angle, then a light ray
vacuum is 3.0 108 m/s). (3 marks)
travelling from glass to water would be
Solution
refracted as shown in figure 2.22.
n=

n=

n = 1.596

(b) Show on the figure the critical angle, c,

and determine its value. (4 marks)
Figure 2.22
Sin c =
Using the relationship n sin θ = constant;
Sin c = = 0.6266
1.5 sin c = 1.333 sin 900
c = sin⁻1 (0.6266)
sin c =
c = 38.800
sin c = 0.8887
c = sin⁻1 (0.8887) (c) Given that r = 21.20, determine the angle
c = 62.710 θ. (3 marks)
n=
Example 25
sin θ = 1.596 sin 21.10
Figure 2.23 shows the path of a ray of
yellow light through a glass prism. The sin θ = 0.5746
speed of yellow light in the prism is θ = sin⁻1 (0.5746)
1.88 108 m/s.
θ = 35.070

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(d) On the same figure, sketch the path of

the light after striking the prism if the prism
was replaced by another of similar shape but
lower refractive index.
(Use dotted lines for your answer). (2 mks)
Note:
See the figure 2.23
Figure 2.25
Example 26
Figure 2.24 shows two rays of light A and B
Show that the refractive index for a ray of
entering a semi-circular glass block which
light travelling from medium 1 to medium 2
has a critical angle of 420. The rays are
incident at an air-glass boundary at point O. is given by: =
Proof:
= , but i = θ0 and r = 900

= =

Therefore, = , hence shown

Example 28
Figure 2.26 shows a ray of light incident on
one face of a block of ice of refractive index
1.31 and totally reflected at the adjacent
face.

Figure 2.24

Complete the path of the two rays from

point O. Label A‟ and B‟, the corresponding
rays. (2 marks)

Example 27
Figure 2.25 shows a ray of light incident on Figure 2.26
the boundary between two media 1 and 2 at
an angle θ Determine:
(a) Angle ф (2 marks)
At greatest angle θ, the angle must be
equal to the critical angle, of the medium.

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Therefore, sin ф = sin c =  Cold denser air has a higher

refractive index than the warm less
Sin ф = = 0.7634 dense air.
 Therefore, a ray of light travelling in
ф= sin⁻1 (0.7634) air from the sky (cold air) towards
ф = 49.760 the ground (warm air) is bent
gradually away from the normal.
This is called continuous
(b) Angle x (1 mark)
refraction.
x = 900 – 49.760
 Figure 2.27 shows the refracted ray.
x = 40.240

(c) Angle θ, the greatest angle for which the

total internal reflection is possible. (2 mks)
n= , but i = θ and r = x = 40.240
Figure 2.27
Sin θ = 1.31 sin 40.240
Sin θ = 0.8462  To the observer at E, the refracted
θ= sin⁻1 (0.8462) ray seems to come from a point I, the
θ = 57.800 image of O.

Note 1:
SOME EFFECTS OF TOTAL  Mirages are also witnessed in very
INTERNAL REFLECTION cold regions, but this time the light
curves in the opposite direction to
1. Mirage the one in hot areas.
 A mirage is a naturally occurring  Thus, a polar bear, for example,
optical phenomenon in which light appears to be upside down in the sky.
rays from the sky are refracted (Figure 2.28)
through layers of air at different
temperatures to produce inverted
displaced images of distant objects
that creates the illusion of a pool of
water.
Figure 2.28
 On a hot day, the ground gets heated
up and in turn heats up the air above
Note 2:
it.
 The sun is seen after it has set due to
 The heated air expands and becomes
refraction in the earth‟s atmosphere.
less dense.

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 Light rays from the sun are refracted totally internally reflected, obeying
towards the earth as shown in figure the laws of reflection.
2.29.  The reflected ray meets face BC
normally and passes on undeviated.

(b) To turn a Ray of Light through 1800

 Consider a ray of light incident to
face AB (hypotenuse) of a right-
angled isosceles prism normally, as
Figure 2.29 shown in figure 2.31.

 Similarly, the sun is seen before it

rises.

2. Total Internal Reflection Prisms

Right-angled isosceles glass or perspex
prism (900, 450, 450) are very important
devices for reflecting light.
(a) To turn a Ray of Light through 900
 Consider a ray of light incident to
face AB of a right-angled isosceles Figure 2.31
prism normally, as shown in figure  The ray meets the hypotenuse AB
2.30. normally and passes on undeviated.
 It makes an angle of 450 with the
normal at O and is totally internally
reflected.
 The reflected ray strikes face BC at
O‟ and is again totally internally
reflected since the angle of incidence
is 450.
 The ray meets face AB normally and
passes on undeviated.
Figure 2.30 Note:
The ray is deviated through 900 by face AC
 The ray passes on undeviated and and a further 900 by face BC. Hence, the ray
meets face AC at point O, where it undergoes a total deviation of 1800.
makes an angle of 450 with the
normal. (c) Inversion with Deviation
 Since 450 is greater than the critical
angle for glass (420), the ray is

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 Figure 2.32 illustrates how a prism is

used to produce an inverted image by
deviation of rays through 1800.

Figure 2.34

Figure 2.32 Sketch the path of the ray as it travels from

edge AC (critical angle for glass is 420).
 The image produced is virtual and (2 marks)
inverted.
Example 30
(d) Inversion without Deviation Figure 2.35 shows a ray of light incident on
the face of an isosceles water prism.
 This is illustrated in figure 2.33.

Figure 2.33

Figure 2.35
 The image produced is virtual and
inverted.
Sketch the path of the ray of light as it
Note:
passes through the prism (critical angle for
If the object was upside down, then the
water is 490). (1 mark)
image would be upright. Such a prism can
be used as an „erecting prism‟.
Example 31
Figure 2.36 shows two rays of light incident
Example 29
normally to face PQ of a glass prism, whose
Figure 2.34 shows a ray of light passing
critical angle is 420.
into an equilateral glass prism ABC.

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Figure 2.38

Figure 2.36 Some Applications of Total Internal

Reflection
Complete the diagram to show the paths of
two rays as they pass through the prism. 1. Periscope
(3 marks)  Figure 2.39 shows a prism periscope.

Example 32
Figure 2.37 shows a ray of light incident on
a glass prism.

Figure 2.37

If the critical angle of the glass is 390, sketch

on the same diagram the path of the ray until
it emerges from the prism. (3 marks) Figure 2.39

Example 33  Light rays are deviated through an

Draw a ray diagram to show how a ray of angle of 900 by the upper prism on to
light may be totally internally reflected two the lower prism.
times in an isosceles right-angled glass  The lower prism then deviates it by a
prism (critical angle of glass is 420). further 900 in to the observer‟s eye.
(2 marks)  The image formed is erect and
virtual.
Note:

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Lateral inversion produced by reflection in  The endoscope passes light along a

the upper prism is compensated for by the thin flexible bundle of very fine glass
second reflection in the lower prism. fibres and sends an image of the
inside of the body back along
2. Optical Fibre another bundle of fibres.
 An optical fibre is a thin flexible  This second image-forming bundle
glass rod of very small diameter, in may have thousands of individual
the order of 10⁻6 m. fibres of diameter about 0.01 mm
 The central case of the glass is called arranged in fixed positions so that
the core. the image does not become
 The core (higher refractive index) is scrambled.
coated with glass of lower refractive  Each fibre forms one dot of the
index. This is known as cladding. image.
(Figure 2.40)  The image is formed from a pattern
of light and dark dots.
 Fibres carrying no light provide dark
parts of the image.

(b) They are also used in telecommunication

industry.
Figure 2.40  Optical fibres carry LASER light
over long distances.
 When a ray of light strikes the inside
surface of the glass rod at an angle of  The LASER light is made to vary
incidence greater than the critical very rapidly to represent information
angle, it undergoes repeated total such as telephone conversations,
internal reflections on the boundary computer data and television
of the high and low refractive index pictures.
glass.
 By this method, the optical fibre can
 Thus, light travels through the entire
carry more information than a
length of the fibre without any
copper wire cable carrying a varying
getting lost.
electric current.
 This provides an efficient way of
 Optical fibres are also much thinner
transmitting light energy.
and lighter.
 Light can travel along a glass rod
even when the rod is bent.  Since they are made of glass, they
are cheaper than the cables made of
Uses of an Optical Fibre scarce metals such as copper that are
(a) They are used in medicine to view more expensive.
internal organs of the body, as with the
endoscope.

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DISPERSION OF WHITE LIGHT

Example 34
Figure 2.41 shows a cross-section of an
optical fibre made of two types of glass, A Dispersion refers to the separation of white
and B. The refractive index of B is lower light into its constituent colours, i.e., the
than that of A. colours of which it is made of.

EXPERIMENT 2.1: To demonstrate

dispersion of white light

Apparatus
Equilateral prism, source of light, white
Figure 2.41 screen, a cardboard with a small aperture
A ray of light enters the optical fibre at P
and emerges from Q.
(a) Sketch the path of the ray of light
through the fibre. (1 mark)

(b) State the reason why the light travels

through the fibre as in (a) above. (1 mark)
Light undergoes total internal reflection.
Figure 2.42
3. Prism binoculars
4. Pentaprism. Procedure
(i) Set up the apparatus as shown in figure
Note: 2.42.
 Prisms rather than plane mirrors are (ii) Direct a narrow beam of white light to
used in periscopes and other optical an equilateral prism beyond which a white
instruments. screen is placed.
 This is because mirrors have the
following disadvantages: Observation
(i) Mirrors absorb some of the incident light.  The light falling on the screen
(ii) The silvering on mirrors can become consists of a band of colours.
tarnished and peel off.  The band ranges from red to violet
(iii) Mirrors, especially if they are thick, in the following order; red, orange,
produce multiple images. yellow, green, blue, indigo and
violet.

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Figure 2.44 shows a ray of light incident on

a triangular glass prism and white screen S
Explanation placed after the prism.
 Each of the colours of white light has
a different wavelength.
 Every colour therefore travels with a
different velocity in glass.
 Therefore, each colour is deviated
differently causing dispersion.
Figure 2.44
Table 1 compares some aspects of red and
violet light. (a) Complete the path of the ray through the
Velocity Dispersion Refractive prism to show how a spectrum is formed on
index the screen. (3 mks)
Red Greatest Least Least
Violet Least Most Highest (b) A thermometer with blackened bulb is
placed at various parts of the spectrum. State
Note: with reason the region where the
The colours of white light travel with the thermometer indicates the highest reading.
same velocity in vacuum. (2marks)
Highest reading is near red light because
The Rainbow red light has more heat energy than
The rainbow is a bow-shaped colour band of violet.
the visible spectrum seen in the sky when
white light from the sun is refracted,
dispersed and totally internally reflected by
rain drops. (Figure 2.43)

Figure 2.43

Example 35

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Chapter 3

NEWTON’S LAWS OF
MOTION
Inertia
Specific Objectives
 Newton‟s first law of motion
By the end of this topic, the learner should suggests that matter has an in-built
be able to: reluctance to change its state of
motion or rest.
(a) state Newton’s laws of motion
 When a moving bus comes to an
(b) describe simple experiments to describe
abrupt stop, the passengers lurch
inertia
forward, i.e., they tend to keep
(c) state the law of conservation of linear
moving forward.
momentum
(d) define elastic collision, inelastic  Likewise, when a bus surges
collision and impulse forward, the passengers are jerked
(e) derive the equation F = ma backwards, i.e., they tend to resist
(f) describe the application of frictional motion.
force  This property of bodies to resist
(g) define viscosity change in state of motion is called
(h) explain terminal velocity inertia.
(i) solve numerical problems involving  Inertia explains why cars have seat
Newton’s laws and the law of conservation (or safety) belts.
of linear momentum.  The seat-belts hold passengers on the
seats in case the vehicle comes to a
Introduction sudden stop or decelerates sharply.
 The mass of a body is a measure of
The effects of force on motion of a body are its inertia.
based on three laws known as Newton’s  A larger mass requires a larger force
Laws of Motion. to produce a given acceleration or
deceleration on it than a smaller
NEWTON’S FIRST LAW
mass.
 A larger mass therefore has a greater
 It describes the effect of a force on a
inertia than a smaller mass.
body that is either at rest or in
Note:
uniform motion.
Newton‟s first law of motion is also referred
 It states that:
to as the law of inertia.
A body remains in its state of rest or
uniform motion in a straight line unless
acted upon by an external force.

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Momentum (P) NEWTON’S SECOND LAW

It relates the rate of change of
 The momentum of a body is defined momentum of a body and the
as the product of its mass and resultant external force.
velocity.  It states that:
 If m is the mass of a body in kg and The rate of change of momentum of a
v its velocity in ms⁻1, body is directly proportional to the
then: resultant force producing the change, and
takes place in the direction of the force.
Momentum = mass x velocity
Momentum = mv Note:
 The SI unit of momentum is
 If the forces acting on the body are
therefore kilogram metre per
in equilibrium (balanced), then the
second (kgms⁻1 or kgm/s).
resultant force acting on the body is
 Momentum is a vector quantity.
zero. Hence there is no change
 The direction of momentum is same
in momentum.
as that of the velocity of the body.
 This implies that the body under this
 Momentum is denoted by P
condition will continue in its state of
rest or uniform motion in a straight
Example 1
line (Newton‟s first law).
A train of mass 200 tonnes starts from rest
and accelerates uniformly at 0.5 ms⁻2 for a
distance of 100 m. Determine its:
Relationship between Force, Mass
(a) Velocity. (3 marks) and Acceleration
2 2
v + u = 2as, but u = 0  Consider a force F acting on a body
v2 = 2 x 0.5 x 100 of mass m for a time t.
v2 = 100  If the velocity changes from u to v,
v=√ v = 10 ms⁻1 then;
Change in momentum ( P) = final
(b) Momentum. (3 marks)
momentum (mv) – initial momentum
Momentum = mv
Momentum = 200 x 1000 x 10 (mu)
Momentum = 2 000 000 kgms⁻1
Change in momentum = mv – mu
Rate of change of momentum =

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Rate of change of momentum = Example 4

A trolley of mass 1.5 kg is pulled along by
= an elastic cord and given an acceleration of
2 ms⁻2. Determine the frictional force acting
 From Newton‟s second law, on the trolley if the tension in the cord is
F 5.0 N.
Solution
 But = acceleration = a
Resultant force, F = applied force –
 Hence, F mass x acceleration
frictional force
F ma
 So, F = kma, where k is a constant. F = ma
 One Newton is defined as the force F = 1.5 x 2 F = 3.0 N
which produces an acceleration of Let the frictional force be Fr
1 ms⁻1 when it acts on a mass of
Then 3.0 = 5.0 – Fr
1 kg.
 From this definition, F = 1 N, Fr = 5.0 – 3.0 Fr = 2.0 N
a = 1 ms⁻1 and m = 1 kg, implying
that k = 1. Example 5
 Therefore, A car of mass 1 200 kg travelling at 45 ms⁻1
F = ma (Newton’s second law) is brought to rest in 9 seconds. Calculate the:
(a) Average retardation of the car.
Example 2 Since the car comes to rest, v = 0
Calculate the mass of an object which is a=
accelerated at 2.5 ms⁻2 by a force of 125 N.
Solution a= a = ⁻5 ms⁻2
F = ma Therefore, average retardation = 5 ms⁻2
m= m = 50 kg
(b) Average force applied by the brakes.
F = ma
Example 3
F = 1 200 x ⁻5 F = ⁻6 000
A truck of weight 1.0 x 105 N is free to
Therefore, average braking force =
move. Calculate the force that will give an
6 000 N
acceleration of 1.5 ms⁻2. (Take g = 10 Nkg⁻1)
W = mg
Example 6
m= = 1.0 x 104 kg A resultant force F acts on a body of mass m
causing an acceleration a1 on the body.
F = ma When the same force acts on a body of mass
F = 1.0 x 104 x 1.5 F = 1.5 x 104 N 2m, it causes an acceleration a2. Express a2
in terms of a1. (3 marks)

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F = ma (Newton’s second law) Example 9

F = ma1 = 2ma2 Figure 3.1 shows a frictionless trolley of
mass 2 kg moving with uniform velocity
ma1 = 2ma2 towards a wall. At the front of the trolley is
Dividing each side by 2m gives; a spring whose spring constant is 25 Nm⁻1.
The trolley comes to rest momentarily after
a2 =
compressing the spring by 3 cm and
rebounds from the wall.
Example 7
An industrial trolley of mass 20 kg carrying
a mass of 50 kg is acted upon by a constant
force. The trolley moves along a horizontal
smooth surface with an acceleration of 0.5
ms⁻2. Determine the acceleration of the
trolley after the mass falls off. (3 marks)
Solution
F = ma
Figure 3.1
F = 70 x 0.5 F = 35 N
a= = a = 1.75 ms⁻2 (a) Determine the:
(i) Force exerted on the wall by the spring.
Example 8 (3 marks)
A cart of mass 30 kg is pushed along a F = ke
horizontal path by a horizontal force of 8 N F = 25 x 0.03 F = 0.75 N
and moves with a constant velocity. The
force is then increased to 14 N. Determine (ii) Maximum acceleration of the trolley as
the: it rebounds from the wall. (3 marks)
(a) Resistance to the motion of the cart. F = ma
(1 mark) 0.75 = 2a
Since the motion is uniform (constant), a= a = 0.375 ms⁻2
the applied force is equal to the
(b) State the reason why the trolley acquires
resistance.
a constant velocity after it rebounds.
Therefore, resistance = 8 N
(2 marks)
Force on the spring decreases as the
(b) Acceleration of the cart. (2 marks)
spring recovers its original length. No
F = ma
force on the trolley will be lost after it
Resultant force, F = 14 – 8 = 6 N
loses contact with the wall.
30a = 6
a= a = 0.2 ms⁻2

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Momentum and Impulse

 When a force acts on a body for a

very short time, the force is referred
to as an impulsive force.
 The result produced is known as the
impulse of the force.
 If a force F acts on a body of mass m
Figure 3.2
for a time t, then the impulse of the
force or impulse is given by:
 The area under the curve is Ft or
Impulse = force x time change in momentum during
Impulse = Ft collision.
 From Newton‟s second law;
Note:
F=
 Impulsive forces occur when two
 This can be re-written as; moving bodies collide, e.g., when
Ft = mv – mu two cars collide head-on or when a
 Thus; hammer strikes a strikes a stationary
metal plate.
Impulse = change in momentum  During head-on collisions of
produced in the body in that time. vehicles, the collapsible bumpers and
steerings cushions the impulsive
 The SI unit of impulse is forces.
Newton-second (Ns).  Seat-belts and airbags help in
 Therefore, another unit of safeguarding the passengers against
momentum is the Newton-second. severe injuries occasioned by inertial
 Momentum is denoted by P. forward surge during collision.
 Thus, change in momentum is
denoted by P. Example 10
 Hence, Ft = P (a) Determine the change in momentum
produced when a force of 3.5 x 103 N acts
F=
on a body which is at rest for 0.02 seconds.
 Thus, force can be defined as the Solution
rate of change of momentum. Impulse = change in momentum, P
 Figure 3.2 shows a plot of force F P = Ft
against time t. P = 3.5 x 103 x 0.02 P = 70 Ns

(b) Find the velocity that will be given to the

body if it has a mass of 20 kg.

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Ft = mv – mu cylinder empties in 1 hour and 20 minutes.

Since the body is at rest, u = 0 If the gas issues from the exit nozzle with an
average velocity of 30 ms⁻1, calculate the
Ft = mv
force exerted on the cylinder.
v= Solution
Force required to accelerate the gas out of
v= v = 3.5 ms⁻1 the cylinder is given by;
F = ma
Example 11 F=
The graph in figure 3.3 shows the force on a
tennis ball when served during a game. Since the gas is initially enclosed,
u=0

Therefore, F =

F= F = 0.09375 N

Example 13
A truck of mass 2 000 kg starts from rest on
Figure 3.3 horizontal rails. Calculate the speed 3 s after
starting if the tractive force by the engine is
Find the mass of the racket with a velocity 1 000 N.
of 40 ms⁻1. (Assume the ball is stationary
before it is struck) Solution
Solution Impulse = Ft
Area under the graph = impulse = change Impulse = 1 000 x 3
in momentum Impulse = 3 000 Ns
Ft = area of the triangle. Impulse = change in momentum
Ft = ⁻3
(5 – 2) x 10 x 800 Ft = 1.2 Ns

Ft = mv - mu Let the velocity after 3 seconds be v

Since the ball is at rest, u = 0 Ft = mv - mu
Therefore, Ft = mv Since the track was initially at rest, u = 0
1.2 = m x 40 m = 0.03 kg Ft = mv
3 000 = 2 000v
Example 12
v= v = 1.5 ms⁻1
The valve of a gas cylinder containing 15 kg
of compressed gas is opened and the

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Example 14 The mattress increases the stopping time

A ball of mass 35 g travelling horizontally at which reduces the rate of change of
20 ms⁻1 strikes a wall at right angles and momentum (impulse).
rebounds with a speed of 16 ms⁻1. Find the
impulse exerted on the ball.
Solution Example 16
Take the direction to the right to be A footballer kicks a ball of mass 0.6 kg
positive and that to the left to be negative. initially at rest using a force of 720 N. If the
foot was in contact with the ball for 0.1
seconds, what was the takeoff speed of the
ball? (3 marks)
Solution
Impulse = change of momentum
Ft = mv – mu
Since u = 0, Ft = mv

v= =
Figure 3.4
Momentum of the ball before impact = v = 120 ms⁻1
mu
mu = 0.035 x ⁻20 mu = ⁻0.7 Ns
Momentum of the ball after the impact =
NEWTON’S THIRD LAW
mv
mv = 0.035 x 16 mv = 0.56 Ns 
This law tells us that forces do not
Impulse = change in momentum occur singly but due to action and
reaction, i.e., forces occur in pairs.
Impulse = momentum after impact –
 It states that:
momentum before impact. Action and reaction are equal and
Impulse = 0.56 – (⁻0.7) opposite.

Impulse = 0.56 + 0.7

Practical examples
Impulse = 1.26 Ns (a) Action and reaction forces when
walking
Example 15 When one steps forward from rest, the foot
A high jumper usually lands on thick soft pushes back on the floor (action) and the
mattress. Explain how the mattress helps in floor exerts an equal and opposite forward
reducing the force of impact. (2 marks) force (reaction) on the foot, causing a
forward acceleration. (Figure 3.5)

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Figure (3.5)

(b) Action and reaction forces when Figure 3.7

jumping ashore from a boat
 When one tries to jump ashore from  The force due to gravity, W is the
a boat, he exerts a backward force action force, while the force acting
(action) on the boat and the boat normally upwards is the reaction
exerts an equal forward force force, R.
(reaction) on him.  Since there is no resultant motion;
 However, the boat moves backwards R = W = mg
because the frictional force between
it and the water is quite small. Note:
 This backward movement of the boat (i) The action force is produced by the
reduces the forward force (push) and block of wood when its weight is exerted on
the individual might fall into the the table.
water. (Figure 3.6)) (ii) The reaction is the equal force exerted
by the table top on the block of wood.

Example 17
Figure 3.8 shows a lorry towing a trailer
using a rope.

Figure 3.6
Figure 3.8
(c) Action and reaction forces acting on a
stationary wooden block placed on a table The lorry exerts a force N on the trailer and
the trailer exerts an equal but opposite force
M on the lorry. The frictional force between
the trailer and the road surface is F.
Explain how the forces N, M and F enable
the trailer to move. (2 mks)

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Resultant force between N and F causes

motion. Since N is greater than F, it (b) Lift Moving Upwards with Acceleration,
overcomes the frictional force F thereby a
enabling the trailer to move. Force M  For the lift to move upwards with
does not act on the trailer. increasing velocity, the upward
acceleration is positive.
Weight of a Body in a Lift  The body in the lift will also move
upwards with the same acceleration.
(Figure 3.10)
 A passenger in a lift (elevator)
experience forces against the feet,
depending on the direction of
motion and the acceleration of the
lift.
 Consider a body of mass m on a
weighing machine in a lift.

(a) Lift at Rest

 When the lift is at rest, the weighing Figure 3.10
machine reads the actual weight, W
of the body, i.e., W = mg, where g
 From Newton‟s second law:
is the acceleration due to gravity.
(Figure 3.9) F = ma
 The resultant upward force = total
upward force, P – mg
 Thus, F = P – mg
 So, ma = P – mg
 Therefore, P = ma + mg
P = m (a + g)

Note:
Figure 3.9 (i) P is the apparent weight of the body
when the lift accelerates upwards.
 The reaction, R = ⁻mg, since action (ii) The weighing machine therefore reads
and reaction are equal and opposite. m(a + g).
(iii) Reaction of the lift floor on the body =
m(a + g)

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acceleration is very high and so is the

apparent weight of the astronaut.
(c) Lift Moving Downwards with
Acceleration, a Example 19
 For the lift moving downwards with A body of mass 4 kg is attached to the hook
increasing velocity, the downward of a spring balance hanging from the roof of
acceleration is negative. a lift.
 This causes the feeling of being Determine the reading on the spring balance
lighter when the lift moves when the lift is:
downwards. (a) Ascending at an acceleration of 0.3 ms⁻2.
Resultant downward force = weight – Solution
Let the tension in the spring balance be T
total downward force, P’
Resultant force, F acting on the body =
 Hence, F = W- P’
T – mg
ma = mg – P’
F = ma
 Therefore, P’ = mg – ma
T – mg = ma
P’ = m(g – a)
T = ma + mg
Note: T = m (a + g)
(i) P‟ is the apparent weight of the body T = 4(0.3 + 10) T = 41.2 N
when the lift accelerates downwards.
(ii) The weighing machine therefore reads (b) Descending at an acceleration of
m(g - a). 0.2 ms⁻2.
(iii) Reaction of the lift floor on the body = T = mg – ma
m(g - a)
T = m (g – a)
(iv) If a = g, the body will experience
weightlessness and the reaction from the lift T = 4 (10 – 0.2) T = 39.2 N
floor is zero since g – a = 0
(v) If the lift moves with constant velocity, (c) Ascending at a constant velocity.
the acceleration is zero. The weighing T = m (a + g)
machine therefore reads the weight of the At constant velocity, the acceleration,
body, W = mg. a=0
Therefore, T = m ( 0 + g)
Example 18 T = 4 x 10 T = 40 N
Explain the reason why an astronaut is
strapped onto a cushion. Example 20
Solution A boy of mass 50 kg stands inside a lift
To counter most of the force because which is accelerated upwards at a rate of
during landing of a spacecraft, its 2 ms⁻2.

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Determine the reaction of the lift at the 

The illustrations can be summed up
boy‟s feet. in a law known as the law of
Solution conservation of linear momentum.
Let the reaction at the girl’s feet be R and  It states that:
the weight W. For a system of colliding bodies, the total
linear momentum remains constant,
Then, resultant force, F = R – W
provided no external forces act.
ma = R – mg
R = ma + mg Collisions
R = m (a + g)  After collisions, bodies may:
(i) Fuse and move together in one direction,
R = 50 (2 + 10) R = 600 N
(ii) Separate and move in different
directions, or,
Note: (iii) Separate and move in the same
Since the reaction force is greater than the direction.
boy’s weight, the boy feels some pressing  There are two types of collisions:
force under the feet. (a) Elastic collisions.
(b) Inelastic collisions.

LAW OF CONSERVATION OF (a) Elastic Collisions

LINEAR MOMENTUM  An elastic collision is one in which
both kinetic energy and
momentum are conserved.
 When two bodies collide, the time of
contact, t is the same for both bodies.  After the collision, the bodies bounce
 Therefore, each of the bodies off each other and continue moving
either in the same or in different
receives equal and opposite impulse
directions.
(Ft).
 If a body of mass m1 and velocity u1
 Impulse equals to the change in
collides with another body of mass
momentum.
m2 and velocity u2 moving in the
 Hence the total change in momentum
same direction so that the new
for the two bodies before and after
velocities after the collisions become
interaction is zero.
v1 and v2 respectively and kinetic
 Since there is no loss in momentum
energy is conserved, then, by the law
during interaction, the momentum
of conservation of linear momentum;
before collision is equal to the
momentum after collision. m1 u1 + m2 u2 = m1 v1 + m2 v2
 The result is the same for any
number of bodies where the bodies  Since K.E. is also conserved;
only interact with themselves. m1 + m2 = m1 + m2

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Example 21
 Examples of elastic collisions A body A of mass 5 kg moving with a
include: velocity of 3 ms⁻1 collides head-on with
(i) collision of balls in a pool table game. another body B of mass 4 kg moving in the
(ii) collision of the foot and a football. opposite direction at 6 ms⁻1. If after the
(iii) collision of a racket and a tennis ball. collision the bodies move together
(coalesce), calculate the common velocity v.
(b) Inelastic Collisions Solution
 An inelastic collision is one in
which momentum is conserved but
kinetic energy is not.
 The collision of lumps of plasticine
or a bullet fired from a gun getting
embedded into a block are examples
Figure 3.11
of perfectly inelastic collisions.
Taking momentum directed to the right
 The characteristics of perfectly
ineslatic collisions are that after the to be positive;
collision: Momentum of A before collision,
(i) The total mass is the sum of the masses PA = mv
of the individual bodies.
(ii) The bodies end up with a common PA = 5 x3 = 15 kgms⁻1
velocity. Momentum of B before collision,
 Therefore, by the law of PB = 4 x ⁻6 = ⁻24 kgms⁻1
conservation of linear momentum; Momentum after collision =
m1 u1 + m2 u2 = (m1 + m2) v (5 + 4) v = 9v

 In inelastic collisions, K.E. is lost By the principle of conservation of linear

because: momentum;
(I) The bodies undergo some deformation.
Total momentum before collision = total
(II) Some of the energy is transformed to
heat, sound or light. momentum after collision
 Examples of elastic collisions 15 + (⁻24) = 9 v
include: 9v = ⁻9 v = ⁻1 ms⁻1
(i) Bullet fired from a gun embedding itself
Therefore, after collision, the bodies move
onto a stationary target that moves as a
result of the impact. to the left with velocity of 1 ms⁻1.
(ii) Head-on collision between two vehicles
has a higher momentum than the other.
Example 22

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A bullet of mass 5 g is fired from a gun of

mass 0.5 kg. If the muzzle velocity of the
bullet is 350 ms⁻1, determine the recoil
velocity of the gun.
Solution
Both the gun and the bullet are initially at
rest and hence the initial momentum is
zero.
Momentum of the bullet after firing,
Pb = mv
Figure 3.12
Pb = 0.005 x 350 Pb = 1.75 kgms⁻1
Momentum of the gun after firing, Let v be the common velocity of the block
Pg = mv and bullet after impact.
Pg = 0.5 x v Pg = 0.5v Since momentum is conserved;
But, total momentum before firing = (100 x 0.01) + (0.990 x 0)
total momentum after firing = (0.01 + 0.99)v
0 = 1.75 + 0.5v 1 = 1v v = 1 ms⁻1
0.5v = ⁻1.75
⁻ (b) Height through which the block rises.
v= v = ⁻3.5 ms⁻1 At maximum height, all the K.E. will be
converted to P.E.(principal of
Therefore, the gun’s recoil velocity is
conservation of energy).
3.5 ms⁻1
So, (M + m) v2 = (M + m)gh

Example 23 (0.99 + 0.01) x 12

A bullet of mass 10 g travelling horizontally
= (0.99 + 0.01) x 10 x h
at a speed of 100 ms⁻1 embeds itself in a
block of wood of mass 990 g suspended h = 0.05 m or h = 5 cm
from a light inextensible string so that it can
swing freely. Determine the: Example 24
(a) Velocity of the bullet and block A minibus of mass 1 500 kg travelling at a
immediately after collision. constant velocity of 72 kmh⁻1 collides with a
Solution stationary car of mass 900 kg. The impact
takes 2 seconds before the two move
together at a constant velocity for
20 seconds. Calculate the:
(a) Common velocity.

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Solution K.E. after collision =

Let the common velocity be v.
x (1 500 + 900) x 12.52 = 187 500 J
Momentum before collision = momentum
after collision. Therefore, change in K.E. =
(1 500 x 20) + (900 x 0) 300 000 – 187 500 = 112 500 J
= (1 500 + 900) v
2 400v = 30 000 v = 12.5 ms⁻1 Example 25
A trolley is moving at a uniform speed along
(b) Distance moved after the impact. a track. A piece of plasticine is dropped on
Distance = speed x time the trolley and sticks on it. Explain why the
Distance = 12.5 x 20 = 250 m trolley slows down. (2 marks)
Plasticine increases the weight (or mass)
(c) Impulsive force. of the trolley. Since momentum is
Impulse = Ft conserved or remains constant, velocity
Impulse = change in momentum (or speed) reduces.
Impulse = m (v – u)
For the minibus; Note:
This is the energy converted to heat, sound
Impulse = 1 500 (12.5 – 20)
and causing permanent deformation of the
Impulse = ⁻11 250 vehicle parts.
Therefore, impulse = 11 250 Ns
Or
Some Applications of the Law of
Conservation of Momentum
For the car;
1. Rocket and jet propulsion
Impulse = 900 (12.5 – 0) = 11 250 Ns 2. Garden sprinkler

FRICTION
Impulsive force, F =  Friction is a force that opposes
relative motion between two surfaces
F= = 5 625 N that are in contact.
 Friction is caused by the interlocking
of the surfaces and attractive force
(d) Change in kinetic energy.
between the surface molecules.
K.E. before collision = mu2
K.E. before collision = (a) Static Friction
2
x 1 500 x 20 = 300 000 J  Static friction is the force acting
between two surfaces which are in
contact that are not relative motion.

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 When a block of wood resting on a  Kinetic friction is the force acting

table is pulled using a rubber band, between two surfaces which are in
the rubber band stretches, causing a contact and in relative motion.
pull on the block. (Figure 3.13)  The applied force F is directly
proportional to the normal
reaction R, i.e., F R.
So, F = R, where is the coefficient
of kinetic friction.
Figure 3.13  The graph of applied force F against
the normal reaction R is a straight
 Initially, the block does not move, line passing through the origin.
showing that there is an opposing  The gradient of the graph gives the
force (frictional force) to the pull of value of .
the rubber band. Note:
 As the pull on the rubber band is  Figure 3.14 shows a graph of the
slowly increased, the frictional force pulling force against time.
also increases until at some stage  The coefficient of limiting static
when the block suddenly moves. At friction is greater than that of
this stage, the force of friction is kinetic friction , i.e., .
maximum.
 Once the block starts moving, a
small but steady force is required to
maintain motion.
 The applied force F is directly
proportional to the normal
reaction R, i.e., F R. (R = mg)
 So, F = R, where;
F is called the limiting frictional force and Figure 3.14
is a constant called the coefficient of
static friction. Summary
 The graph of applied force F against (i) Frictional force between two surfaces
the normal reaction R is a straight opposes their relative motion.
line passing through the origin. (ii) Frictional force is directly proportional
to the normal reaction R.
 The gradient of the graph gives the
(iii) Frictional force is independent of the
value of .
area of contact of the given surfaces when
the normal reaction is constant.
(b) Kinetic Friction
(iv) Frictional force is dependent on the
nature of the surfaces in contact.

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(v) Kinetic friction is independent of relative =

velocity.
(vi) The coefficient of friction is a ratio of = = 0.25
two forces and therefore has no units.

Example 26 Methods of Minimizing Friction

A wooden box of mass 30 kg rests on a
rough floor. The coefficient of friction 1. Use of Rollers
between the floor and the box is 0.6.  Rollers are placed between two
(a) Calculate the force required to just move rough surfaces so that when one
the box. body is to slide, friction is reduced.
Solution  Rollers may be placed between the
F= R floor and heavy crates to enable the
F = mg crates to slide easily. Figure 3.15
F = 0.6 x 30 x 10 F = 180 N

(b) If a force of 200 N is applied to the box,

determine the acceleration of the box. (Take
g = 10 ms⁻1)
Resultant force, F= 200 – 180 Figure 3.15
F = 20 N
But F = ma (Newton’s second law) 2. Ball Bearings
Therefore, 20 = 30a  They reduce the friction for rotating
a= a = 0.6667 ms⁻2 axles.
 They are used extensively in
machinery and are made of hard steel
Example 27
to prevent wear.
A block of metal of mass 20 kg requires a
 Grease must be used together with
horizontal force of 50 N to pull it with
ball bearings to lubricate the rolling
uniform velocity along a horizontal surface.
action.
Calculate the co-efficient of friction between
the surface and the block. (Take
g = 10 ms⁻1)
Solution
Since the motion is uniform, the applied
force is equal to the frictional force.
Normal reaction R = mg
R = 20 x 10 R = 200 N Figure 3.16
Using Fr = R

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3. Lubrication 3. Brakes
This is the application of oil or grease Friction between the brake drum and the
between moving parts. brake lining halts the vehicle.
4. Matchstick
4. Air Cushion Friction between the matchstick head and
 Air cushioning is done by blowing the rough surface develops heat, thus
air into the space between surfaces. igniting the matchstick head.
 This prevents the surfaces from
coming into contact. Some Disadvantages of Friction
 Also, air cushion is used in air tracks 1. It causes wear, tear and noise between
to produce a frictionless runway. moving parts of a system, hence the need for
(Figure 3.17) lubrication in machines.
2. It also causes energy loss since work has
to be done against it.

VISCOSITY
 Viscosity is defined as the force
which opposes the relative motion
Figure 3.17 between the layers of a fluid.
 A hovercraft floats on a cushion of  When a steel ball is dropped in a
air. cylinder full of glycerine takes
 The air separates the craft from the longer to reach the bottom than when
surface of the sea or land along its dropped into the cylinder full of
route. water.
 Compressed air is blown out through  Thus, glycerine has a higher
the holes along the track. viscosity than water.
 The forces acting on the ball when it
Applications of Friction is moving in a liquid are:
(i) Its weight, mg, acting vertically
1. Walking downwards.
 Walking is made easier by friction. (ii) The viscous drag, F, due to the liquid,
 Pavements are made rough and tyres acting vertically upwards.
treaded to increase friction. (iii) The upthrust, U, due to the liquid,
2. Motor Vehicles acting vertically upwards.
 Rotating tyres push backwards  These forces are shown in figure
against the road surface. 3.18
 Friction opposes this force and the
resultant force enables the vehicle to
move.

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Figure 3.18 Figure 3.19

 When the ball enters into the liquid, Note:

mg > F + U and the resultant Viscosity decreases with temperature.
downward force therefore
accelerates the ball towards the
bottom of the cylinder. Example 28
 The viscous drag, F, however, A parachute falling through the air attains
increases with the velocity and soon terminal velocity after a short time. State the
the vertically downward force, mg reason why it attains terminal velocity.
becomes equal to the sum of the (1 mark)
vertically upward forces (F + U), Viscosity increases downward and soon
i.e., mg = F + U. the weight becomes equal to the sum of
 When mg = F + U, the resultant upward forces, i.e., upthrust + viscous
force is now zero and the ball attains drag = weight of the parachute.
a steady velocity called terminal
Example 29
velocity, vt.
Two identical spherical steel balls are
 The terminal velocity is defined as
released from the top of two tall jars
the constant velocity attained when
containing liquids L1 and L2 respectively.
the sum of the vertically upward
Figure 3.20 shows the velocity-time graph
forces equals the weight of the
of the motion of the balls.
object falling in the fluid.
 Figure 3.19 shows a graph of
velocity against time for a body
falling through water and glycerine
(comparison of terminal velocities
for water and glycerine)

Figure 3.20

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Explain the nature of the curves and state It is the main source of energy on earth,
why they are different. (3 mks) producing both heat and light.
Initially, the two balls accelerate through 2. Wind
the liquid because the weight, mg is  Wind is air in motion and thus
greater than the sum of vertically upward possesses energy.
forces (upthrust and viscous drag).  Wind energy is used in driving wind
Viscous drag, however, increase with mills for pumping water or
increase in velocity and so after some generating electricity.
time, the ball attains constant velocity 3. Fuels
(terminal velocity). The difference in the Wood and charcoal, coal, petroleum and
two graphs is the fact that the viscosity of natural gases are fuels which when burnt
L1 is greater than viscosity of L2. produce energy

Chapter 4

ENERGY, WORK, POWER AND

MACHINES

Specific Objectives 4. Geothermal

By the end of this topic, the learner should  This is the thermal energy contained
be able to: in the rock and fluid (that fills the
(a) describe energy transformations. fractures and pores within the rock)
(b) state the law of conservation of energy. in the earth‟s crust.
(c) define work, energy, power and state  This energy may be used to turn
their SI units. turbines in geothermal power
(d) define mechanical advantage, velocity stations to produce electricity, e.g., at
ratio and efficiency of machines. Ol karia Geothermal Power Station,
(e) solve numerical problems involving near Naivasha.
work, energy, power and machines. 5. High dams and waterfalls.
 Water in high dams or waterfalls
A. ENERGY
possesses stored energy (potential
Definition energy).
Energy is defined as the capacity (or  This water may be used to turn
ability) to do work. turbines in hydroelectric power
stations to produce electricity e.g.,
Sources of Energy Kindaruma dam along Tana River
The following are the main sources of and Owen Falls station on River
energy: Nile.
1. The Sun 6. Oceans

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Tides and waves in oceans possess energy They include:

which may be converted to useful forms 1. Chemical Energy
such as electrical energy.  This is contained in substances and
7. Nuclear (or Atomic) Energy can be converted to heat by the
 When unstable nucleus of an atom is process of oxidation (burning).
split through reactions known as  It is found in foods, oils, charcoal,
nuclear fission, energy is released. coal, firewood and biogas.
 This energy may be used to heat 2. Mechanical Energy
water to produce steam at high It is of two types:
pressure.
 The steam is then used to drive (a) Potential energy (P.E.)
 This is the energy possessed by a
turbines to produce electricity.
body due to its relative position or
state.
Renewable and Non-renewable Energy
 P.E. is of two types:
Resources (i) Gravitational P.E.
 Renewable energy is that which is (ii) Elastic P.E.
supplied by processes in the
environment that are inexhaustible (i) Gravitational Potential Energy
i.e. they can be recycled or re-used  In order to lift an object through a
over and over again. given height, work must be done
 Non-renewable energy is supplied against the gravitational force.
by processes that are exhaustible in  The work done is equal to the P.E.
nature. The materials once used up gained by the object. This energy is
cannot be retrieved. called gravitational P.E.
 Table 1 below shows examples of Gravitational P.E. = work done
renewable and non-renewable energy P.E. = weight of an object x height.
resources. P.E. = mgh
Table 1
Example 1
Renewable Non-renewable A stone of mass 5 kg is raised to a height of
Resources Resources
80 cm. Calculate the gravitational P.E.
Solar energy Firewood
stored in the stone at this height.
Geothermal Charcoal
Wave energy / Coal Solution
Tidal energy P.E. = mgh
Windmills (aero- Alcohol P.E. = 5 x 10 x 0.8
generators) P.E. = 40 J
Petroleum
Biogas (ii) Elastic Potential Energy
Nuclear energy  Work is done when a spring is
compressed or stretched.
Forms of Energy

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 The work done in compressing or  This is the elastic P.E. stored in the
stretching a spring is equal to the spring.
energy stored in such a spring. This
Example 2
energy is called elastic P.E.
A force of 7.5 N stretches a certain spring by
 In stretching a spring, the applied
5.0 cm. Calculate the work done in
force varies from zero to a maximum
stretching this spring by 8.0 cm.
force F.
Solution
 Figure 4.1 below shows a graph of
Force required to produce an extension of
force against extension for a
stretched spring. 8.0 cm = F = 12.0 N

Work done = Fe

Work done = x 12.0 x 0.08

W = 0.48 J

Example 3
A body is acted upon by a varying force F
Figure 4.1 over a distance of 4 cm as shown in the
figure 4.2.
 Since extension is directly
proportional to the applied force, the
force in the spring has increased
from zero to F.
 Average force acting on the spring =
=

Work done = force acting on the spring

while stretching x extension
Work done = average force x extension
Work done = Fe
Figure 4.2
 But F = ke (Hooke‟s law), where k is
the spring constant = gradient of the Calculate the total work done by the force.
straight line. Solution
 Therefore; Total work done = area under the graph
Work done = Fe or k or Total work done = ( x 4 x3) + ( x 4 x 1)
=6+2 W=8J

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Note: s = average velocity x time

Ignore the negative sign on the area below
average velocity = =
the distance axis.
Example 4  Therefore, s =
Figure 4.3 shows a 200 g mass placed on a
frictionless surface and attached to a spring.  K.E = work done by the force.
 K.E = F x s
 But F = ma (Newton’s second law
of motion)
 Therefore, K.E = ma x

 a= =

 Therefore, K.E = x

Figure 4.3 K.E = m

The spring is compressed and released.  Generally, the force acting on a body
Given that the elastic potential energy of the either increases or decreases its K.E.,
compressed spring is 2.7 x 10⁻2 J, determine depending on the direction of force.
the maximum speed with which the block Note:
moves after it is released. (4 marks) Work done by the force = K.E gained or
mgh = mv2 K.E. lost by the body.
Work done by the force =
x 0.2 x v2 = 0.027 Final K.E. – Initial K.E.
v2 = 0.27 Work done by the force = m m
v=
v = 0.5196 ms⁻1
Example 5
(b) Kinetic energy (K.E)
 This is the energy possessed by a Calculate the K.E. of a sprinter of mass 60
body in motion. kg running at a speed of 10 ms⁻1.
 Examples include: running water, (1 mark)
wind, a moving bullet, a car in Solution
motion, a person moving, among K.E. = m
others.
 Consider a body of mass m being K.E. = 60
acted upon by a force F.
 The body accelerates uniformly from K.E. = 3 000 J
rest (initial velocity u = 0) to final
velocity v in time t seconds. Example 6
A trolley of mass 2.0 kg is pulled from rest
 If it covers a distance s, then;
by a horizontal force of 5.0 N for 1.2

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seconds. Assuming that there is no frictional F = 3 125 N

force between the wheels of the trolley and
the horizontal surface, calculate; (b) Work done in bringing it to rest.
Solution
(a) the distance covered by the trolley.
Work done = K.E. lost by the car
Solution
Work done = m m
s = ut + (u = 0)
Work done = x 1250 x 1250
a= = = 2.5 ms⁻2
W = 0 – 250 000
2
s= 2.5 x 12 W = ⁻250 000 J
s = 1.8 m Alternative method;
Work done = braking force, F x distance
(b) the K.E. gained by the trolley.
moved, s
K.E. = work done
v2 = u2 + 2as
K.E. = F x s
02 = 202 + 2 (⁻2.5) x s
K.E. = 5.0 x 1.8
5.0 x s = 400
K.E. = 9.0 J
s = 80 m
Alternative method Work done = ⁻3 125 x 80
K.E = m W = ⁻250 000 J

But v = u + at Note:
v = 0 + (2.5 x 1.2) The negative sign implies loss of kinetic
v = 3.0 ms⁻1 energy of the car. This is because the
braking force acts in the direction opposite
Therefore, K.E. = 2.0 to that of the motion of the car.
K.E. = 9.0 J
Example 8
Example 7 A free-wheeling motor cyclist of mass
A car travelling at a speed of 72 km/h is (including her machine) 100 kg is pushed
uniformly retarded by application of brakes from rest over a distance of 10 m. The push
and comes to rest after 8 seconds. If the car of 250 N acts against a frictional force of
with its occupants has a mass of 1 250 kg, 70 N. When the push ends, calculate her:
calculate the; (a) K.E.
(a) Braking force. Solution
Solution K.E = work done by the force
K.E. = F x s
F = ma and a =
Resultant force F causing acceleration
u = 72 km/h = 20 m/s , v = 0 250 – 70 F = 180 N
Therefore, a = = ⁻2.5 ms⁻2 K.E. = 180 x 10
K.E. = 1 800 J
Thus, retardation = 2.5 ms⁻2
Hence, braking force F = 1 250 x 2.5

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 SUMMARIZED PHYSICS FORM 3 NOTES

(b) velocity. Transformation and Conservation of

K.E. = m Energy
 Energy can be transformed
1 800 = x 100 (changed) from one form to another.
 For example, water in a dam may
v2 = 36
undergo the following
v = 6 m/s transformations:
P.E K.E. Electrical energy Light,
3. Heat Energy
 This is a form of energy that flows heat, sound, mechanical
from a region of higher temperature  Any device that facilitates energy
to a region of lower temperature. transformations is called a
transducer.
 It is produced by burning fuels,
electric current, radiation from the  Table 2 below shows some energy
sun, among others. transformations and transducers
involved.
4. Wave Energy
 Forms of wave energy include light, Table 2
sound and tidal waves. Initial Final form Transducer
form of of energy
 It may be produced by vibrating
energy
objects or particles e.g., when a
Chemical Electrical Battery
stretched wire is plucked, it produces
sound energy. Electrical Sound Loudspeaker
 Light is energy in form of waves that Heat Electrical Thermocouple
can be detected by the eye and
converted into other forms. Solar Electrical Solar cell
 Light energy is also used by plants in Kinetic Electrical Dynamo
the process of photosynthesis.
Electrical Kinetic Motor
5. Electrical Energy Solar Heat Solar panel
 This form of energy is usually
obtained through conversion of other
forms of energy using generators.  Energy transformations illustrate the
 K.E. in water is converted to law of conservation of energy.
electrical energy in hydro-electric
power stations.  It states that:
 In geothermal stations, K.E. of steam Energy can neither be created nor
destroyed but can only be changed from
is converted to electrical energy.
one form to another.
 In electric cells and batteries,
chemical energy is converted to Example 9
electrical energy. Name a device that is used to convert light
energy directly into electrical energy.

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 SUMMARIZED PHYSICS FORM 3 NOTES

(1 mark) F= F = ⁻128 000

(a) Solar cell
(b) Photocell Retarding force = 128 000 N

Conservation of Mechanical Energy

 In many machines, there is a
constant interchange between K.E
Example 10 and P.E.
A cyclist initially at rest moved down a hill  In a frictionless machine, the total of
without pedaling. He applied brakes and the K.E plus P.E. would remain
eventually stopped. State the energy changes constant.
as the cyclist moved down the hill. (1 mark)
 This is an example of energy
Potential energy → kinetic energy → heat
conservation.
+ sound
 If the total mechanical energy, ET
Example 11 is conserved, then:
A bullet of mass 60 g travelling at 800 ms⁻1  ET = K.E + P.E. = constant
hits a tree and penetrates a depth of 15 cm  This is the law of conservation of
before coming to rest. mechanical energy.
(a) Explain how the energy of the bullet  It states that:
changes as it penetrates the tree. (1 mark) The sum of K.E and P.E. of a system is
It changes from kinetic energy to heat constant.
and sound.  Thus, gain of K.E. = loss of P.E and
loss of K.E. = gain of P.E.
(b) Determine the average retarding force on
the bullet. (3 marks)  Figure 4.4 depicts the curves for
K.E. = work done against friction K.E. and P.E. changes against time
for a body projected vertically
Fd = mv2
upwards.
F x 0.15 = x 0.06 x 8002

F=
F = 128 000 N

Alternative method
v2 = u2 + 2as (v = 0)
8002 + (2 a 0.15) = 0
640 000 + 0.3a = 0 Figure 4.4

0.3a = ⁻640 000 a= Example 14

Find the velocity with which a stone will
But, F = ma
strike the ground when it is dropped from a

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 SUMMARIZED PHYSICS FORM 3 NOTES

height of 80 m. (g = 10 N/kg). Assume

conservation of mechanical energy.
Solution
K.E. = P.E.
m = mgh
v2 = 2gh
v2 = 2 x 10 x 80 = 1 600
v=
v = 40 m/s
Figure 4.6
Example 15
Figure 4.5 shows how the potential energy, On the axis provided in figure 4.6, sketch
the graphs of kinetic energy (KE) against
(P.E.) of a ball thrown vertically upwards,
time (t) for each stone. Label the graphs
varies with height. appropriately. 2 marks)

Example 17
A body is released from a height h. Sketch a
graph of potential energy against kinetic
energy as the body falls to the ground.
(2 marks)

Figure 4.5

On the same axes, plot a graph of the kinetic

energy of the ball. (1 mark)
Figure 4.7
Example 16
Two identical stones A and B are released Energy Changes in Swinging Pendulum
from the same height above the ground. B  Figure 4.8 below shows a pendulum
falls through air while A falls through water. released so that it swings to- and–fro
about a vertical axis.

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 SUMMARIZED PHYSICS FORM 3 NOTES

Figure 4.8 Figure 4.9

 At points A and E, the pendulum bob (a) (i) Indicate with an arrow, on the path
has maximum height, hmax ACB, the direction of the greatest velocity
 Therefore, at points A and E, the of the bob as it moves from A to B.
(1 mark)
pendulum bob has maximum P.E.
while K.E. = 0. (ii) State the form of energy possessed by
Maximum P.E. = mghmax. the pendulum bob at point A. (1 mark)
 At point C (lowest point) the Potential energy.
pendulum bob is moving with
maximum speed, vmax. (b) Determine the:
(i) Velocity of the bob at point C.
 Therefore, at C, it has maximum
(3 marks)
K.E. while P.E. = 0.
Maximum K.E. = m . mgh = mv2

 At the intermediate positions such as v=

B and D, the energy is changing
between K.E and P.E., depending on v=
whether v is increasing or v=
decreasing. v = 1.414
Example 18 (ii) Tension in the string as the bob passes
Figure 4.9 shows a simple pendulum of point C. (3 marks)
length 80 cm. The pendulum bob whose
mass is 50 g oscillates between points A and T= + mg
B, through its rest position C. Points A and
B are both 10 cm higher than C. T= + (0.05 10)
T = 0.1250 + 0.5
T = 0.6250 N

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 SUMMARIZED PHYSICS FORM 3 NOTES

(c) After some time, the pendulum comes to the work done by the boy. (Take g =
rest at point C. State what happens to the 10 N/kg)
energy it initially possessed. (1 mark) Solution
Energy is used to do work against air
W=Fxd
resistance (viscous drag).
W = 40 x10 x 12 x 0.20
B. WORK W = 960 J
 In science, work is said to be done
Relationship Between Work and Energy
only when an applied force makes
 When a person does work like
its point of application move in the moving a heavy object through some
direction of force. distance, or climbs up stairs, he uses
Work done = Force x Distance moved in
energy.
the direction of the applied force
 The energy spent is the product of
W=Fxd
the applied force and the distance
 The SI unit of force is the newton
through which the object moves.
(N) while that of distance is the
Energy spent = force x distance
metre (m).
Energy spent = F x d
 Therefore, the unit of work done is Energy spent = work done
Newton-metre (Nm).
 The SI unit of energy is the joule (J).
 One Newton-metre is called a joule
(J), which is the SI unit of work
done.
1 Nm = 1J
 Larger values of work done are C. POWER
 Power is the rate of doing work, or
expressed in kilojoule (kJ) and
rate of energy conversion.
megajoule (MJ).
1 kJ = 1 000J Power =
1MJ = 1 000 000 J
 It can also be shown that power is a
Example 12 product of force and uniform
Calculate the work done by a stone mason in velocity.
lifting a stone of mass 15 kg through a
Power =
height of 2.0 m. (Take g = 10 N/kg)
Solution But = velocity
W=Fxd
W = 15 x10 x2.0 Therefore, Power = force x velocity
W = 300 J  The SI unit of power is the watt
(W).
Example 13  It can also be expressed in joules per
A boy of mass 40 kg walks up a flight of 12 second (J/s or Js⁻1).
steps. If each step is 20 cm high, calculate  1W = 1 Js⁻1

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 SUMMARIZED PHYSICS FORM 3 NOTES

 Larger units of the watt are the (b) Force acting on the bales.
kilowatt (kW) and megawatt (MW). Solution
1 kW = 1 000 W. Work done = force x distance moved
1MW = 1 000 000 W 300 000 = F x 4
F=
Example 19
A person weighing 500 N takes 4 seconds to F = 75 000 N
climb upstairs to a height of 3.0 m. Calculate
the average power developed in climbing up (c) Number of bales that the motor can raise.
the height. Solution
Solution n=
Power = =
n = 1 500 bales
Power =
Example 22
P = 375 W A girl of mass 45 kg develops an average
power of 250 W when running up a flight of
Example 20
An electric motor raises a 50 kg load at a stairs. Calculate how long she takes to climb
constant velocity. Calculate the power up a vertical height of 4.0 m.
developed by the motor if it takes 40 Solution
seconds to raise the load through a height of Power = =
24 m. (g = 10 N/kg).
Solution 250 =
Power = =
t= t
Power = = 7.2 s
P = 300 W

Example 21 D. MACHINES
An electric motor rated 2.5 kW is used to lift
 A machine is a device that enables
bales of hay to a store in a dairy farm. A
work to be done more easily or
single bale has a mass of 5 kg. The store is 4
conveniently.
m above the ground and the motor is
 In a machine, a force applied at one
operated for 2 minutes. Calculate the:
point is used to generate a force at
(a) Work done by the motor.
another point in order to overcome a
Solution
load.
Work done = power x time
 Simple machines include levers,
Work done = 2 500 x 2 x 60 wheel and axle, inclined plane,
W = 300 000 J screw, gears, pulleys, pulley belts
and hydraulic machines.

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 SUMMARIZED PHYSICS FORM 3 NOTES

 V.R. is a ratio of two distances and

Terms Associated with Machines therefore has no units.
(a) Effort (E)
Note:
 This is the force applied to a (i) If two machines A and B with velocity
machine. ratios V.R.A and V.R.B respectively are
 Its unit is Newton (N). combined, then the resultant velocity ratio
V.R. is given by;
(b) Load (L) V.R. = V.R.A x V.R.B
 This is the force exerted by the (ii) V.R. is independent of friction. It
machine. depends only on the geometry of the moving
parts of the machine.
 Its unit is Newton (N).
(e) Efficiency (ŋ)
(c) Mechanical Advantage (M.A.)
 This is the ratio of the work done on
 This is the ratio of load to the effort,
the load (work output) to the work
i.e.,
done by the effort (work input).
M.A. =  It is usually expressed as a
percentage.
 M.A. is a ratio of two forces and
therefore has no units. Efficiency = x 100

Efficiency = x 100 %

Note:  Work output = Load x distance

 The M.A. of a machine is dependent moved by the load, i.e., work output
on the; = L x DL
(i) Friction between moving parts,  Work input = Effort x distance
(ii) Weight of parts of the machine that moved by the effort, i.e., work input
have to be lifted when operating it. = E x DE
 The greater the friction, the smaller
the M.A. Note:
 The efficiency of a machine, like the
(d) Velocity Ratio (V.R.) M.A. is dependent on the;
 This is the ratio of distance moved (i) Friction between moving parts,
by the effort, DE to the distance (ii) Weight of parts of the machine that
moved by the load, DL. have to be lifted when operating it.
 Thus, V.R. =  For this reason, the efficiency of a
machine always less than 100%.

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 SUMMARIZED PHYSICS FORM 3 NOTES

The Relationship between M.A., V.R. and Efficiency = x 100 %

Efficiency
 Efficiency = x η= x 100%
η = 75 %
100 %
 But, work done = force x distance Example 24
moved by the force. A machine with a velocity ratio of 4 needs 2
 Thus, Efficiency = 000 J of energy to lift a load of 400 N
through a vertical distance of 2.5 m.
Calculate its:
x 100 % (a) Efficiency
 Efficiency = x Solution

Efficiency = x 100 %
x 100

% η= x 100 %
 Efficiency = M.A. x x 100 % η = 50 %

Efficiency = x 100 % (b) Mechanical advantage.

Solution
Example 23
Efficiency = = x 100 %
In a machine, the load moves 2m when the
effort moves 8 m. If an effort of 20 N is used 50 = x 100 %
to raise a load of 60 N, calculate the:
(a) Mechanical advantage M.A. =
Solution
M.A. = 2
M.A. =
Types of Machines
M.A. =
1. The Lever
M.A. = 3  This is a simple machine whose
operation relies on the principle of
(b) Velocity ratio moments.
Solution  It has three important parts, namely,
V.R. = effort arm, load arm and the pivot
(or fulcrum).
V.R. =  Figure 4.10 shows a simple lever.
V.R = 4

(c) Efficiency of the machine

Figure 4.10

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 SUMMARIZED PHYSICS FORM 3 NOTES

tweezers,
 OA is the effort arm and OB the human
load arm. arm
 The effort arm EA is the
perpendicular distance from the pivot
to the line of action of the effort.
 The load arm LA is the perpendicular  Figure 4.11 shows examples of lever
distance from the pivot to the line of machines.
action of the load.

V.R =

 Levers can be divided into three

classes, according to the relative
arrangement of the three parts.

Table 3
Clas Positio Positio Positio Examples
s of n of the n of the n of the
leve fulcru load effort
r m
st
1 Centre End End See-saw,
scissors,
claw
hammer,
crowbar
2nd End Centre End Wheelbarr
ow,
nutcracker
, tin-
opener
3rd End End Centre Sweeping
broom,

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2. The wheel and axle

 It consists of a large wheel of radius
R attached to an axle of radius r.
(Figure 4.12)

Figure 4.11

Figure 4.12

 The effort is applied on the wheel

while the load is attached to the axle.
 In one complete revolution, the
wheel moves through a distance of
2πR, while the load moves through
2πr.
 Therefore, V.R. =

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 SUMMARIZED PHYSICS FORM 3 NOTES

effort F. The radius of the large wheel is R

V.R. =
and of the small wheel is r as shown.
 The wheel and axle is used to draw
water from a well.
 Examples of the wheel and axle
include car steering wheel, screw
driver, windlass and some water
taps.

Example 25
A wheel and axle is used to raise a load of
280 N by a force of 40 N applied to the rim
of the wheel.
If the radii of the wheel and the axle are Figure 4.13
70 cm and 5 cm respectively, calculate the:
(a) Mechanical advantage. (i) Show that the velocity ratio (VR) of this
(b) Velocity ratio machine is given by . (3 marks)
(c) Efficiency
Solution Distance travelled by the effort in one
revolution = 2πR
(a) Mechanical M.A. = = Distance travelled by the load in one
advantage revolution = 2πr
=7
V.R. =
(b) Velocity V.R. = = = 14 V.R. =
ratio
(c) Efficiency Efficiency = x (ii) Given that r = 5 cm and R = 8 cm,
determine the effort required to raise a load
100 % = x 100 % = of 20 N if the efficiency of the machine is
80%. (4 marks)
50 %
Efficiency = , M.A. = , V.R. =

V.R. =
Example 26
(a) Define the term efficiency of a machine. V.R. = 1.6
(1 mark)
= 0.8
It is the ratio of the work output to the
work input expressed as a percentage. M.A. = 1.28
1.28 = ⇒E=
(b) Figure 4.13 shows a wheel and axle
being used to raise a load W by applying an E = 15.625 N

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 SUMMARIZED PHYSICS FORM 3 NOTES

V.R. =
(iii) It is observed that the efficiency of the
machine increases when it is used to lift Note:
larger loads. Give a reason for this.
 A wedge works in the same way as
(1 mark)
When the load is large, the effect of an inclined plane.
friction of the moving parts and the  Wedges are used to split logs of
weight to be raised becomes negligible. wood and, sometimes, to lift heavy
loads.
Example 27
In a wheel and axle system, state the Example 28
advantage of having a large wheel diameter A man uses an inclined plane to lift a 50 kg
compared to the axle diameter for a load through a vertical height of 4.0 m. The
frictionless system. (1 mark) inclined plane makes an angle of 300 with
To reduce the effort being applied. the horizontal as shown in figure 4.15. If the
efficiency of the inclined plane is 80 %,
calculate the:
3. The Inclined Plane
 An inclined plane is used to roll a (a) Velocity ratio.
heavy load, such as a barrel of
cooking oil or a bale of cloth onto a
lorry with less effort. (figure 4.14)

Figure 4.15

V.R. =

V.R. =
V.R. = 2
Figure 4.14
(b) Mechanical advantage.
 The inclined plane makes an angle θ M.A. = efficiency x V.R.
with the horizontal. M.A. = x2
 V.R =
M.A. = 1.6

 But sin θ = ↔ h = l sin θ (c) Effort needed to move the load up the
inclined plane at a constant velocity.
 Hence, V.R. =

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Effort = (a) On the same diagram, show with arrows

the other two forces acting on the brick and
Effort = name them. (2 marks)

Effort = 312.5 N R – Normal reaction force acting

perpendicular to the surface.
(d) Work output. F- Frictional force acting parallel to the
surface.
Work output = load x load distance
Work output = 50 x 10 x 4
(b) State how each of the two forces named
Work output = 2 000 J
in (a) above is affected when the angle θ is
reduced. (2 marks)
(e) Work input
Work input = effort x effort distance
When θ is reduced, the normal reaction
Work input = 312.5 x AC force increases while the frictional force
Work input = 312.5 x reduces.

Work input = 2 500 J Example 30

Figure 4.17 shows a trolley of weight 20 N
(f) Work done against friction in raising the pulled by a force of 4 N from the bottom to
load through the height of 4.0 m. (Take g = the top of an inclined plane at a uniform
10 N/kg). speed.
Work done against the friction = work
input – work output
W = 2 500 – 2 000
W = 500 J

Example 29
Figure 4.16 shows a brick placed on a plane
inclined at an angle θ to the horizontal. The
weight, W of the brick is shown. Figure 4.17

(a) (i)State the value of the force acting

downwards along the inclined plane.
(1 mark)
4N
(ii) Explain how the value in part (a) (i) is
obtained. (2 marks)
Since the trolley is moving at uniform
speed, the effort, E is equal to the
Figure 4.16 frictional force, F
(b) For the system, determine the:
(i) Mechanical advantage; (3 marks)

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 SUMMARIZED PHYSICS FORM 3 NOTES

M.A. =
 The distance between two successive
threads is called the pitch of the
M.A. =
screw.
M.A. = 5  In one revolution, the screw moves
forward (or backwards) through a
(ii) Velocity ratio; (3 marks) distance equal to one pitch.

V.R. =  V.R. =

V.R. = V.R =
V.R. = 8
V.R =
(iii) Efficiency. (2 marks)
R = radius of screw head
Efficiency, η = 100 Note:
A screw combined with a lever can be used
η= 100 as a jack for lifting heavy loads such as cars
η = 62.5% (figure 4.19)

(c) Suggest one method of improving the

efficiency of an inclined plane. (1 mark)
Reducing the frictional force by use of
rollers or smoothening the surface by
polishing or greasing or oiling.

4. The Screw Figure 4.19

 The threads of a screw can be V.R. =
considered can be considered as a
continuous inclined plane wound V.R =
round a cylindrical or tapering rod
(figure 4.18) Example 31
Figure 4.20 shows a screw jack whose
screw has a pitch of 1 mm, and has a handle
of length 25 cm.

Figure 4.18

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 SUMMARIZED PHYSICS FORM 3 NOTES

 A gear is a wheel with equally

spaced teeth or cogs around it that
rotate about an axis.
 An arrangement of two or more
gears in a machine transmit motion
from one wheel to another. (Figure
4.21)

Figure 4.20

Determine the velocity ratio of the jack.

(3 marks)

V.R. =

V.R = Figure 4.21

V.R. =  The wheel in which the effort is

applied is called the driver wheel
V.R. = 1 570.7963 while the load wheel is called the
driven wheel.
Example 32  If the driving wheel has n teeth and
A car weighing 1 600 kg is lifted with a the driven wheel N teeth, then, when
jack-screw whose pitch is 11 mm. If the the driving wheel makes one
handle is 28 cm from the screw, calculate revolution, the driven wheel makes
the force applied. (Neglect friction force)
revolutions.
Solution
V.R. =
V.R =

V.R. =
Neglecting friction, M.A. = V.R
V.R. =
=
 Thus, for a system of gears:
E= V.R. =

E = 100 N
 Gears are designed with V.R. both
greater and less than 1 (figure 4.22).
5. Gears

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 SUMMARIZED PHYSICS FORM 3 NOTES

 When the V.R. is greater than 1, the  In this arrangement, the effort is
effect is to slow down the speed of applied downwards (figure 4.23).
rotation and magnify the effort force,  The effort moves through the same
[figure 4.22(a)] distance as the load.
 When the V.R. is less than 1, the  Therefore, V.R. = 1.
effect is to speed up the rotation and
magnify the distance moved, [figure
4.22(b)]

Figure 4.23

(b) Single Movable Pulley

 In this arrangement, the effort is
applied upwards [figure 4.24(i)]

Figure 4.22

6. Pulleys
 A pulley is a wheel with a groove for
accommodating a string or a rope.  However, a fixed pulley can be
 The three most common added so as to enable the operator to
arrangements of pulley systems are: apply the effort downwards [figure
(a) Single fixed pulley. 4.24(ii)]
(b) Single movable pulley.
(c) Block and tackle.
 In all these arrangements of pulley
systems, a single string or rope is
wound around the pulley(s).

(a) Single Fixed Pulley.

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 SUMMARIZED PHYSICS FORM 3 NOTES

Figure 4.24
Figure 4.25
 The V.R. of the two arrangements is
V.R. = number of ‘strings’ or ‘ropes’
the same, i.e., V.R. = 2 supporting the load.

Note: Note:
(i) V.R. = number of ‘strings’ or ‘ropes’ (i) It is possible to have blocks with three or
supporting the load. more pulleys.
(ii) Effort in one string is equal to effort (ii) For the block and tackle system with an
on the other string. odd number of pulleys, it is convenient to
have more pulleys fixed than movable,
(c) Block and Tackle (figure 4.26).
 In this arrangement, a set of pulleys
is mounted on a block (figure 4.25).
 One set of pulleys is movable while
the other one is fixed.
 A single rope is systematically
wound round all the pulleys.
 The system of the pulleys and the
rope is called block and tackle.

Figure 4.26

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 SUMMARIZED PHYSICS FORM 3 NOTES

(iii) Figure 4.27 (a) shows the graphical

relationship between mechanical advantage
(M.A.) and load while figure 4.27 (b)
shows the graphical relationship between
efficiency and load of a pulley system.

Figure 4.28

State one reason why system B may have a

higher efficiency than system A. (1 mark)
The effect of the weight of the second
pulley reduces the efficiency of A. The
load in B is larger than that in A and so
the effect of friction is less in B, thereby
increasing the efficiency.
OR
The weight of the second pulley reduces
the efficiency of A. The load in B is larger
than the frictional force which therefore
becomes negligible. This makes the
system B to be more efficient.

Figure 4.27 Example 35

Figure 4.29 shows a pulley system used to
Example 33 raise a load by applying an effort of 500 N.
State two reasons why the efficiency of a
pulley system is always less than 100%.
(2 mks)
(a) Some energy is used to overcome
friction.
(b) Some energy is used to lift the weight
of the lower blocks.

Example 34
Figure 4.28 shows two pulley systems being
used to raise different loads. The pulleys are
identical.

Figure 4.29

Page 90 of 201
 SUMMARIZED PHYSICS FORM 3 NOTES

(a) State the: V.R. = 4

(i) Velocity ratio of the system. (1 mark) (b) If a load of 100 N is raised by applying
V.R. = 2 an effort of 28 N, determine the efficiency
of the system. (3 marks)
(ii) Purpose of pulley 2. (1 mark)
To change the direction of the effort. Efficiency, η = 100

(b) Given that the machine has an efficiency M.A. = =

of 80 %, determine the maximum load that
can be raised. (3 marks) η= 100
Efficiency =
η = 89.29%
80 = 100 7. Pulley Belts
 They are found in posho mills,
M.A. =
sewing machines and motor engines.
M.A. = 1.6  Figure 4.31 shows two pulleys P and
But M.A. = Q connected by a belt.

= 1.6 L = 800 N

Example 36
Figure 4.30 shows a pulley system being
used to raise a load.
Figure 4.31
 Let the radius of effort (or driving)
wheel = R and that of the load (or
driven) wheel = r.
 Then, when the effort wheel makes
one revolution (2πR), the belt turns a
distance of 2πr.
 When the effort wheel makes one
revolution, the load wheel makes
= revolutions.
V.R.=

Figure 4.30
V.R =
(a) Determine the velocity ratio (V.R.) of the
system. (1 mark)

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V.R =  Hence, V.R. =

 Thus,
V.R. =
V.R. =
Example 37
The radius of the effort piston of a hydraulic
8. Hydraulic Machine
lift is 1.4 cm wide while that of the load
 Figure 4.32 shows a simplified piston is 7.0 cm. This machine is used to
diagram of the hydraulic lift. raise a load of 120 kg at a constant velocity
through a height of 2.2 m. The machine is
80 % efficient. Taking g = 10 N/kg,
calculate the:
(a) Velocity ratio.
Solution

V.R. =

V.R. =
Figure 4.32
V.R. = 25
 Radius of effort piston = r and radius
(b) Mechanical advantage.
of load piston = R.
 When the effort piston moves Efficiency = x 100 %
downwards, the load piston is pushed
M.A. = efficiency x V.R.
upwards.
 Volume of the liquid that leaves the M.A. = x 25
effort cylinder = volume of the liquid M.A. = 20
that enters the load cylinder
 Volume = distance x area of cross- (c) Effort applied.
section M.A. =
 Therefore,
Distance moved by effort piston x cross- Effort =
sectional area of effort piston = distance
Effort =
moved by load piston x cross-sectional
area of load piston. Effort = 60 N
 Thus, V.R. =
=

(d) Work output.

Work output = work done on the load =
load x load distance

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Work output = (120 x 10) x 2.5 When the plunger moves down a distance d,
W = 3 000 J the Ram piston moves up a distance D.

(e) Work input (i) State the property of liquid pressure on

which the working of the hydraulic press
Efficiency =
works. (1 mark)
Work input = Pressure in liquid is transmitted equally
to all parts of an enclosed liquid.
W= = 3 750 J
(ii) Derive an expression for the velocity
(f) Energy wasted in lifting the load. ratio (V.R.) in terms of A and a. (4 marks)
Energy wasted = work input – work
output Volume of liquid moved by plunger =
Energy = 3 750 – 3 000 = 750 J Volume of liquid moved by Ram
Alternative method a d=A D
Energy wasted = 20 % of work input
Energy = 3 750 But V.R. = =

Energy = 750 J ⇒ =
Example 38 Thus,
(a) Define the term velocity ratio of a
V.R. =
machine. (1 mark)
It is the ratio of the distance moved by
effort to distance moved by load. Example 39
Figure 4.34 shows a hydraulic press
(b) Figure 4.33 shows part of a hydraulic supporting a load F = 70 kg. A = 0.2 m2 and
press. The plunger is the position where
a = 0.01m2 are the areas of cross-section of
effort is applied while the Ram piston is the
position where the load is applied. The the smaller and larger pistons respectively.
plunger has cross-section area, a m2 while The lengths of the arm are as shown in the
the Ram piston has cross-section area, A m2. figure.

Figure 4.34
Figure 4.33

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Determine the:
(a) force, Fa

Fa = 35 N

(b) force, F0
By the principle of moments,
F0 x 1 = Fa x 0.2
F0 =
F0 = 7 N

(c) mechanical advantage of the hydraulic

press.
M.A. = 100
(d) velocity ratio of the hydraulic press.
V.R.H = 400

(e) velocity ratio of the lever.

V.R.L = 5

(f) velocity ratio of the combined machines.

V.R. = V.R.H x V.R.L
V.R. = 400 X 5
V.R. = 2 000

(g) efficiency of the machine.

Ƞ=5%

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ELECTRIC CURRENT AND

POTENTIAL DIFFERENCE

(a) Electric Current

 This is the rate of flow of charge
through a conductor.
 It is measured using an instrument
called an ammeter.
 The SI unit of current is the ampere
Chapter 5 (A).
 The operation of a moving coil
CURRENT ELECTRICITY ammeter is based on the tact that a
(II) coil carrying current experiences a
force when placed in a magnetic
Specific Objectives field. The deflection of the pointer
By the end of this topic, the learner should attached to the coil is a measure of
be able to: the current flow.
(a) define potential difference and state its
unit
(b) measure potential difference and
current in a circuit
(c) verify Ohm’s law Using an ammeter
(d) define resistance and state its unit (i) Before connecting the ammeter in the
(e) determine experimentally the voltage- circuit, ensure that the pointer is at the zero
current relationships for various mark on the scale. If this is not the case, use
conductors the zero adjusting screw to move it to the
(f) define electromotive force and explain correct position.
internal resistance of a cell (ii) The ammeter is an instrument of low
(g) derive the formula for effective resistance to the flow of electric current.
resistance of resistors connected in series It is thus connected in series (along) with
and in parallel other components in the circuit so that
(h) solve numerical problems involving conventional current enters the ammeter
Ohm’s law, resistors in series and in through its positive terminal and exits
parallel. through the negative terminal (figure 5.1).

Introduction
This topic involves measurements of
current, voltage and resistance in an electric
circuit.

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 One volt is equal to one joule per

coulomb.
1 V = 1 JC⁻1
Example 1
In moving a charge of 10 coulombs from
point B, 120 joules of work is done.
Figure 5.1 Calculate potential difference between
points A and B.
(iii) An appropriate scale should be selected Solution
to safeguard the coil of the meter from
blowing up. p.d. =

p.d. = p.d = 12 V
Note:
Digital ammeters are more accurate and Using a Voltmeter
easier to read than the analogue ammeters. (i) The pointer is adjusted to the zero
position.
(b) Potential Difference (p.d.) (ii) A voltmeter is always connected in
 The p.d. between two points A and B parallel to (across) the device whose
(VAB) of a conductor is defined as voltage is to be measured. This is because it
the work done in moving a unit is an instrument with high resistance to the
charge from point B to A of the flow of electric current, hence it takes little
conductor (figure 5.2). current in the circuit.
(iii) The positive terminal of the voltmeter is
connected to the positive terminal of the
electrical power source. Similarly, the
negative terminal of the voltmeter is
connected to the negative terminal of the
electrical power source. (figure 5.3)

Figure 5.2

 Potential difference =

 VAB =
 P.d. is measured using an instrument
called a voltmeter.
 The SI unit of p.d. is the volt (V).
Figure 5.3

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Conclusion
(iv) The appropriate scale should be  When components are connected in
selected, and, when taking the reading, parallel, the sum of the currents in
parallax error should be avoided. the parallel circuits is equal to the
total current in the circuit.
Note:
Digital voltmeters are more accurate and  Thus, the total current flowing into
easier to read than the analogue voltmeters.
a junction is equal to the total
current flowing out of a junction.
Experiment 5.1: To investigate the current
in a parallel circuit arrangement. Experiment 5.2: To investigate the voltage
in a parallel circuit arrangement.
Apparatus
Apparatus
Two 1.5 V dry cells, 3 identical bulbs, 4
Two 1.5 V dry cells, 3 identical bulbs, 4
ammeters, switch, connecting wires.
voltmeters, switch, connecting wires.

Figure 5.4

Procedure Figure 5.5

 Connect the circuit as shown in
figure 5.4.
 Close the switch and take the Procedure
readings on the ammeters A1, A2, A3  Connect the circuit as shown in
and A4. figure 5.5.
 Close the switch and take the
Observation readings on the voltmeters V1, V2, V3
Reading on A1 + Reading on A2 + and V4.
Reading on A3 = Reading on A4
Observation

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Reading on V1 = Reading on V2 = Experiment 5.4: To investigate the voltage

Reading on V3 = Reading on V4 in a series circuit arrangement.
Apparatus
Conclusion Two 1.5 V dry cells, 3 identical bulbs, 4
When components are connected in parallel, voltmeters, switch, connecting wires.
the same voltage drops across each of them
(since the terminals are at the same electric
potential.

Experiment 5.3: To investigate the current

in a series circuit arrangement.
Apparatus
Two 1.5 V dry cells, 3 identical bulbs, 3
ammeters, switch, connecting wires.

Figure 5.7

Procedure
 Connect the circuit as shown in
figure 5.7.
Figure 5.6  Close the switch and take the
readings on the voltmeters V1, V2, V3
Procedure and V4.
 Connect the circuit as shown in
figure 5.6. Observation
 Close the switch and take the Reading on V1 + Reading on V2 +
readings on the ammeters A1, A2 and Reading on V3 = Reading on V4
A3.
Conclusion
Observation In a series arrangement, the sum of the
Reading on A1 = Reading on A2 = voltage drops across the components is
Reading on A3 equal to the supply voltage.

Conclusion Note:
In a series arrangement, the same current This statement is true even when the bulbs
flows through each component. are not identical.

Note:
This statement is true even when the bulbs
are not identical.

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OHM’S LAW  What do you observe?

The relationship between the voltage across  Plot a graph of voltage (y-axis)
a conductor and the current flowing through against current.
it is summarized in what is referred to as
Ohm’s law. Observation
 As current increase, the voltage drop
Experiment 5.5: To investigate the across the coil also increases.
relationship between current and voltage  A graph of voltage against current is
across a conductor (nichrome wire) a straight line that passes through the
origin (figure 5.9).
Apparatus
Two- metres long nichrome wire, 2 dry cells,
ammeter, voltmeter, connecting wires,
switch, rheostat.

Figure 5.8
Figure 5.9
Procedure
 Using the nichrome wire, make a Conclusion
coil of as many turns as possible.  The voltage is directly proportional
 Set up the circuit as shown in figure to the current, i.e., V I.
5.8.  The gradient of the graph, i.e.,
 Close the switch and set the current
flowing in the circuit to the least
possible value. = constant
 With the help of the rheostat, vary in  The constant is called the resistance,
steps the current flowing in the R of the wire used.
circuit and note the corresponding  Thus, resistance, R =
voltage drop across the coil.
 Record the results in table 1 below.  R= and V = IR and I = .
 The SI unit of resistance is called the
Table 1
Ohm (Ω).
Current, I
 Larger units of the Ohm are the
(A)
Voltage, V kilohm (kΩ) and Megohm (MΩ)
(V)  1 kΩ = 1 000 Ω
 1 MΩ = 1 000 000 Ω

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 The relationship V = IR is called Gradient = = i.e., the reciprocal of

Ohm’s law. resistance.
(iv) The reciprocal of resistance is called
 It states that: conductance.
The current flowing through a conductor is (v) The unit of conductance is per Ohm
directly proportional to the potential (Ω⁻1) or Siemens (S).
difference across it provided that the
temperature and other physical conditions
are kept constant.
 These physical conditions include: Ohmic and Non-ohmic Conductors
(a) Tension in the conductor,  Not all conductors obey Ohm‟s law.
(b) Whether the conductor is  Conductors (materials) that obey
straight or bent, Ohm‟s law are called ohmic
(c) The angle at which the conductors, e.g., nichrome wire.
conductor is put in a magnetic field,  A graph of current against voltage
i.e. if it is put at right angles to a for ohmic conductors is a straight
strong magnetic field. line passing through the origin
 Conductors (materials) that do not
Note:
obey Ohm‟s law are called non-
(i) Ohm‟s law can be verified using the same
ohmic conductors, e.g., thermistor,
procedure, but replacing the nichrome coil
diodes.
with a standard resistor.
 A graph of current against voltage
(ii) Since voltage and current are directly
for non-ohmic conductors is not a
proportional, the graph of current (y-axis)
straight line.
against voltage is also a straight passing
 The resistance of non-ohmic
through the origin (figure 5.10).
conductors changes with current
flow.
 Figure 5.11 shows some current
against voltage graphs for various
conductors:

Figure 5.10

(iii) The gradient of the graph of current

(amperes) against voltage (volts) is given
by;

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10 V source is connected to it. (3

marks)
Solution
I=

I=
I = 0.002 A

Example 4
In order to start the engine of a certain car, a
current of 30 A must flow through the starter
motor. Calculate the resistance of the motor
given that the battery supplies a voltage of
12 V. (Ignore the internal resistance of the
battery) (3 marks)
Solution
R=

R= R = 0.4 Ω

Example 5
(a) State Ohm‟s law. (1
mark)
The current flowing through a conductor
is directly proportional to the potential
Figure 5.11 difference across it provided that the
temperature and other physical
Example 2 conditions are kept constant.
A current of 2 mA flows through a
conductor of resistance 2 kΩ. Calculate the (b) State one condition under which Ohm‟s
voltage drop across the ends of the law is obeyed in a metal conductor. (1
conductor. (3 marks) mark)
Solution (i) Constant temperature.
V = IR (ii) No mechanical strain
V = 0.002 x 2 000
V=4V (c) A student wishes to investigate the
relationship between current and voltage for
Example 3 a certain device X.
Calculate the current in amperes flowing In the space provided, draw a circuit
through a device of resistance 5 kΩ when a diagram including two cells, rheostat,

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ammeter, voltmeter and the device X that energy thereby increasing the
would be suitable in obtaining the desired collisions per cross-section area of
results. the conductor.
(1 mark)  The opposition to the flow of
electrons thus increases as
temperature increases.
2. Length, l of the conductor.
 The resistance, R of a uniform
conductor of a given material is
directly proportional to its length, l,
i.e., R l.
Figure 5.12  Hence, resistance, R = constant x
length, i.e., =
ELECTRICAL RESISTANCE constant………….(i)
 This refers to the opposition offered  As the length of a conductor
by a conductor to the flow of increases, so does the resistance.
electric current.
 It occurs when a charge flowing 3. Cross-sectional area, A of the conductor
through a conductor has its  The resistance, R of a wire is
movement impeded by collisions inversely proportional to its cross-
with the atom and impurities in the section area ,A.
conductor.
 Thus, R
 These collisions scatter the charges
leading to the loss of their  Hence, R = constant x i.e.,
momentum and energy in the form of
R x A = constant, or
heat.
RA = constant…………(ii)
 A material with high conductance
has very low electrical resistance e.g.  A conductor with a larger cross-
copper. section area has many free electrons
 The instrument used for measuring available for conduction, hence
resistance is called the ohmmeter. better conductivity.

Factors that affect the Resistance of a

Metallic Conductor.
1. Temperature Results analysis
 The resistance of good conductors of  Combining equations (i) and(ii)
electricity increases with increase in above, for a conductor with uniform
temperature. cross-section area, resistance, R is
 Heating increases the vibrations of given by:
the atoms due to increased kinetic

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R = constant x l=

R=ρ = l = 2.52 m
⁻
 The constant ρ is called the
resistivity of the material. Example 8
 The unit of ρ is the ohm-metre Figure 5.13 shows the graph of the
(Ωm). relationship between current, I and potential
difference, V for two tungsten filament
Note: lamps, X and Y. The normal working
(i) The resistivity of a material is dependent voltages for the lamp X and lamp Y are
on temperature. 2.5V and 3.0V respectively.
(ii) For metals, it increases with temperature,
while for semi-conductors it decreases with
increase in temperature.

Example 6
A wire 480 cm long has a diameter of 0.56
mm. If the resistance of the wire is 10 Ω,
determine the resistivity of the material of
the wire.
(3
marks)
Solution
R=ρ
Figure 5.13
ρ= =
(a) Explain the change in the shape of the
ρ = 5.133 x 10⁻7 Ωm
curves as the current increases. (2
marks)
Example 7 An increase in current causes an increase
Given that the resistivity of nichrome is in temperature which in turn causes an
1.1 x 10⁻6 Ωm, determine the length of increase in resistance.
nichrome wire of diameter 0.42 mm
required to make a resistance of 20 Ω. (b) Determine the resistance of lamp X at
(3 marks) the normal working voltage. (3
Solution marks)
R=ρ R=

R=

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 SUMMARIZED PHYSICS FORM 3 NOTES

R = 2.083 Ω 
These are resistors with a varied
range of resistance.
(c) The lamps are now connected in a series  They include:
circuit in which a current of 0.4 A flows. (i) Rheostat
Find the potential difference across lamp Y.  This is a two-terminal variable
(1 mk) resistor.
From the graph, a current of 0.4 A  Figure 5.15 (a) and (b) shows the
corresponds to a p.d. of 1 V. electrical circuits by the symbols.

(d) Determine the power at which lamp Y

operates under normal working voltage.
(2
marks)
Power, P = IV
P = 0.8 x 3
P = 2.4 watts
Figure 5.15

RESISTORS  Moving the sliding contact along the

 Resistors are conductors specially length of the resistant material varies
designed to offer particular the resistance between points A and
resistance to the flow of electric B.
current.  The resistance of the rheostat is
 They are made from many different lowest when the contact is at end A
materials which include resistance and highest when the contact is at
wires, metal alloys and carbon. end B.
Note:
Types of Resistors  In some cases, the resistance track
(a) Fixed Resistors. may be circular (figure 5.16).
 These resistors are designed to give
fixed resistance.
 A fixed resistor can be a wire (e.g.
nichrome) wound or carbon type.
 Figure 5.14 shows the symbol for a
fixed resistor.

Figure 5.14
Figure 5.16

(b) Variable Resistors

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 The resistance between terminals A  Potentiometers can also be used as a

and B is proportional to the angle variable voltage source.
through which its shaft has moved
(figure 5.17) (c) Non-linear Resistors
 The current flowing through these
resistors does not change linearly
with the changes in the applied
voltage.
 Such resistors include the thermistor
and the light-dependent resistor
(LDR).

(i) Thermistor
Figure 5.17
 This is a temperature-dependent
resistor.
 Volume control knobs in radios are
 Its resistance decreases with
essentially rheostats.
increases in temperature.
(ii) Potentiometer  Figure 5.19 shows its electrical
 This is a variable resistor with three symbol.
terminals.
 Figure 5.18 shows its electrical
symbol.
Figure 5.19

They are used in heat-operated

circuits.
Figure 5.18
(ii) Light-dependent Resistor (LDR)
 In potentiometers, a contact is moved
 The resistance of an LDR decreases
to select desired proportions of the
when it receives light of increasing
total voltage across them.
intensity.
 If, for example, the sliding arm
 Figure 5.20 shows the electrical
connected to C is moved to the
symbol.
extreme right, then the resistance
between A and C will be greater than
the resistance between B and C
because of longer length of the
resistance material.
 Potentiometers with circular
resistance tracks are used as balance Figure 5.20
controls in audio amplifiers.

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 The LDR is used in light-operated  Determine the slope (gradient) of the

switching circuits. graph.

MEASUREMENT OF RESISTANCE Observation

1. Voltmeter-ammeter Method  When the switch is open, no current
flows through the resistor R.
Experiment: To determine the resistance of
Therefore both the ammeter and
a resistor using the volt-ammeter method
voltmeter readings are zero.
Apparatus
Two 1.5 V dry cells, voltmeter, ammeter,  = constant
switch, variable resistor, fixed resistor R.  The graph of V against I is a straight
line through the origin (figure 5.22).

Figure 5.21

Procedure
 Set the circuit as shown in figure
5.21.
 With the switch open, record the
Figure 5.22
voltmeter reading, V and the
corresponding ammeter reading, I.
Calculations
 Close the switch, and by adjusting
the variable resistor, record at least Gradient = = Gradient of the line
five other values of V and the 2. The Wheatstone Bridge Method
corresponding values of I. 3. The metre Bridge Method
 Record your values in table 2 below.
Table 2
Voltage, V
(volts)
Current, I (A) RESISTORS NETWORKS
(a) Resistors Connected in Series
 Two or more resistors are said to be
connected in series when they are
connected end-to-end consecutively
 Compare the values of . so that the same current I flows
 Plot a graph of voltage, V (vertical through each of them.
axis) against current, I.

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 Figure 5.23 shows three resistors R1, For resistors connected in series, the
R2 and R3 connected in series. equivalent resistance is equal to the sum of
the individual resistances.

Example 9
Three resistors of resistances 2.5 Ω, 12 Ω
and 3.5 Ω respectively are connected in
series. Determine the resistance of a single
resistor that can replace them in a circuit.
Solution
Figure 5.23
RE = R1 + R2 + R3
RE = 2.5 + 12 + 3.5
 Total voltage drop, VT across the
RE = 18.0 Ω
battery is given by;
VT = V1 + V2 + V3 Example 10
Figure 5.24 shows three resistors in series
 Using Ohm‟s law (V = IR), then;
connected to a power supply. A current of 2
V1 = IR1, V2 = IR2, V3 = IR3 A flows through the circuit.
 Thus, VT = IR1 + IR2 + IR3
 But VT = IRE, where RE is the
equivalent (or effective or
combined or total) resistance of the
three resistors
Figure 5.24
 Therefore, IRE = IR1 + IR2 + IR3
 Factorizing the right hand side; Calculate the:
(a) Total resistance in the circuit.
IRE = I(R1 + R2 + R3)
Solution
 Dividing both sides by I; RE = R1 + R2 + R3
RE = 2 + 6 + 8 = 16 Ω
RE = R1 + R2 + R3
(b) Voltage drop across each resistor.
Note: V1 = IR1
(i) The equivalent resistance is greater than V1 = 2 x 2
any of the individual resistances. V1= 4 V
(ii) This relationship applies to any number
of resistors connected in series. V2 = IR2
V2 = 2 x 6 = 12 V
Conclusion
V3 = IR3
V3 = 2 x 8 = 16 V

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I1 = , I2 = and I3 =
(c) Voltage across the power supply.
VT = V1 + V2 + V3
 If RE is the equivalent (or effective
VT = 4 + 12 + 16 = 32 V
or combined or total) resistance of
Alternative method
the three resistors, then;
VT = IRE
IT =
VT = 2 x 16 = 32 V

Therefore, = + +
(b) Resistors Connected in Parallel
 Two or more resistors are said to be  Factorizing the right hand side;
connected in parallel when they are
placed side by side and their = ( )
corresponding ends joined together.
 The same potential difference  Dividing both sides by V gives;
(voltage) will thus be applied to each
of them, but they will share the = + +
main current I in the circuit.
 Figure 5.25 shows three resistors R1,
Note:
R2 and R3 connected in parallel.
(i) The equivalent resistance is lower than
any of the individual resistances.
(ii)This relationship applies to any number
of resistors connected in parallel.

Conclusion
For resistors connected in parallel, the
equivalent resistance is equal to the sum of
the reciprocals of individual resistances.

Special case of two resistors connected in

Figure 5.25
parallel
 For two resistors R1 and R2
 Suppose the main current I divides
into I1, I2 and I3 through the resistors connected in parallel,
R1, R2 and R3 respectively and that
= +
the common potential difference
across them is V.  Putting the right hand side over
 Total current , IT = I1 + I2 + I3
the same common denominator,
 Using Ohm‟s Law (V = IR), then;

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 SUMMARIZED PHYSICS FORM 3 NOTES

(a) In terms of V, R1 and R2, write an

=
expression for:
 Taking reciprocals on both sides, (i) Current I1 through R1. (1 mark)
I1 =
RE =
(ii) Current I2 through R2. (1 mark)
 Hence, for two resistors in parallel, I2 =
Combined resistance = (iii) Total current, I in the circuit. (1 mk)
I = I1 + I2

I= + , but V is the same.

Example 11
Two resistors of resistances 30 Ω and 70 Ω Therefore: I = V( )
are connected in parallel. Calculate their
equivalent resistance.
(3 marks) (b) Show that the total resistance, RT is
Solution given by
RE = RT = (3
marks)
RE =
Solution
RE = = 21 Ω I = I1 + I2

I=
Example 12
Figure 5.26 shows resistors R1 and R2
= V( )
connected in parallel. Their ends are
connected to a battery of potential difference Dividing each side by V gives;
V volts.
=( )

Taking reciprocals on each side gives:

RT =

Hence shown.
Figure 5.26
Example 13

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Figure 5.27 shows a circuit diagram with Several 150 Ω resistors are to be connected
four resistors connected across a 3.0 V so that a current of 2 A flows from a 50 V
supply. source. Calculate the:
(a) Equivalent resistance of the resistors.
(3
marks)
Solution
RE =

RE =
RE = 25 Ω

Figure 5.27 (b) Number of bulbs required and how they

should be connected. (3 marks)
Calculate the: Let the number of bulbs be n.
(a) Effective resistance. (3 marks)
Then = n( )
Solution = n( )
= + + +
n=

= + + + n=6

Therefore the resistors must be connected

=
in parallel since RE must be lower than
150 Ω.
=
(c) Resistors in a Series and Parallel
RE = Arrangement
To find the effective resistance of a series –
RE = 1.121 Ω
parallel arrangement, the network is
systematically reduced into a single resistor.
(b) Current through the 8 Ω resistor.
(3 Example 15
marks) Figure 5.28 (a) and (b) shows parts of
I= electrical circuits.

I=
I = 0.375 A

Example 14

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Therefore, combined resistance RT =

RT =

RT = 4.8 Ω
The 4 Ω and 4.8 Ω resistors are in series.
Therefore, equivalent resistance
= 4 + 4.8 = 8.8 Ω
Figure 5.28
Example 16
Determine the equivalent resistance for the
Figure 5.29 shows a network of resistors
resistors in each of the diagrams.
connected to a 1.5 V supply source.

Figure (a)
The 30 Ω and 70 Ω resistors are in
parallel.
Therefore, effective resistance between

points B and C, RT =

RT = Figure 5.29

RT = 21 Ω Calculate the:
(a) Equivalent resistance of the circuit.
The 19 Ω and 21 Ω resistors are now in Solution
series. RAB =
Therefore, equivalent resistance,
RAB =
RE = 19 + 21
RE = 40 Ω RAB = 2 Ω
RAC = 2 + 4
Figure (b) RAC = 6 Ω
The 5 Ω and 7 Ω resistors are in parallel.
Therefore, combined resistance (b) Total current in the circuit.
= 5 + 7 = 12 Ω IT =
The 12 Ω and 8 Ω resistors are in parallel.
IT =
IT = 0.25 A

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 SUMMARIZED PHYSICS FORM 3 NOTES

(c) Voltage through each of the resistors.

Current flowing through 4 Ω resistor = IT
= 0.25 A
Voltage drop across the 4 Ω resistor =
0.25 x 4 = 1.0 V
Voltage drop across the 6Ω and 3 Ω
resistors (in parallel) = 1. 5 – 1.0 = 0.5 V

(b) Current flowing through each of the Figure 5.30

resistors.
4 Ω resistor = IT = 0.25 A (a) Determine the:
(i) Current passing through P; ( 3
6 Ω resistor: I = = = 0.08333 A
marks)
3 Ω resistor: I = = 0.1667 A
I=

Example 17 I=
State the reason why a voltmeter of high I = 0.15 A
resistance is more accurate in measuring
potential differences than that of low (ii) Resistance of the bulb. (2
resistance. marks)
(1
R=
mark)
High resistance voltmeter takes very little R=
current. R = 15 Ω

(b) The variable resistor Q is now adjusted

Example 18 so that a larger current flows through A2.
Figure 5.30 shows a circuit in which a (i) State how this will affect the resistance of
battery, a switch, a bulb. a resistor P, a the bulb. (1
variable resistor Q, a voltmeter V and two mark)
ammeters A1 and A2 of negligible resistance The resistance decreases.
are connected. P has resistance of 10 Ω. (ii) Explain your answer in (b)(i).
When the switch is closed, the voltmeter (2
reads 1.5V. marks)
An increase in current leads to a decrease
in resistance since the voltage or potential
difference is constant.

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ELECTROMOTIVE FORCE  This resistance is usually low and is

called the internal resistance of the
(E.M.F.) AND INTERNAL
cell or battery.
RESISTANCE (r)
Relationship between E.M.F and Internal
 The e.m.f. of a cell is the p.d. Resistance
 If an external fixed resistor R is
between its terminals when no
connected in series with a cell, the
charge is flowing out of the cell internal resistance, r of the cell is
(cell in open circuit). considered to be in series with the
 It is the reading of the voltmeter external resistor R (figure 5.32).
when the switch is open (figure
5.31).

Figure 5.32

 The current flowing in the circuit is

therefore given by the equation;
Figure 5.31
Current =
 The p.d. across the cell when the
circuit is closed is referred to as I= , where E is the e.m.f. of the cell.
the terminal voltage of the cell.
Thus, E = I(R + r)
 Once a cell supplies current to an
external circuit, the p.d. across it E = IR + Ir
drops by a value called „lost
E = V + Ir
voltage.‟
 The loss in voltage is due to the IR = V = terminal voltage = voltage drop
internal resistance of the cell. across the external resistor R.
Ir = lost voltage = voltage drop across the
internal resistance.
Note:
 A cell or any source of e.m.f. is Experimental Determination of Internal
made up of materials that are not Resistance of a Cell.
perfect conductors of electricity.
 They therefore offer some opposition Method 1
(resistance) to the flow of current Apparatus
that they generate. Voltmeter, ammeter, variable resistor, dry
cell, connecting wires.

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becomes V = (r) I + E.

Note:
(i) If the graph is extrapolated so as to cut
the voltage axis (y-axis), then the point at
Figure 5.33
which it does so gives the e.m.f., E of the
Procedure cell.
 Connect the apparatus as shown in (ii) The gradient of the graph gives the
figure 5.33. internal resistance, r of the cell.
 Switch on the circuit and set the (iii) The gradient of the graph when
current to the minimum value calculated will be negative, i.e. ⁻gradient.
possible. Record this value of the
Thus, ⁻gradient = ⁻r
current and the corresponding
voltmeter reading. Therefore, gradient = r
 Increase the current at equal intervals
and read the corresponding voltmeter
readings and record them in table 3 Method 2
below. Apparatus
Table 3 Voltmeter, ammeter, variable resistor, dry
cell, connecting wire.
Current, I
(A)
Voltage, V
(V)

 Plot a graph of voltage against

current.
Results Analysis Figure 5.35
 The graph of voltage against current
Procedure
is a straight line as shown in figure  Connect the apparatus as shown in
5.34. figure 5.35 above.
 Switch on the circuit and set the
current to the minimum value
possible. Record this value of the
current and the corresponding
voltmeter reading.
 Increase the current at equal intervals
and read the corresponding voltmeter
readings and record them in table 4
Figure 5.34 below.
 Re-arranging the equation E = V +
Ir to be in the form y = mx + c


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Table 4 The ammeter in the circuit in the figure 5.37

Current, I (A) has negligible resistance. When the switch S
is closed, the ammeter reads 0.10 A.
Voltage, V
(V)
R=

 Complete the table.

 Plot a graph of (y-axis) against R.
Figure 5.37
Results Analysis
 The graph is a straight line cutting Determine the internal resistance of the cell.
the vertical axis above the origin Solution
(figure 5.36). E = I(R + r)
1.5 = 0.1(12 + r)
r=3Ω

Alternative method
RT = = = 15 Ω
Therefore, internal resistance, r = 15 – 12
= 3.0 Ω
Figure 5.36
Example 20
(a) The gradient = Two dry cells each having an e.m.f. of 1.5 V
(b) The internal resistance of the cell can be and an internal resistance of 2 Ω are
obtained in two ways: connected:
(i) Extrapolating the graph to cut the R axis
(a) in series, and (b) in parallel. Calculate
(x-axis) gives r, i.e., x – intercept = r.
the current flowing in the circuit in each
(ii) If the intercept on the axis is A, then A
case when the cells are connected to a 1 Ω
= resistor.
So, r = A x E Solution:
But E = (a) Cells connected in series;

Therefore, r = A x

Example 19

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Ω coil. Calculate the e.m.f. and internal

resistance of the cell.

Solution
It involves forming and solving two
simultaneous equations.
Let E = e.m.f. of the cell
Figure 5.38 r = internal resistance of the cell

Total e.m.f., ET = 1.5 + 1.5 = 3.0 V E = I (R + r)

Total resistance, RT = 2 + 2 + 1 = 5 Ω E = 0.6(2 + r)………………….……..(1)
I= = = 0.6 A E = 0.2(7 + r)………………………..(2)
0.6(2 + r) = 0.2(7 + r)
(b) Cells connected in parallel; 1.2 + 0.6r = 1.4 + 0.2r
0.4r = 0.2
r = 0.5 Ω

E = 0.2(7 + r)
E = 0.2(7 + 0.5)
E = 1.4 + 0.1 = 1.5 V
Figure 5.39
Combined resistance of the two cells, Example 22
RC = = Figure 5.40 shows six cells each having an
e.m.f. of 2 V and an internal resistance of
RC = 1 Ω 0.1 Ω are connected in series with an
Total resistance in the circuit, RT = 1 + 1 ammeter of negligible resistance, a 1.4 Ω
RT = 2 Ω resistor and a metal filament lamp. The
Voltage (e.m.f.) = 1.5 V ammeter reads 3 A.

I=

I=
I = 0.75 A

Example 21
A cell supplies a current of 0.6 A through a
2 Ω coil and a current of 0.2 A through a 7 Figure 5.40

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Calculate the: Effective resistance, RE in the circuit:

(a) Resistance of the lamp. RE = 2.4 + 1 + 0.6
Solution
RE = 4.0 Ω
Let the lamp resistance = RL
Then total circuit resistance, Main current, IT = = =3A
RT = (6 x 0.1) + 1.4 + RL = 2 + RL
Let the current flowing through A be I1,
Total voltage = 6 x 2 = 12 V
through B be I2 and through C be I3.
R=
I1 = IT = 3 A
2 + RL = =4 P.d. across B and C = 3 x 2.4 = 7.2
RL = 2 Ω I2 =

(b) Potential difference across the lamp. I2= 1.8 A

V = IRL I3 = 3 – 1.8
V=3x2
I3= 1.2 A
V=6V

Example 23 Example 24
Figure 5.41 below shows a 12 V battery of The battery in the circuit in figure 5.42 has
internal resistance 0.6 Ω connected to three negligible resistance.
resistors A, B and C.

Figure 5.42
Figure 5.41
Determine the reading on the ammeter A
Calculate the current flowing through each
when the switch is:
resistor.
(a) Open;
Solution
Solution
Combined resistance of Band C,
Total resistance in the circuit,
RT = = RT = 2 + 3 = 5 Ω

RT = 2.4 Ω

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Current, I = I=

I= =4A I = 0.4 A

(b) Closed. (iii) Determine the internal resistance of the

Combined resistance of R1 and R2, cell. (2 marks)
E = V +Ir
RC = =
1.5 = 1.2 + 0.4r
RC = 1 Ω
0.4r = 0.3
Total resistance in the circuit,
RT = 1 + 3 = 4 Ω r=

Current, I= r = 0.75

I= =5A (b) Another resistor R is connected in series

with the 3 Ω resistor so that a current of 0.15
Example 25 A flows when the switch is closed.
(a) Figure 5.43 shows a cell in series with a Determine the resistance of R.
3 Ω resistor and a switch. A high resistance (3 marks)
voltmeter is connected across the cell. Total resistance, RT = 3 + 0.75 + R
RT = 3.75 + R
E = IRT
1.5 = 0.15(R + 3.75)
0.15R + 0.5625 = 1.5
Figure 5.43
0.15R = 0.9375

The voltmeter reads 1.5 V with the switch R=

open and 1.2 V with the switch closed.
(i) State the electromotive force of the cell. R = 6.25 Ω
(1
mark)
E.m.f. = 1.5 V

(ii) Determine the current through the 3 Ω

resistor when the switch is closed.
(2
marks)
I=

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Chapter 6

WAVES (II)
 A bar attached to the vibrator gives
Specific Objectives
the desired waves.
By the end of this topic, the learner should  Since the bottom of the tray is
be able to: transparent, the light casts an image
(a) describe experiments to illustrate the of the passing waves on the screen.
properties of waves  When light from the lamp passes
(b) sketch wave fronts to illustrate the
through the water, the curve of the
properties of waves
(c) explain constructive interference and water surface through which the
destructive interference wave is moving acts like a series of
(d) describe experiments to illustrate lenses, focusing light to give a series
stationary waves. of bright lines.
 The crests appear bright while the
PROPERTIES OF WAVES troughs appear dark.
 These are:  The wave pattern is represented by
1. Rectilinear propagation wavefronts lines that connect all
2. Reflection points that are in phase as the waves
3. Refraction move along.
4. Diffraction  It follows the distance between
5. Interference successive waterfronts is equal to
 All these properties can be one wavelength.
conveniently demonstrated using the
ripple tank (figure 6.1).
1. Rectilinear Propagation of Plane
(Straight) and Circular Waves
 This is the property of waves
travelling in straight lines and
perpendicular to the wave front.
 Figures 6.2 (a) and (b) below
rectilinear propagation of plane
waves and circular waves
respectively.

Figure 6.1
 The waves are the ripples travelling
across the surface of the shallow
water in the tray and are produced by
the small electric vibrator.

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(b) Reflection of plane waves incident on a

straight reflector placed at an angle of 900.
Observation
The reflected waves are straight.

Figure 6.2

2. Reflection of Plane and Circular (c) Reflection of plane waves incident on a

Waves concave reflector.
Reflection of waves occurs when wavefronts
encounter an obstacle in their path [figure Observation
6.3 (a), (b), (c), (d), (e), (f) and (g)]. The reflected waves are circular and
converge to a point in front of the reflecting
(a) Reflection of plane waves incident on a surface.
straight metal strip reflector placed at an
oblique angle.
Observation
The waves are reflected such that the angle
of incidence equals the angle of reflection.

Conclusion
The concave reflector has a real focus

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(d) Reflection of plane waves incident on a (f) Reflection of circular waves incident on a
convex reflector. concave reflector.
Observation
Observation The reflected waves are straight.
The reflected waves are circular and appear
to diverge from a point behind the reflector.

(g) Reflection of circular waves incident on

a convex reflector.
Observation
The reflected waves are circular and appear
to diverge from a point behind the reflector.

Conclusion
The convex reflector has a virtual focus.

(e) Reflection of circular waves incident on

a straight reflector.
Observation
The reflected waves are circular and appear
to diverge from a point behind the reflector
(figure).

3. Refraction of Plane and Circular

Waves
 Refraction of waves occurs when the
waves move from one medium to
another.
 Refraction in water occurs when
waves move from a deep to shallow
water region and vice versa.
 It occurs at the boundary of the two
water regions.

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 Refraction occurs as a result of

change in speed (or velocity) as the
waves travel from one region to
another.
 The wavelength (separation distance
between wavefronts) is smaller in
the shallow region than in the
deeper region. This is because of the Figure 6.4
decrease in speed of the waves in
the shallow region (v = fλ). (II) Refraction of straight waves incident at
 The frequency of the waves in both an angle to the plane boundary
regions is the same. Observation
 The waves are refracted towards the
Note: normal (figure 6.5).
A shallow region in a ripple tank can be
created by placing a transparent glass plate
at one end of the tank, with the edge of the
glass plate parallel to the vibrating bar.

(a) Refraction of Water Waves

(i) Refraction of waves at plane boundaries Figure 6.5

(I) .Refraction of straight waves
perpendicular to the plane boundary  The distance of separation of the
waves becomes smaller since the
Observation speed of the waves is reduced.
 When the waves are incident
perpendicularly at the boundary Example 1
(wave fronts parallel to the Figure 6.6 shows wave fronts in a ripple
boundary), they are not refracted tank approaching a shallow region in the
(figure 6.4). tank.
 However, the spacing between the
wave fronts become smaller owing
to reduction in speed as the waves
cross to the shallow region.

Figure 6.6

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Complete the diagram to show the wave (II) .Refraction of curved waves by a bi-
fronts as they pass over the shallow region convex perspex (glass) boundary.
and after leaving the region. (1 mark) Observation
 The curved wave fronts diverging
from a single point are converted to
straight wave fronts as the pass over
the boundary (figure 6.8).
(ii) Refraction of waves at curved  Their speed is reduced.
boundaries  When the wave fronts cross over the
(I) .Refraction of straight waves by a bi- boundary, they converge to a point
convex perspex (glass) boundary. as their speed increases.
Observation
 Refraction occurs at both of the
curved surfaces or boundaries of the
bi-convex perspex.
 The straight wave fronts are
converted to curved wave fronts as
they are slowed by the shallow
water.
 Then they are curved even more as
they re-enter the deeper water and
the speed increases again (figure Figure 6.8
6.7).
Example 2
Figure 6.9 shows straight waves incident on
a diverging lens placed in a ripple tank to
reduce its depth.

Figure 6.9
Figure 6.7
Complete the diagram to show the waves in
both the shallow region and beyond the lens.
(2 marks)

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(b) Refraction in Sound

 Sound also undergoes refraction.
 One of the effects of this property is
the increased range of sound at night
Figure 6.11
as compared to daytime.
 Thus, distant sounds are louder and
(i) Refraction of sound waves on a hot day.
clearer at night.
 During the day, the layer of air close
to the ground is much warmer and
4. Diffraction of Waves
less dense than the air higher above.
 Diffraction refers to the spreading of
The warmer air therefore rises
waves round corners and edges of
upwards.
obstacles and when the wave passes
 When sound waves are produced
through a slit (or aperture).
from a source close to the ground,
 Diffraction is common to all waves
the lower parts of the wave fronts
(water, sound and light waves).
move faster than the upper parts due
to a higher temperature in the bottom
(a) Diffraction of Water waves
layers.
This can be demonstrated using a ripple
 This difference in velocity causes a tank.
change in direction of travel of the
wave (figure 6.10). (i) Diffraction of straight water waves
round an obstacle.
This is illustrated in figures 6.12 (i) and (ii)
below.

Figure 6.10

(ii) Refraction of sound waves at night.

 As the land cools during the night,
the layers of air close to the ground
become cooler and denser than those
above.
 Sound waves coming from a source
close to the ground are therefore
refracted downwards (figure 6.11).

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Figure 6.12
Note:
When straight waves pass over an obstacle,
they emerge almost straight apart from a
slight curvature at the edges.

(ii) Diffraction of straight water waves

through an aperture.
The aperture is created by placing two metal
barriers in a ripple tank so that they are
perpendicular to the direction of the waves. Figure 6.14

(I) Wide aperture  The wave fronts spread out round the
When the aperture between the two metal edges of the aperture in all
barriers is wide compared to the wavelength directions.
of the waves, the waves pass through almost  The waves are said to be diffracted at
straight apart from a slight curvature at the the aperture.
edges (figure 6.13).
Example 3
Figure 6.15 shows water waves of different
wavelengths incident on identical apertures
A and B.

Figure 6.13

(II) Narrow aperture

 When the width of the aperture is
nearly equal to the wavelength of the
waves, the wave fronts emerge as
circular waves (figure 6.14).

Figure 6.15

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Complete the diagrams to show the pattern 5. Interference of Waves

of the waves beyond the aperture in each  Interference occurs when two or
case. (1 mark) more waves of the same frequency
merge (or overlap).
(b) Diffraction of Sound Waves  The result can be a wave with a
 Sound waves from a loudspeaker in a bigger amplitude or a wave smaller
room, for example, can be heard amplitude or a wave with zero
round a corner without the source amplitude.
being seen.  Interference is an import of the
 The waves are diffracted as they pass principle of superposition.
through the door or windows.  The principle of superposition
 This shows that the wavelength of states that the resultant effect of
sound is comparable to the width of two waves travelling at a given
the door or the window. point in the same medium is the
vector sum of their respective
displacements.
 Interference can either be
constructive or destructive.

(a) Constructive Interference

It occurs when the amplitude of the
Figure 6.16 resulting wave is bigger than the amplitude
of the individual waves after overlapping
(c) Diffraction of Light Waves (figure 6.18)
 Light waves have very short
wavelength compared to water or
sound waves.
 For this reason, diffraction of light
waves is not a common phenomenon
in everyday life.

Figure 6.18

(b) Destructive Interference

Figure 6.17  It occurs when the amplitude of the
resulting pulses is smaller than the
amplitude of the individual pulses.

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 If the resulting pulse has zero  The bright lines show the regions
amplitude, then the pulses are said to where the waves from both sources
have undergone complete interfere constructively, while dark
destructive interference (figure lines show regions of destructive
6.19) interference.
 The lines drawn through the regions
of constructive interference are
called antinodal lines while the lines
drawn through the regions of
destructive interference are called
nodal lines.
 Figure 6.20 illustrates interference
in water.
Figure 6.19

Note:
Interference occurs in water, in sound and in
light

(i) Interference in Water

 This is done using a ripple tank in
which two spherical dippers disturb
the water equally, thus acting as
Figure 6.20
coherent sources.
 Coherent sources that produce
(ii) Interference in Sound
waves having:
Interference in sound can be demonstrated
(i) the same frequency or wavelength,
by connecting two loudspeakers in parallel
(ii) equal or comparable amplitudes,
to an audio-frequency generator (figure
(iii) a constant phase difference.
6.21).

Observations
Alternate dark and radial lines are seen on
the white screen placed under the ripple
tank.

Explanation
 The alternate dark and radial lines
show interference of water waves.
Figure 6.21

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 An observer moving along the line One observer walks along line OO’ while
XY experiences alternate loud sound another one walks along line AA’ for some
at C and soft sound at D. distance. Describe the observations made by
 C is a region of constructive each observer and give reasons for your
interference while D is a region of answer. (4 marks)
destructive interference. Along AA’:
 An observer moving along CO He hears loud and soft sound. The loud
(perpendicular bisector of the line sound is as a result of constructive
connecting the two loudspeakers A interference while the soft sound is as a
and B) will hear a loud sound all result of destructive interference.
through. Along OO’:
 CO is the locus of points He hears constant loud as a result of
equidistant from the two sources. constructive interference in which the
Hence the path difference is zero. path difference is zero.
Note:
(i) If the loudspeakers are connected to the Example 5
signal generator such that the waves of one Figure 6.23 shows two speakers S1 and S2
are exactly out of phase with those from the which produce sound of the same frequency.
other, then points along the middle line They are placed equidistant from a line AB
between the speakers would be positions of and a line PQ. (PQ is perpendicular to line
destructive interference, hence soft sound. AB)
(ii) Connection of the two loudspeakers to
the same audio-frequency generator makes
them satisfy the condition of being coherent
sources.
(iii) If the frequency of the signal is
increased, then the points of constructive
interference along the line XY will become
more closely spaced and in the same way
those of destructive interference.

Example 4
Figure 6.22 shows two loudspeakers L1 and Figure 6.23
L2 connected to a signal generator.
(a) A student walking from A to B hears
alternating loud and soft sounds. Explain
why at some point the sound heard is soft.
(2 mks)
This is due to destructive interference of
sound waves where a crest of one wave
Figure 6.22 meets a trough of another wave.

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(b) The student now walks along line PQ.  A series of alternate bright and
State with reason the nature of the sound the dark bands (interference fringes)
student hears. (3 marks) are formed on the screen.
He hears loud sound all through. This is  The interference fringes (or bands)
because PQ is the locus of the points are equally spaced.
equidistant from the two sources where
the path difference is zero and Ray Geometry of Young’s Experiment
constructive interference occurs all  Figure 6.25 illustrates a ray diagram
through. of the formation of bright and dark
fringes (Young‟s experiment)
(iii) Interference in Light
 Interference of light waves is
demonstrated using the Young‟s
double slit experiment.
 Figure 6.24 demonstrates
interference of light waves.

Figure 6.25

 If we consider a point C on the

perpendicular bisector of S1S2, then
the waves travelling along the rays
S1C and S2C have travelled equal
Figure 6.24 distances and thus the path
difference is zero. Hence, they will
 A single slit S is placed in front of a
arrive in phase and interfere
monochromatic light source.
constructively to make C the centre
 Since the slit is narrow, it diffracts of a bright fringe.
light that falls on it, thus illuminating  The next bright fringe is at A, where
both slits S1 and S2 which are very
the path S2A is one wavelength
narrow, very close together and
longer than S1A. Once more, the
parallel to slit S. waves are in phase, making A the
 S1 and S2 diffract the light which centre of a bright fringe. Path
once more spreads out, superposing difference = one wavelength.
in the shaded regions.( S1 and S2 are
considered as coherent sources of
light)

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 Similarly, B is the centre of a bright (a) State the function of the double slit.
fringe where the path difference (1 mark)
between S2B and S1B is two It provides coherent sources of light
waves.
wavelengths.
 Subsequent bright fringes will be (b) Describe what is observed on the screen.
formed where the path differences (2 mks)
are three, four, etc, wavelengths. Dark and bright fringes.
 The same explanation applies to the
bright fringes formed on the side The central fringe is the brightest while
the intensity of the other fringes reduce
opposite C, namely, at A1, B1, and so
away from the central fringe.
on.
Note: (c) State what is observed on the screen
 In between the bright fringes at when:
points P, Q, P1, Q1 and so on, we get (i) The slit separation S1S2 is reduced.
the dark fringes (not shown on the (1 mk)
diagram). The separation distance of the fringes
 The centres of the dark fringes will increase.
be situated where he wave paths (ii) White light source is used in place of
differ in length by 0.5, 1.5, 2.5, and monochromatic source. (1 mark)
so on, i.e., where the path difference The central fringe is white while the
is an odd number of half- fringes on either side are coloured.
wavelengths.
Summary Example 7
(i) Bright fringes occur at whole number Figure 6.27 shows an experimental
multiples of the wavelength. arrangement for determining the wavelength
(ii) Dark fringes occur at half multiples of of light.
the wavelength.

Example 6
Figure 6.26 shows an experimental
arrangement to observe interference of light
waves in which a double slit is placed close
to the source of light.
Figure 6.27

State and explain the difference in the

patterns observed on the screen other than
the difference in colour when the source of
red light is replaced by a source of violet
Figure 6.26 light. (2 marks)

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The fringes will be closer together (c) State and explain what would be
because violet light has a shorter observed on the screen if the slits X and Y
wavelength than red light. were made larger. (2 marks)
There will be no interference pattern
Example 8 because no diffraction takes place.
In the Young‟s double slit experiment, an
interference pattern of bright and dark STATIONARY WAVES
fringes was formed as shown in figure 6.28  A stationary or a standing wave is
by a light of wavelength λ coming from two formed when two equal progressive
narrow slits X and Y. waves travelling in opposite
directions are superposed on each
other.
 Figure 6.29 shows two
loudspeakers, A and B, connected to
the same audio-frequency generator
and hence produce waves of the
same frequency and amplitude.

Figure 6.28
Figure 6.29
(a) Write an expression for the path
difference between XP and YP, where P  As the waves interfere in the region
corresponds to the 2nd bright fringe. between the two loudspeakers, a
(1 mark) stationary wave is set up.
 When a stringed instrument is
YP – XP = 2λ
played, a transverse wave travels
along the string. At the fixed ends of
(b) Explain how the dark and bright fringes the string, the wave is reflected back
are formed. (2 marks) (figure 6.30).
Dark fringes are formed as a result of
destructive interference when a crest of
one wave and a trough of another wave
arrive at the same point at the same time.
Bright fringes are formed as a result of
constructive interference when a crest of
Figure 6.30
one wave and a crest of another wave (or
a trough of one wave and a trough of  The two waves travelling in opposite
another wave) arrive at a point in phase. directions along the string combine
(or superpose) to form a stationary
wave.

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Conditions for Formation of Stationary (iv) The amplitudes The amplitude of

Waves of particles any two particles
For two progressive waves travelling in between which are in phase
opposite directions to form a stationary is the same.
successive nodes
wave, they must have the: is different.
(i) Same speed,
(ii) Same frequency,
(iii) Same or nearly equal amplitudes.

Properties of a Stationary Wave

(i) It is produced by superposition of two
waves of the same speed, same frequency
and approximately equal amplitude
travelling in opposite directions.

Differences Between Stationary and

Progressive Waves

Table 1
Stationary Progressive
Waves Waves
(i) The waveforms The waveforms
do not move move through the
through the medium away from
medium and its source and
therefore energy therefore energy is
is not transferred transferred from
from the source the source to some
to some point point away.
away.
(ii) The distance The distance
between between successive
successive nodes troughs or crests is
or antinodes is λ
λ
(iii) Vibrations of Phases of particles
particles at near each other are
points between different.
successive nodes
are in phase.

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Chapter 7

ELECTROSTATICS (II)
 Electric field is represented by
Specific Objectives: electric field lines along which the
By the end of this topic, the learner should electrostatic forces act.
be able to:  The direction of an electric field at
(a) sketch electric field patterns around a point is defined as the direction in
charged bodies which a positively charged particle
(b) describe charge distribution on would move if placed at that point.
conductors of various shapes
(c) define capacitance and state its SI unit Properties of Electric Fields Lines
(d) describe charging and discharging of a (i) They are directed away from a positive
capacitor (calculation involving curves not charge and towards the negative charge
required) [figure 7.1 (a) and (b)].
(e) state the factors affecting the
capacitance of a parallel plate capacitor
(f) state the applications of capacitors
(g) solve numerical problems involving
capacitors.

Forces between Charged Bodies

The force of attraction or repulsion between
charged bodies depends on the:
(a) Amount of charges on the two bodies.
The force increases with the increase in the
amount of charges on the two bodies.
(b) Distance of separation between the two
charged bodies.
The force increases with decrease in the
separation distance between the two charged
bodies.
Figure 7.1
Electric Field Patterns
 Electric field refers to the space (ii) They do not cross one another.
around a charged body where the (iii) They are parallel at a uniform field,
force of attraction or repulsion is widely spaced at weak fields and closely
felt. arranged at strong fields.



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 Figure 7.2 (a), (b) and (c) shows

electric field patterns around
charged particles close together.

Figure 7.2

 Figure 7.3 (a), (b), (c) and (d) shows

electric field patterns for different
charged metal plates (electrodes). Figure 7.3

CHARGE DISTRIBUTION ON
THE SURFACE OF A
CONDUCTOR
 Charge distribution can be
demonstrated using spherical and
pear-shaped conductors.
 When charges are introduced on a
spherical conductor placed on an
insulator, they become evenly
distributed on the surface [figure 7.4
(a)].

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(ii) The pear-shaped conductor discharges

faster than the spherical one because the
high concentration of charge at the sharp
curvature causes charge leakage.
(iii) When charges are introduced on the
inner surface of a hollow conductor, they all
reside on the outer surface of the conductor
(figure 7.6).

 However, when charges are

introduced on a pear-shaped
conductor placed on an insulator,
they become concentrated on the
sharp curvature [figure 7.4 (b)].

Figure 7.6

Charges on Sharp Points

 Charge distribution on sharp points
is extremely high.
 This can be demonstrated using a
thin wire connected to a charge
Figure 7.4 generator and placed a short distance
away from a candle flame (figure
 Figure 5 shows the charge 7.7).
distribution for a cuboid.

Figure 7.5
Figure 7.7
Note:
(i) Sharp points have a higher concentration
of charge.

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Observation Explanation
The candle flame is diverted as if there was  Negative ions in the flame are
wind emanating from the wire. This attracted towards the positively
phenomenon is known as the „electric charged wire, diverting part of the
wind.‟ flame towards it. At the same time,
positive charges are repelled away
from it, diverting part of the flame.
Explanation
The flame is therefore split into two
 If the charge on the wire is positive, directions.
then the high concentration of
positive charges at the sharp point of Conclusion
the wire causes ionization of the A flame contains both positive and negative
surrounding air to produce negative ions.
and positive ions.
Application of Action of Highly Charged
 The negative ions are attracted Points
towards the positively charged Lightning Arrestor (Conductor)
conductor while the positive ions are  Lightning refers to the occurrence of
repelled and drift towards the flame, a natural electric discharge of very
forming an electric wind (figure short duration and very high voltage
7.8). (about 109 V) between the earth and
a highly charged cloud or within a
cloud accompanied by a bright flash
and thunder.
 It can cause destruction to buildings
and any other objects standing on the
surface of the earth.
 To save buildings from being struck
Figure 7.8 by lightning, a lightning arrestor is
used.
Note:
 A lightning arrestor comprises of a
 If the positively charged wire is
thick copper strip with sharp spikes
bought very close to the flame, the
at the top. It is fixed vertically along
flame splits into two directions
the wall such that the spikes protrude
(figure 7.9).
above the building. The copper strip
is connected to a large thick copper
plate buried very deep into the earth
(figure 7.10).

Figure 7.9

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 SUMMARIZED PHYSICS FORM 3 NOTES

potential difference (about 109 V)

between the cloud and the earth.
 When a negatively charged cloud
passes over the lightning arrestor, the
spikes become positively charged by
induction and the thick earthed
copper plate negatively.
 The negative charge on the earthed
plate is immediately dissipated into
the surrounding earth. At the same
time, the air between the positively
charged spikes and the negatively
charged clouds become ionized.
Negative ions are attracted to the
spikes and become discharged by
giving up their electrons, which flow
through the copper strip and escape
to the earth. At the same time, the
positive ions are repelled upwards
from the spikes and spread out to
form what is called a space charge.
This space charge, however, has a
negligible effect in neutralizing the
Figure 7.10 negative charge on the cloud.
 It provides a safe path for electrons
to flow easily in large quantities Note:
from the top of the building to the  Without the protection of a lightning
earth. conductor, the lightning usually
 Movements of clouds in the strikes the highest point such as a
atmosphere produce large quantities chimney, and the current passes to
of static charges due to friction with the earth through the path of least
air. resistance.
 Thunderclouds contain a large  Considerable amount of heat is
quantity of negative charge on their generated by the passage of the
underside and positive charge on current, and masonry tends to split
their tops. open through the sudden expansion
 The negative charge on the cloud of steam from the moisture contained
induces large positive charge on the in it almost explosively and causes
earth, producing a very high electric great structural damage.

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 Sometimes, the current has been these points to move in opposite direction
known to find a path through the due to reaction force.
soot inside a chimney, and to set it
on fire. CAPACITORS
 A flash of lightning can heat the  A capacitor is a device used for
surrounding air momentarily to about storing charge.
30 0000C.  It consists of two or more plates
 Lightning that strikes the earth separated by either a vacuum or an
consists of one or more discharge insulating material medium (figure
called strokes. 7.12).
 The bright light that we see in a
lightning flash is the return stroke.
 The heat of the return stroke causes
an increase in the pressure and
temperature of the air. Thus, the air
expands so rapidly and vibrates
creating a sound wave called
thunder.
Figure 7.12
Example 1
Figure 7.11 shows a “windmill” which  The material medium is called the
when connected to the dome of a positively dielectric.
charged Van de Graff generator is observed  The dielectric can be air, plastic or
to rotate as indicated. A, B, C and D are glass.
sharp points.  Figure 7.13 shows the circuit
symbol for a parallel plate capacitor.

Figure 7.11 Figure 7.13

Explain how this rotation is caused.
(3 marks)  Capacitors are used in electric
Point action takes place at sharp points A, circuits for various purposes.
B, C and D. Charge concentrates at these  Different types of capacitors have
sharp points causing a high potential different dielectric, depending on
difference that ionizes the surrounding their use.
air. The positive ions are repelled causing

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Types of Capacitors Table 1

 There are three main types of Time, t 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
capacitors, namely: (s)
(a) Paper capacitors. Current,
(b) Electrolytic capacitors. I (mA)
(c) Variable air capacitors Voltage,
V (V)
Charging and Discharging Capacitors
(a) Charging a Capacitor It (C)
 An uncharged capacitor has its two  Complete the table.
plates with neither a surplus nor a
 Plot the following graphs:
deficiency of electrons and no
(i) Current, I (mA) against time, t(s).
potential difference between them.
(ii) Charge, Q = It (C) against time, t(s).
Experiment 1: To charge a capacitor (iii) Potential difference, V (V) against time,
t(s)
Apparatus
Observation 1
An uncharged 500 μF capacitor, 6.0 V
 The charging current is initially high
battery, variable resistor (100 -10, 000 Ω),
but gradually reduces to zero.
voltmeter, centre-zero milliammeter, switch,
stopwatch, connecting wires.  The graph of Current, I (mA) against
time, t(s) is a smooth curve (figure
7.15).

Figure 7.14

Procedure
 Set up the circuit as shown in figure
Figure 7.15
7.14.
 Close the switch and record the
values of current at equal time
intervals. Explanation
 Tabulate your results as shown in  When the capacitor is connected to
table 1 below. the battery, negative charges flow
from the negative terminal of the

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battery to plate B of the capacitor the capacitor will be seen to be the

connected to it. same as the battery voltage.
 At the same rate, negative charges  The graph potential difference, V (V)
flow from plate A of the capacitor against time, t(s) is a smooth curve
towards the positive terminal of the (figure 7.17).
battery.
 For this reason, equal positive and
negative charges appear on the plates
and oppose the flow of electrons
which causes them.
 The charging current reduces to zero
when the capacitor is fully charged.

Observation 2
 The charge, Q = It, increase with
Figure 7.17
time and becomes a maximum when
the capacitor is fully charged.
Example 2
 The graph of charge, Q (C) against
(a) Figure 7.18 shows a circuit that may be
time, t(s) is a smooth curve (figure
used to charge a capacitor.
7.16).

Figure 7.18
Figure 7.16
(i) State the observation on the milliammeter
Observation 3 when the circuit is switched on. (1 mark)
 During charging, potential difference It deflects to maximum then falls back to
also develops across the plates of the zero.
capacitor as indicated by the
voltmeter. (ii) Explain the observation in (i) above.
 As charge increases, the p.d. between (2 marks)
the two plates also increases. Electric current flows when the capacitor
 When the charging current reduces is charging. When fully charged, no
to zero, the p.d. between the plates of current flows and the potential difference
(p.d.) is equal to the charging voltage.

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(b) The circuit in figure 7.18 is left on for (ii) The voltmeter. (1 mark)
duration of time. State the value of potential The voltage increases from zero to
difference (p.d.) across the: maximum.
(i) Resistor R; (1 mark)
VR = 0 Volts (b) Explain how the capacitor gets charged.
(3 marks)
(ii) Capacitor C. (1 mark) The negative charge flows from the
VC = 5 Volts negative terminal of the battery plate
connected to it. At the same rate, the
(c) Sketch the graph of potential difference negative charge flows from the other plate
V across R against time. (1 mark) of the capacitor towards the positive
terminal of the battery. A potential
difference is therefore set on the plates.

(c) State the purpose of the resistor R. (1mk)

mark)
It is used to create a potential difference
in the circuit causing the flow of electric
current.
Figure 7.19
(d) On the axes provided, sketch the graph
Example 3 of voltage (V) against time (t). (2 marks)
Figure 7.20 shows the circuit used to charge
a capacitor C.

Figure 7.21

Figure 7.20
(b) Discharging a Charged Capacitor
(a) State what would be observed on the
Experiment 2: To discharge a charged
following when the switch is closed:
capacitor
(i) The milliammeter; (1 mark)
It deflects to maximum then falls back to Apparatus
zero.

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A charged capacitor, fixed resistor R, Observation 1

voltmeter, centre-zero milliammeter, switch,  The centre-zero milliammeter
stopwatch, connecting wires. deflects in the direction opposite to
that during charging.
 The centre-zero milliammeter
reading is seen to reduce from a
maximum value to a minimum value.
 The graph of Current, I (mA) against
time, t(s) is a smooth curve (figure
7.23).

Figure 7.22

Procedure
 Set up the circuit as shown figure
7.22.
 Close the switch and record the
values of current at equal time
intervals.
 Tabulate your results as shown in Figure 7.23
table 2 below.
Table 2 Explanation
Time, t 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 During discharging, the charges flow
(s) in the opposite direction, from the
Current, plate B to A until the positive
I (mA) charges on A are neutralized. This
Voltage, goes on for some time until the
V (V) charge on the plates is zero.
 When the charge on the plates is
It (C) zero, the capacitor is said to be
discharged through the resistor, R.
 Complete the table.
Observation 2
 Plot the following graphs:
 The charge, Q = It, decreases with
(i) Current, I (mA) against time, t(s).
time and becomes a minimum when
(ii) Charge, Q = It (C) against time, t(s).
the capacitor is fully discharged.
(iii) Potential difference, V (V) against time,
t(s)

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 The graph of charge, Q (C) against CAPACITANCE

time, t(s) is a smooth curve (figure  The capacitance of a capacitor is
7.24). defined as the charge stored per
unit voltage.
 Capacitance C = , where:
Q = Charge in coulombs
V = potential difference (voltage) in volts
 It follows that: Q = CV and
V= .

The SI unit of capacitance is the
farad (F).
Figure 7.24
 Smaller units of the farad are the
microfarad (μF), nanofarad (nF) and
Observation 3
picofarad (pF).
 During discharging, the p.d. across
1 μF = 10⁻6F
the plates of the capacitor practically
diminishes to zero. 1 nF = 10⁻9F
 The graph potential difference, V (V) 1 pF = 10⁻12F
against time, t(s) is a smooth curve
(figure 7.25).
Factors Affecting the Capacitance
of a Parallel-plate Capacitor

1. The area, A of overlap of the plates.

Capacitance is directly proportional to the
area of overlap of the plates, i.e., C A
2. The distance, d of separation of the
plates.
Capacitance is inversely proportional to the
distance of separation of the plates, i.e., C
Figure 7.25
Note:
Charged capacitors do not hold their charge
3. The nature of the dielectric.
forever. When a charged capacitor is
 Dielectrics increase the capacitance
removed from a circuit, its charge gradually
of a capacitor by various amounts.
leaks away because the dielectric is not a
perfect insulator.  The number of times that the
capacitance is increased by a
particular dielectric is a property of

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that material known as its dielectric Q = CV

constant, or relative permittivity Q = 5.9 X 10⁻12 X 100
denoted by (epsilon). If the plates Q = 5.9 X 10⁻10 C
are in vacuum, the relative
permittivity is denoted by (epsilon Example 5
nought). Calculate the distance of separation between
 The value of is about two plates in a parallel-plate capacitor if the
8.854 x 10⁻12 farads per metre i.e., capacitance between them is 4 x 10⁻12 F and
= 8.854 x 10⁻12 Fm⁻1. the enclosed area is 2.0 cm2.
( = 8.85 x 10⁻12 Fm⁻1).
 The three factors are related Solution
mathematically as follows: C= ⇒d=
C ⁻ ⁻
d= ⁻
So, C = d = 4.425 x 10 m ⁻4

But in vacuum, relative permittivity =

Example 6
Thus, C = Figure 7.26 shows a voltmeter connected
across two charged parallel plates.
Note:
The dielectric chosen must;
(a) Be a good insulator.
(b) Have a high dielectric constant.

Example 4
Two plates of a parallel-plate capacitor are
0.6 mm apart and each has an area of 4 cm2.
Given that the potential difference between
the plates is 100 V and ( = 8.85 x 10⁻12
Fm⁻1), calculate: Figure 7.26
(a) Its capacitance.
Solution
C=
When a thin sheet of mica is inserted
⁻ ⁻
C= between the plates, the voltmeter reading is
⁻
observed to reduce. Explain this
C = 5.9 x 10⁻12 Fm⁻1 observation. (3 marks)
The mica increases capacitance, C. Since
(b) The charge stored in the capacitor.
V = , and Q is constant, a lower potential

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difference, V, is experienced, hence  Therefore;

reduced voltmeter reading.
=
Example 7
 Factorizing the right hand side gives:
State the effect of decreasing the distance
between the plates of a parallel plate =Q( )
capacitor on the capacitance. (1 mark)
The capacitance increases.  Dividing both sides by Q gives:

Capacitors Networks =
Just like resistors, capacitors can be
connected either in series or in parallel in a Note:
circuit. (i) The equivalent capacitance is lower than
(a) Capacitors Connected in Series any of the individual capacitors.
 Consider figure 7.27 in which the (ii)This relationship applies to any number,
three capacitors C1, C2 and C3 are n of capacitors connected in series.
connected in series to a voltage
supply, V. Special case of Two Capacitors connected
in Series
 If only two capacitors are in series,
then;
=

Figure 7.27  Hence;

C=
 There is equal distribution of charge
on the plates.
 Hence, Q1 = Q2 = Q3 = Q. Example 8
Figure 7.28 shows three capacitors of
 The p.d. across each of the resistors
capacitance1.5 μF, 2 μF and 3 μF are
will be given by:
connected to a voltage supply of 12.0 V.
 V1 = , V2 = and V3 =
 But, V = V1 + V2 + V3
 The p.d. across the voltage supply is
given by: V =

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Figure 7.29

Figure 7.28 Determine the:

(a) Effective capacitance.
Calculate the: Solution
(a) Combined capacitance. CE =
Solution
CE =
=
CE =
=
CE = 2 μF
Therefore, CC = 0.6667 μF
(b) Quantity of charge in capacitor A.
(b) Total voltage. QA = CEV
Q = CV QA = 2 x 10⁻6 x 4
Q= x 10⁻6 x 12 QA = 8 x 10⁻6 C

Q = 8 x 10⁻6 F or 8 μF (c) Quantity of charge in capacitor B.

QB = QA = Q = 8 x 10⁻6 C
(c) Charge on each capacitor.
C1 = C2 = C3 = 8 μF (b) Capacitors Connected in Parallel
 Figure 7.30 shows three capacitors
(d) Voltage across the 2 μF capacitor. C1, C2 and C3 connected in parallel
V2 = across the voltage supply, V.

V2 =
V2 = 4 V

Example 9
Figure 7.29 shows two capacitors A and B
connected in series with a battery of e.m.f.
4V.

Figure 7.30

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 SUMMARIZED PHYSICS FORM 3 NOTES

 All the three capacitors have the Solution

same p.d. across them. CE = 2 + 3 = 5 μF
 Let Q1, Q2 and Q3 be the charges on
capacitors C1, C2 and C3 (b) P.d across AB given that the total charge
respectively. in the capacitors is 1 x 10⁻4 coulombs.
 Then, the total charge, V=
Q = Q1 + Q2 + Q3. ⁻
V=
 But Q1 = C1V Q2 = C2V, Q3 = C3V ⁻

V = 20 V
and Q =CV
 Therefore, CV = C1V + C2V + C3V (c) Capacitors in a Series and Parallel
 Factorizing the right hand side gives: Arrangement
CV = V(C1 + C2 + C3) To find the effective capacitance of a series
– parallel arrangement, the network is
 Dividing both sides by V gives:
systematically reduced into a single
C = C1 + C2 + C3 capacitor.

Example 11
Note: Figure 7.32 shows part of a circuit
(i) The equivalent capacitance is higher than
containing three capacitors of capacitance
any of the individual capacitors.
3 μF, 4 μF and 5 μF respectively.
(ii)This relationship applies to any number,
n of capacitors connected in parallel.

Example 10
Figure 7.31 shows part of a circuit
containing two capacitors of 2 μF and 3 μF
respectively.
Figure 7.32

Calculate the effective capacitance.

Solution
The 4 μF and 5 μF capacitors are in
parallel.
Combined capacitance, CC = 4 + 5 = 9 μF
The 9 μF and 3 μF are now in series.
Figure 7.31
Effective capacitance, CE =
Calculate the: CE =
(a) Effective capacitance.
CE = 2.25 μF

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Example 12 (ii) 2 μF and 4 μF capacitors

Figure 7.33 shows an electrical circuit with VA = VB = 100 – 66.67 = 33.33 V
three capacitors A, B and C of capacitance
2 μF, 4 μF and 3 μF respectively connected (d) Charge on each of the capacitors.
to a 100 V battery. (i) 3 μF capacitor
Charge, QC = 2.0 x 10⁻4 C

(ii) 2 μF capacitor
QA = CAVA
QA = 2 x 10⁻6 x 33.33
QA = 6.666 x 10⁻5 C

(iii) 4 μF capacitor
QB = CBVB
Figure 7.33 QB = 4 x 10⁻6 x 33.33
QB = 1.3332 x 10⁻4 C
Calculate the:
(a) Combined capacitance. Example 13
Solution Figure 7.34 shows three capacitors
Capacitors A and B are in parallel. connected to a 10 V battery.
Effective capacitance = 2 + 4= 6 μF
The 6 μF and 3 μF are now in series.
Combined capacitance, CC =

CC =
CC = 2 μF

(b) Total charge flowing through the circuit.

Q = CV
Figure 7.34
Q = 2 x 10⁻6 x 100
Q = 2.0 x 10⁻4 C
Calculate the:
(a) Combined capacitance of the three
(c) P.d. across each of the capacitors
capacitors; (3 marks)
(i) 3 μF capacitor.
VC = Solution
⁻
Series capacitance, CS = =
VC = ⁻
CS = 2.222 F.
VC = 66. 67 V
Combined capacitance, CC = 3 + 2.222

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CC = 5.222 F or V = 0.25 11
CC = 5.222 10⁻6 F V = 2.75 V
Charge, Q = CV
Q = 1.4 2.75
(b) Charge on the 5.0 F. (3 marks)
Q = 3.85 C
Q = CV
Q = 2.222 10
Energy Stored in a Capacitor
Q = 22.22 C or
 When a capacitor is being charged,
Q = 2.222 10⁻5 C
the addition of extra electrons to the
negatively charged plate involves
Example 14
doing work against the repulsive
In a circuit diagram shown in figure 7.35,
forces of the electrons that are
each cell has an e.m.f. of 1.5 V and internal
already there.
resistance of 0.5 Ω. The capacitance of each
 Similarly, the removal of electrons
capacitor is 1.4 F.
from the positively charged plate
require that work be done against the
attractive forces of the positive
charges on that plate.
 This work done is stored in form of
electrical potential energy.
 This energy may be converted to
heat, light or other forms.
 Figure 7.36 shows a graph of
potential difference, V against
Figure 7.35 charge, Q for a charging capacitor.

When the switch S is closed, determine the:

(a) Ammeter reading; (3 marks)
Total resistance, R = 6 + 5 + 0.5 + 0.5
R = 12.0 Ω
Total voltage, VT = 1.5 + 1.5
VT = 3.0 V

Total current, I =

I= Figure 7.36

I = 0.25 A
 It is a straight line passing through
the origin.
(b) Charge on each capacitor. (3 mks)
 The area of ∆ OAB = QV
Voltage across each capacitor, V = IR

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 But QV = work done in moving a 2. Reduction of Sparking in Induction Coil

charge Q through a p.d. of V volts. Contact.
 Work done, W = energy stored in A capacitor is included in the primary circuit
a capacitor. of the induction coil to eliminate sparking at
W = average charge x potential the contacts.
difference.
3. In Tuning Circuits
 W = QV
 In the tuning circuit of a radio
 From Q = CV, other expressions for receiver, a variable capacitor is
the energy stored are: connected in parallel to an inductor.
 When the capacitance of the variable
W= C =
capacitor is varied, the electrical
oscillations between the capacitor
Note: and the inductor changes.
Gradient (Slope) =  If the frequency of the oscillations is
equal to the frequency of the radio
signal at the aerial of the radio, that
Example 15
signal is received.
A 2 μF capacitor is charged to a p.d. of 120
V. Calculate the energy stored in it.
4. In Delay Circuits
Solution
Capacitors are used in delay circuits
W = QV designed to give intermittent flow of current
Q = CV in car indicators.
Therefore, W = C
5. In Camera Flash
⁻
W=  A capacitor is included in a flash
W = 1.44 x 10⁻2 J circuit of a camera.
 It is easily charged by a cell in the
Applications of Capacitors circuit.
Some of the applications are: When in use, the capacitor discharges
1. Rectification (Smoothing Circuits) instantly to flash
 When converting a.c. to d.c. using a
diode, d.c. voltages appear varying
from minimum to maximum value.
 To maintain a high d.c. voltage,
capacitors are included in the circuit.

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CHAPTER 8

HEATING EFFECT OF AN
ELECTRIC CURRENT
 Feel the temperature of the coil and
Specific Objectives other parts of the circuit when the
By the end of this topic, the learner should circuit is open.
be able to:  Close the switch.
(a) perform and describe experiments to  After sometime, say 2 minutes feel
illustrate heating effect of an electric the temperature of the coil and other
current. parts of the circuit after some time.
(b) state the factors affecting heating by  Increase the amount of current
electric current flowing through the coil and feel the
(c) derive the equations for electrical temperature of the coil after
energy and electrical power sometime.
(d) identify devices in which heating effect  Switch off the circuit.
of an electric current is applied
Observation
(e) solve numerical problems involving
 When the switch is open, the coil and
electrical energy and electrical power.
the other parts of the circuit feels
cold.
EXPERIMENT 8.1: To investigate the effect  When the switch is closed, the coil
of electric current a resistance wire (coil) feels warmer than the other parts of
the circuit.
Apparatus
A battery of four or more cells, connecting Explanation
wires, switch, thick copper wire, coil of  The work done by the battery to keep
resistance wire, variable resistor, stopwatch, the current flowing through the coil
ammeter. is much greater than the work needed
to keep the current flowing the low
resistance copper wire.
 The coil therefore gets warmer than
the other parts of the circuit.

Conclusion
Figure 8.1 Electric current produces heating effect in
the coil.
Procedure
 Set up the apparatus as shown in
figure 8.1.

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Factors Determining Heat Temperature

Produced by Electric Current change, θ (0C)
Time, t (s)
EXPERIMENT 8.2: To investigate the
factors that determine the heat produced by  Plot a graph of temperature change
an electric current against time.
Apparatus
A battery of six or more cells, paraffin in a Observation
boiling tube, connecting wires, switch, thick The graph of temperature against time at a
copper wire, four coils of different length constant resistance and current is a straight
resistance wire, ammeter, voltmeter, line passing through the origin (figure 8.3).
variable resistor, thermometer, switch,
stopwatch.

Figure 8.3

Conclusion
Figure 8.2 The amount of heat produced by an electric
current is directly proportional to the time
(a) Effect of Time taken.
Procedure
(b) Effect of Resistance (or length) of coil
 Set up the apparatus as shown in of wire
figure 8.2. Procedure
 Close the switch and feel the  Measure the length of resistance of
temperature of the coil. each coil.
 Using the variable resistor, adjust the  Using the same set-up in figure,
current flowing through the coil and adjust the variable resistor for a
suitable constant current.
feel the temperature of the coil after
 Record the temperature change after,
sometime, say 2 minutes. say, 10 minutes, and complete table
 Record your results in table 8.1. 8.2.

Table 8.1

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Table 8.2 Table 8.3

Temperature Temperature
change, θ (0C) change, θ (0C)
Resistance, R Current , I (A)
(Ω) I2
 Repeat with other coils recording  Repeat with four to six different
temperature change within the same constant values of current and same
time. heating time.
 Plot a graph of temperature change
 Plot a graph of temperature change
against the length (or resistance) of
against the square of the current.
the coil.

Observation Observation
The graph of temperature against length (or The graph of temperature against the square
resistance) at a constant current and time is a of the current at constant resistance and time
straight line passing through the origin is a straight line passing through the origin
(figure 8.4). (figure 8.5).

Figure 8.4
Figure 8.5
Conclusion
The amount of heat produced by an electric Conclusion
current is directly proportional to the The amount of heat produced by an electric
resistance (or length). current is directly proportional to the square
.of the current
(c) Effect of Electric Current
Procedure Summary
 Using the circuit in figure, adjust the
variable resistor to a suitable
constant low current.
H α I2Rt or H = I2Rt
 Record the temperature change for a
given time, say, 5 minutes.
 Record your results in table 8.3. Conclusion

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 The heating effect H produced by an The potential difference across a lamp is 12

electric current I flowing in a V. How many Joules of electrical energy are
conductor of resistance R in time t is converted to heat and light when:
given by the equation: (a) A charge of 5 coulombs passes through
H = I2Rt it?
Solution
 This equation is known as Joule’s
W = QV
law of electrical heating.
W = 5 x 12
 It states that the electrical energy
W = 60 J
developed in a wire is directly
proportional to: (b) A current of 2 A flows through the lamp
(a) The square of the current, I2 (for a given for 10 s?
resistance and time).
Solution
(b) The time, t (for a given resistance and
W = VIt
time).
W = 12 x 2 x 10
(c) The resistance, R of the wire (for a given
W = 240 J
current and time).
Example 3
Note: A heating coil providing 3 600 Jmin⁻1 is
From Ohm‟s law, V = IR ↔ I = and required when the p.d. across it is 24 V. The
area of cross section of the wire making the
R=
coil is 1 x 10⁻7 m2 and its resistivity is 1 x
Therefore H = I2Rt or 10⁻6 Ω m. Calculate the:
H= or (a) Resistance of the wire.
Solution
H = VIt Power, P = 3 600 Jmin⁻1 = 60 Js = 60 W

Example 1 P = VI =
An iron box has a resistance coil of 30 Ω
R=
and takes a current of 10 A. Calculate the
amount of heat in kilojoules (kJ) developed R= = 9.6 Ω
in 1 minute.
(b) Length of the wire making the coil.
Solution
Solution
H = I2Rt
R = 30 Ω, I = 10 A, t = 60 s R=ρ
H = 102 x 30 x 60
L=
H= 180,000J
H = 180 kJ ⁻
L= ⁻
= 0.96 m
Example 2 Electrical Energy and Power

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 The work done in pushing a charge I = 0.25 A

round an electrical circuit is given
by; But R =
W = VIt
R=
 So, = VI
R = 960 Ω
 But = Power (P)
Example 6
 Hence, electrical power is given by: Determine the maximum number of 100 W
P = VI ……….………………(1) bulbs that can be safely run from a 240 V
 From Ohm’s Law, V = IR ….(2) source supplying a current of 5 A.
 Substituting (2) in (1), P = I2R … (3) Solution
 Also, I = ……………………(4) P = VI
Total power, P = 240 x 5
 Substituting (4) in (3); P = … (5) P = 1 200 W.
 The SI unit for power is the watt Number of bulbs, n =
(W).
n = 12 bulbs
 1 W = 1Js⁻1
 A larger unit of power is the Exercise
kilowatt (kW). 1. When a current of 2.0 A flows in a
 1kW = 1 000 W resistor for 10 minutes, 15, 000 J of
electrical energy is dissipated. Determine the
Example 4 voltage across the resistor.
Calculate the current that a bulb rated 100 W
and designed for a mains supply of 250 V
draw when operating normally.
Solution
P = VI
P= 100W, V = 250V 2. An electric bulb rated 40 W is operating
100 = 250 x I 240 V mains. Determine the resistance of its
I = 0.40 A filament.

Example 5
A manufacturer rates an electric lamp at
60 W, 240 V. Determine its operating
resistance.
Solution 3. An electric heater rated 240 V, 3 000 W is
P = VI to be connected to a 240 V mains supply,
P = 60 W, V = 240 V.
60 = 240 x I

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through a 10 A fuse. Determine whether the IT = 18.26 A

fuse is suitable or not.
Applications of Heating Effect of
Electric Current
1. Electrical Lighting
(a) Filament Lamp
 The filament is made of tungsten
Example 7 metal owing to its very high melting
An electric iron box of resistance 50 Ω and
point (3 400 0C).
an electric indicator of resistance 6 000 Ω
 When the current flows through the
are connected in parallel to a 240 V mains
lamp filament, the filament heats up
supply. Determine the power dissipated in
to a high temperature and becomes
each of the two devices.
white hot.
Solution
 The filament is enclosed in a glass
Iron Box Indicator
bulb from which air has been
P= P= removed to prevent the oxidation of
the filament.
P= P=
 The bulb is filled with inactive gas
P = 1 152 W P = 9.6 W like argon and nitrogen to slow down
the rate of evaporation of the metal
Example 8 atoms from the filament wire and
A house has twenty 60 W bulbs, two 1 000 increase the life of the filament.
W electrical heaters and two 500 W security
lights. If the appliances are running on 230 (b) Fluorescent Lamps
V mains supply, calculate the:
 This is a low-pressure mercury –
(a) Total power in kW consumed when all
vapour gas-discharge lamp that uses
the appliances are switched on.
fluorescence to produce visible light
Solution (figure 8.6).
PT = (20 x 60) + (2 x 1 000) + (2 x 500) W
PT = 1 200 + 2 000 + 1 000
PT = 4 200 W
PT = 4.2 kW

(b) Total current drawn from the mains

Figure 8.6
supply.
Solution
 An electric current in the gas excites
P = VI
mercury vapour which produces
IT = short wavelength ultraviolet (UV)
radiations that then causes the
IT =

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phosphor coating on the inside of the  It melts and breaks the circuit when
lamp to glow. the current through it exceeds a
 The starter (which is simply a timed certain value, mainly due to „short‟
switch) allows current to flows circuits and overloading circuits.
through the filaments at the ends of  The melting and breaking of the fuse
the tube. saves the wiring from becoming hot
 The current causes the contacts of and causing fire.
the starter to heat up and open, thus  Figure 8.8 shows a typical fuse.
interrupting the flow of current. The
tube lights.
 When the lamp is switched on, the
mercury vapour
 These are far more efficient than
filament lamps and last much longer. Figure 8.8
 A 15 A fuse will blow out if a
2. Electrical Heating current of 15 A flows through a
(a) Heating Elements circuit.
 In domestic heating appliances such  The higher the rating of the fuse, the
as electric fires and cookers, the thicker the fuse wire used.
elements are made of nichrome wire
(an alloy of nickel and chromium)
(figure 8.7).

Figure 8.7

 Nichrome wire is not oxidized easily

(thus getting brittle) when electric
current heats it red hot.
(b) Fuses
 A fuse is a short length of wire (often
tinned copper) of material with low
melting point.

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CHAPTER 9

QUANTITY OF HEAT
Specific Objectives Apparatus
Water, glass beaker, Bunsen burner,
By the end of this topic, the learner should
thermometer, stopwatch, tripod stand, wire
be able to:
gauze.
(a) define heat capacity and specific heat
capacity
(b) determine experimentally specific heat
capacity of solids and liquids
(c) define specific latent heat of fusion and
specific latent heat of vaporization
(d) determine experimentally the specific
latent heat of fusion of ice and the specific
latent heat of vaporization of steam
(e) state the factors affecting melting point
and boiling point
(f) explain the functioning of a pressure Figure 9.1
cooker and a refrigerator
(g) solve numerical problems involving Procedure
quantity of heat.  Heat about 100 cm3 of water at room
temperature, as shown in figure 9.1.
Introduction  Record the time taken for the
 Heat is a form of energy that flows temperature to rise to about 60 0C.
from a body at a higher temperature  Pour out the water and cool the
to a body at a lower temperature. beaker to room temperature.
 The absorption of heat by a body  Repeat the experiment with about
results in rise of its temperature 150 cm3 of water in the beaker.
while loss of heat results in fall of  Record the time taken for the
temperature. temperature to rise to about 60 0C.

A. HEAT CAPACITY Observation

It takes a longer time for the larger volume
EXPERIMENT 9.1: To investigate the of water to attain the same temperature rise
relationship between the mass of a body and than for the smaller volume of water.
the quantity of heat required to cause a unit
temperature rise in it.

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Q = 460 x (45 – 15)

Explanation Q = 13 800 J
 The different volumes are heated B. SPECIFIC HEAT CAPACITY
from the same initial temperature  This is the quantity of heat energy
to final temperature. required to raise the temperature of
 The larger volume takes more a unit mass of a substance by one
time to attain the same Kelvin.
temperature change and hence  It is denoted by c.
absorbs more heat energy than  Specific heat capacity is heat
the smaller volume. capacity per unit mass.

Conclusion
Since the different volumes of water have c=
different masses, the quantity of heat energy
c=
required to cause a given temperature
change depends on its mass.
c=
Definition and SI unit of heat capacity:
c=
 Heat capacity is defined as the
quantity of heat energy required to
raise the temperature of a given Q = mc
mass of a substance by one degree 
The SI unit for s.h.c. is joule per
Celsius or one Kelvin. kilogram per Kelvin (Jkg⁻1K⁻1 or
 It is denoted by C. (J/kg/K).
 From the definitions of heat capacity
 Heat capacity C = and specific heat capacity, it follows
that for any given body;
Heat capacity, C = mass, m x specific heat
C= capacity, c
C = mc
 Its SI unit is joule per Kelvin
(JK⁻1). Note:
If two different substances of the same mass
Example 1 are subjected to the same amount of heat for
Calculate the quantity of heat required to the same period of time, they acquire
raise the temperature of a metal block with a different temperature changes.
heat capacity of 460 JK⁻1 from 15 0C to
45 0C. Example 2
Solution A block of metal of mass 1.5 kg which is
Q=Cx suitably insulated is heated from a

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temperature of 300C to 500C in 8 minutes Qh = 42 x 5 x 60

and 20 seconds by an electric heater coil Qh = 12 600 J
rated 54 W. Determine: Heat absorbed by water, Qw = mc
(a) The quantity of heat supplied by the Qw = 0.050 x 4 200 x
heater. Qw = 210
Solution Assuming no heater losses;
Quantity of heat supplied = Power x Time Heat supplied by the heater = Heat
Q = Pt absorbed by water
Q = 54 x 500 12 600 = 210
Q = 27 000 J 60 0C
Let the final temperature be T.
(b) The heat capacity of the block. Then = T – 20
C= 60 = T – 20
T = 60 + 20
C= T = 80 0C
C = 1 350 JK⁻1
C.DETERMINATION OF
(c) Its specific heat capacity. SPECIFIC HEAT CAPACITY
c=
1. Method of Mixtures
c=
(a) Solids
c = 900 Jkg⁻1K⁻1
EXPERIMENT 9.2: To determine the
specific heat capacity of a solid by the
Example 3
method of mixtures
A piece of copper of mass 60 g and s.h.c
390 Jkg⁻1K⁻1 cools from 90 0C to 40 0C.
Apparatus
Determine the quantity of heat given out.
Metal block, thread, beaker, water, tripod
Solution
stand, heat source, well-lagged calorimeter,
Q = mc
stirrer, thermometer, cardboard, weighing
Q = 0.060 x 390 x 50
machine.
Q = 1 170 J

Example 4
Find the final temperature of water if a
heater source rated 42 W heats 50 g of water
from 20 0C in five minutes. (s.h.c of water
is 4 200 Jkg⁻1K⁻1).
Solution
Heat supplied by the heater, Qh = power x
time

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beaker into the cold water in the

calorimeter.
 Cover the calorimeter with a piece of
cardboard, as in figure 9.2 (b).
 Stir the mixture and record the final
temperature.

Results and Calculations

Mass of solid block = ms
Mass of calorimeter and stirrer = mc
Mass of calorimeter with water = m1
Mass of water, mw = m1 - mc
Temperature of cold water in the calorimeter
= θ1
Temperature of boiling water in the beaker =
θ2
Final temperature of the mixture in the
calorimeter = θ3
Temperature change of water in the
calorimeter on addition of the hot metal
block = θ3 – θ1
Temperature change of the hot metal block
Figure 9.2
when dropped into the cold water = θ2 – θ3
Procedure
Assuming no heat losses to the
 Weigh the solid metal block.
surroundings during the transfer of the
 Set up the apparatus as shown in
metal block from the beaker to the
figure 9.2 (a).
calorimeter and thereafter, the s.h.c. of the
 Allow the water to boil. solid is calculated as follows;
 Weigh the calorimeter together with
the stirrer and pour some water into
Heat lost by metal block = heat
it.
 Weigh the calorimeter with its
gained by calorimeter with stirrer +
contents and place it in the insulating heat gained by water in the
jacket. calorimeter
 Measure the temperature of the cold mscs s = (mccc c) + (mwcw w)
water in the calorimeter. msc s(θ2 – θ3) = mccc (θ3 – θ1) +
 When the water in the beaker has mwcw(θ3 – θ1)
boiled for some time, quickly
transfer the metal block from the

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mscs (θ2 – θ3) = (θ3 – θ1) (mccc + Q = 360 + 3 780

mwcw) Q = 4 140 J

(d) Specific heat capacity of the metal block.

cs = , (2 mks)
–
mmcm∆θ = Qc + Qw
where cc, cs and cw are specific heat
0.15 x cm x (100 – 34) = 4 140
capacities of the calorimeter, the solid and
9.9cm = 4 140
water respectively.
cm =
cm = 418.2 Jkg⁻1K⁻1

Note: (b) Liquids

The following precautions need to be taken
to minimize heat losses to the surroundings: EXPERIMENT 9.3: To determine the
(i) Use of a highly polished calorimeter. specific heat capacity of a liquid by the
(ii) Heavy lagging of the calorimeter. method of mixtures
(iii) Use of a lid of poor conduction.
Apparatus
Example 5 Metal block, thread, beaker, liquid (not
A block of metal of mass 150 g at 100 0C is water), tripod stand, heat source, well-
dropped into a lagged calorimeter of heat lagged calorimeter, stirrer, thermometer,
capacity 40 Jkg⁻1 containing 100 g of water cardboard, weighing machine.
at 25 0C. The temperature of the resulting
mixture is 34 0C. (specific heat capacity of Procedure
water = 4 200 Jkg⁻1K⁻1). Using a solid of known specific heat
Determine the: capacity and replacing the water in the
(a) Heat gained by the calorimeter. (2 mks) calorimeter with liquid whose specific heat
Qc = C∆θ capacity is to be determined, the same
Qc = 40 x (34 – 25) procedure as in experiment 9.2 is repeated.
Qc = 40 x 9
Qc = 360 J Calculations
Replacing the mass of water and the specific
(b) Heat gained by the water. (2 mks) heat capacity of water with those of the
Qw = mwcc∆θ liquid, ml and cl and making the same
Qw = 0.1 x 4 200 x (34 – 25) assumptions on heat losses to the
Qw = 420 x 9 surroundings, the specific heat capacity of
Qw = 3 780 J the liquid can be calculated as follows:

(c) Heat lost by the metal block. (2 mks) Heat lost by the hot solid = heat
Q = Qc + Qw gained by the calorimeter with

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stirrer + heat gained by the liquid EXPERIMENT 9.4: To determine the

in the calorimeter specific heat capacity of a solid (or metal)
by electrical method.

mscs s = (mccc c) + (mlcl l) Apparatus

mscs (θ2 – θ3) = mccc (θ3 – θ1) + mlcl Metal block with two holes, electric heater,
(θ3 – θ1) switch, thermometer, ammeter, voltmeter,
mlcl (θ3 – θ1) = mscs (θ2 – θ3) - mccc stopwatch, lagging material, power source,
(θ3 – θ1) rheostat, connecting wires, weighing
balance.

cl =
Example 6
A copper calorimeter of mass 0.12 kg
contains 0.1 kg of paraffin at 15 0C. If 0.048
kg of aluminium at 100 0C is transferred into
the liquid and the final temperature of the
mixture is 27 0C, calculate the s.h.c. of
paraffin, neglecting heat losses. (s.h.c of
aluminium is 900 Jkg⁻1K⁻1 and that of Figure 9.3
copper is 400 Jkg⁻1K⁻1).
Solution Procedure
 Weigh the metal block and record its
Heat lost by the aluminium = heat gained mass.
by the calorimeter with stirrer + heat  Set up the apparatus as shown in
gained by the liquid in the calorimeter figure 9.3
 Record the initial temperature of the
maca a = (mccc c) + (mpcp p) block.
0.048 x 900 x (100 – 27) = [0.12 x 400 x  Start the stopwatch as you switch on
(27 – 15)] + [0.1 x cp x (27 – 15)] the heater circuit.
3 153.6 = 576 + 1.2cp  Record the readings of the ammeter
1.2cp = 3 153.6 – 576 and voltmeter (ensure the values are
1.2cp = 2 577.6 kept constant).
cp = 2 148 Jkg⁻1K⁻1  Record the time taken for the
temperature to rise by about 200C.
2. Electrical Method
Results and Calculations
(a) Solids Mass of metal block = m
Ammeter reading = I
Voltmeter reading = V

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Time taken to heat the metal block = t 14 400 = 16ca

Initial temperature of the metal block = θ1 ca = 900 Jkg⁻1K⁻1
Final temperature of the metal block = θ2
Temperature change of the metal block = θ2 (b) Liquids
– θ1 EXPERIMENT 9.5: To determine the
Assuming no heat losses to the specific heat capacity of a liquid by
surroundings, the specific heat capacity of electrical method.
the material of the metal block is calculated
as follows:
Electrical energy supplied by the
electrical heater coil = heat gained Apparatus
Well-lagged calorimeter, stirrer, 12 V
by the metal block.
electric heating coil, liquid (water),
thermometer, ammeter, switch, voltmeter,
VIt = mscs (θ2 – θ1) stopwatch, lagging material, power source,
rheostat, connecting wires, weighing
cs = , balance.

where cs is the specific heat capacity of the

material of the block.
Precautions
(i) The metal block must be highly
polished and heavily lagged.
(ii) The two holes should be filled with a
light oil so as to improve thermal contact
with the heater and thermometer. Figure 9.4

Example 7 Procedure
In an experiment to determine the specific  Weigh the calorimeter with the
heat capacity of aluminium, 1.0 kg of stirrer.
aluminium is heated electrically. The  Pour water into the calorimeter.
voltmeter reads 12 V and the ammeter reads  Weigh the calorimeter with the
4.0 A. The temperature rises from 23 0C to water.
39 0C in 5 minutes. Calculate the s.h.c. of  Place the calorimeter in its insulating
aluminium. jacket.
Solution  Measure the initial temperature of
Heat supplied by the heater = Heat the water.
absorbed by the aluminium  Insert the heating coil into the water
VIt = maca a in the calorimeter, (figure 9.4).
12 x 4.0 x 5 x 60 = 1.0 x ca x (39 – 23)

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 Switch on the heater current and

simultaneously start timing. Example 8
 Record the ammeter and voltmeter In an experiment to determine the specific
readings. heat capacity of water, an electrical heater
 Stir the water and after about five to was used. If the voltmeter reading was 24 V
ten minutes, switch off the heater and that of the ammeter 2.0 A, calculate the
current, but continue stirring and specific heat capacity of water if the
note the highest final temperature of temperature of a mass of 1.5 kg of water in a
the water. 0.4 kg copper calorimeter rose by 60 C after
 Record the duration of the heating. 13.5 minutes. (Specific heat capacity of
copper is 400 Jkg⁻1K⁻1)
Results and Calculations Solution
Mass of calorimeter and stirrer = m1 Heat supplied by electric heater = heat
Mass of calorimeter, stirrer and water = m2 gained by water + heat gained by the
Mass of water = m2 – m1 calorimeter and stirrer.
Initial temperature of water = θ1
VIt = [(m2 – m1)cw (θ2 – θ1)] + [m1cc (θ2 –
Final temperature of water = θ2
θ1)]
Ammeter reading = I
VIt = 24 x 2 x 13.5 x 60 = 38 880
Voltmeter reading = V
[(m2 – m1)cw (θ2 – θ1)] = 1.5 x cw x 6 = 9cw
Duration of heating = t
[m1cc (θ2 – θ1)] = 0.4 x 400 x 6 = 960
9cw + 960 = 38 880
Assuming no heat losses to the
9cw = 38 880 – 960
surroundings, the specific heat capacity of
9cw = 37 920
the water is calculated as follows:
cw =
Heat supplied by electric heater = cw = 4 213 Jkg⁻1K⁻1
heat gained by water + heat gained
by the calorimeter and stirrer. 3. Continuous Flow Method

EXPERIMENT 9.6: To determine the

VIt = [(m2 – m1)cw (θ2 – θ1)] + [m1cc
specific heat capacity of water by
(θ2 – θ1)] continuous flow method.
[(m2 – m1)cw (θ2 – θ1)] = VIt - [m1cc
(θ2 – θ1)] Apparatus
Constant head tank, electric heating coil,
water, two thermometers, glass tube
cw = , (surrounded by an evacuated glass jacket
where cw and cc are the specific heat which prevents heat escape from the liquid
capacities of water and the material of the by conduction or convection) ammeter,
calorimeter respectively. voltmeter, stopwatch, beaker, switch, power

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source, rheostat, connecting wires, weighing

balance. Results and calculations
(a) First rate of flow of water
Ammeter reading = I1
Voltmeter reading = V1
Inflow temperature of water = θ1
Outflow temperature of water = θ2
Temperature difference of water = θ2 – θ1
Mass of the empty beaker = m1
Mass of the beaker with water = m2
Mass of water collected = m2 – m1
Figure 9.5
Procedure (b) Second rate of flow of water
 Set up the apparatus as in figure 9.5 Ammeter reading = I2
 Adjust the water flow from the Voltmeter reading = V2
constant head tank until no water Inflow temperature of water = θ1
flows through the waste pipe (the Outflow temperature of water = θ2
water through the tube carrying the Temperature difference of water = θ2 – θ1
spiral heating coil has then attained a Mass of the empty beaker = m1
steady flow). Mass of the beaker with water = m3
 Switch on the heater circuit and let Mass of water collected = m3 – m1
the water flow continue until the
thermometers at the inflow and Under steady conditions, none of the
outflow ends of the tube attain steady electrical energy supplied is used in heating
readings. the apparatus. Therefore:
Electrical energy supplied = heat energy
 Record the ammeter and voltmeter
absorbed by collected water + heat energy
readings.
lost to the surroundings
 Record the inflow and outflow
V1I1t = [(m2 – m1) cw (θ2 – θ1)] + H
temperatures of the water.
 Weigh an empty beaker and place it
After the flow rate is altered, the
below the outflow pipe and
temperature difference is the same and the
simultaneously start timing.
heat lost in time t is again H. Therefore:
 When an appreciable quantity of
V2I2t = [(m3 – m1) cw (θ2 – θ1)] + H
water has collected in the beaker,
withdraw the flow pipe as you stop
Hence;
timing.
V2I2t - V1I1t = [(m3 – m1) cw (θ2 – θ1)] + H
 Weigh the beaker with water and - [(m2 – m1) cw (θ2 – θ1) + H]
record the duration of heating. (V2I2 - V1I1) t = [(m3 – m1) – (m2 – m1)] cw
 Repeat the procedure but with a (θ2 – θ1)
different rate of flow of water.

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cw =

cw =

Advantages of continuous flow method

over the other methods
(i) The presence of the vacuum prevents
heat losses by convection or conduction.
(ii) The steady temperature measured Figure 9.6
allows small temperature rises to be used
and therefore suitable for determining the Procedure
manner in which the specific heat capacity  Place crushed ice into a glass beaker
changes with temperature. and cool it with a freezing mixture to
(iii) The heat capacities of the apparatus is a temperature below 0 0C, say, ⁻10
0
not involved in the calculation. C.
(iv) The method can be used for gases.  Heat the ice and record the
temperature of the ice at intervals as
D. CHANGE OF STATE you keep stirring.
 There are some instances when there  Plot a graph of temperature against
are no observable changes in time.
temperature when a substance is Observation
heated or cooled.  The thermometer records a
temperature rise of the ice until it
EXPERIMENT 9.7: To investigate the effect reaches 0 0C.
of supplying heat to a solid (ice)  On further heating, the temperature
remains at 0 0C while the ice changes
Apparatus to water (melts).
Ice, glass beaker, thermometer, tripod stand,  After all the ice has melted, the
stirrer, heat source, wire gauze temperature starts to rise again,
(figure 9.7).

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 Conversely, as a liquid changes to

solid state, it gives out latent heat of
fusion.

EXPERIMENT 9.8: To explore the change

of state of naphthalene using the cooling
curve

Apparatus
Thermometer, boiling tube, naphthalene,
water bath, wire gauze, tripod stand, retort
Figure 9.7
stand and clamp, heat source.

Explanation
 When ice at about ⁻10 0C is heated,
the heat energy supplied is used in
raising its temperature to 0 0C.

 The energy supplied to the ice at 0

0
C is used to change ice from solid to
liquid state without change in Figure 9.8
temperature.
Procedure
Conclusion  Half fill the boiling tube with
 The heat energy absorbed as the ice naphthalene and support it in a water
melts is called latent heat of fusion. bath, (figure 9.8).
 The term „latent‟ means „hidden‟.  Heat the water bath until naphthalene
 After all the ice has melted, the just melts.
temperature of the ice water rises as  Put a thermometer inside the liquid
heating continues. naphthalene and continue heating
until a temperature of about 90 0C is
Latent Heat of Fusion reached.
 Remove the boiling tube from the
 This is defined as the heat energy water bath and let it cool.
required to change the state of a  Record the temperature reading
substance from solid to liquid every one minute s the naphthalene
without change in temperature. cools.
 Plot a graph of temperature against
time.

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During the period PQ, the liquid

Observation naphthalene is losing latent heat of fusion
 During cooling, the temperature of as it solidifies.
liquid naphthalene falls from about
90 0C to about 80 0C where it Example 9
remains constant for some time. Figure shows the variation of temperature,
 At 80 0C, all the liquid naphthalene T (0C), with time, t (seconds) when frozen
gradually changes to solid. sea water is heated for some time.
 After all the liquid naphthalene has
solidified, its temperature falls
further to room temperature‟
 Figure 9.9 shows the graph of the
cooling curve for naphthalene.

Figure 9.10

(a) Explain the shape of the curve at the

Figure 9.9 sections labeled OA, AB and BC.
(3 marks)
Explanation OA – The temperature remains constant
 Section OP - The liquid naphthalene as ice absorbs latent heat of fusion.
cooling. AB – The temperature rises as the melted
 Section PQ – The liquid naphthalene ice gains more kinetic energy.
changes to solid (freezes) without BC – The temperature remains constant
change in temperature. as the heat energy supplied is used the
 The heat lost by the liquid change water into vapour.
naphthalene as it is solidifies is
called latent heat of fusion. (b) It is observed that when the temperature
 Point P – The freezing point of starts to rise, the volume initially decreases
naphthalene. and the increases. State the reason for this
 Section QR – The solid naphthalene observation. (1 mark)
0 0
cools to room temperature at R. From 0 C to 4 C, water contracts when
heated but expands as the temperature is
Note: raised above 4 0C.

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(c) In the figure 9.10, sketch and explain the Q = 0.1 x 340 000
curve that would be obtained if frozen fresh Q = 34 000 J
water was used. (Hint: specific heat capacity
of sea water is lower than that of fresh Determination of Specific Latent Heat of
water). (3 marks) Fusion of Ice
Frozen sea water has a lower temperature
than frozen fresh water. The boiling point 1. By the Method of Mixtures
of sea water is higher than that of fresh EXPERIMENT 9.9: To determine the
water. specific latent heat of fusion of ice by the
method of mixtures
SPECIFIC LATENT HEAT OF
FUSION (Lf) Apparatus
Water, pieces of ice, thermometer,
 This is defined as the quantity of
calorimeter, stirrer.
heat energy required to change a
unit mass of the material from solid
state to liquid state without change
in temperature.
 Q = mLf,
where Lf is the specific latent heat of
fusion.

 Lf =
 Its SI unit is joule per kilogram Figure 9.11
(J/kg or Jkg⁻1).
Procedure
 Weigh the mass of a copper
calorimeter and stirrer.
 Pour water previously heated to
Note: about 5 0C above room temperature
A unit mass of material changing from into the clean dry copper calorimeter.
liquid to solid would give out heat energy  Weigh the calorimeter with water
equal to its specific latent heat of fusion. and stirrer.
 Record the temperature of the water
Example 10 in the calorimeter.
An ice lolly at a temperature of 0 0C has a  Add the pieces of ice one at a time,
mass of 100 g. Calculate the heat energy each time stirring until the piece
required to melt it. (Specific latent heat of melts before adding the next.
fusion of ice is 340 000 J/kg)  Continue the process until the
Solution temperature falls to about 5 0C below
Q = mLf the room temperature.

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 Weigh the mass of the calorimeter Lf =

with the mixture.

Results and Calculations Where cw and cc are the specific heat

Mass of calorimeter and stirrer = m1 capacities of water and the material making
Mass of calorimeter, stirrer and water = m2 the calorimeter respectively.
Mass of calorimeter, stirrer and mixture =
m3 Note:
Temperature of water in the calorimeter = θ1 (i) Warming the water so that its
Final temperature of the mixture = θ2 temperature rises by a given value above
Mass of water used = m2 – m1 the room temperature and then cooling it
Mass of ice melted = m3 – m2 to a temperature which is the same value
Temperature change = θ1 – θ2 below room temperature balances the
heat exchange between the calorimeter
Heat lost by the warm water + Heat with its contents and the surroundings.
(ii) In this experiment, „dry ice’ is defined as
lost by the calorimeter and stirrer =
one that has minimum water moisture on
Heat absorbed by the ice at 0 0C in its surface.
melting to form ice water at 0 0C + (iii) „Dry ice” is used so that any heat
Heat absorbed by the ice water at 0 absorbed is utilized in changing of state
0 from solid to liquid, but not in warming
C to raise its temperature to the
final temperature the water.

In short, Example 11
(a) Define specific latent heat of fusion of a
substance. (1 mark)
Heat lost by the warm water + Heat It is the quantity of heat energy required
lost by the calorimeter and stirrer = to melt completely 1 kg of the substance
at constant temperature.
Heat gained by melting ice + Heat
gained by melted ice. (b) Water of mass 200 g at a temperature of
Let the quantity of heat required to melt a 60 0C is put in a well lagged copper
unit mass of ice at 0 0C to water at 0 0C be calorimeter of mass 80 g. A piece of ice at 0
Lf. 0
C and mass 20 g is placed in the
Then; calorimeter and the mixture stirred gently
[(m2 – m1) cw (θ1 – θ2)] + m1cc (θ1 – θ2) = until all the ice melts. The final temperature,
(m3 – m2) Lf + [(m3 – m2) c (θ1 – θ2)] T of the mixture is then measured.
Determine the:
(m3 – m2) Lf = [(m2 – m1) cw (θ1 – θ2)] + (i) Heat absorbed by the melting ice at 0 0C.
m1cc (θ1 – θ2) - [(m3 – m2) cw (θ1 – θ2)] (2 mks)
QI = mL

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QI = 0.02 X 334 000 latent heat of fusion of ice. (Take the

QI = 6 680 J specific heat capacity of water as 4 200
Jkg⁻1K⁻1 and that of copper as 400 Jkg⁻1K⁻1)
(ii) Heat absorbed by the melted ice (water) Solution
to rise to temperature T. (Answer may be Heat lost by calorimeter and stirrer +
given in terms of T). (2 marks) heat lost by water = heat gained by
QW = mwcw∆θ melting ice + heat gained by melted ice
QW = 0.02 x 4 200 x (T – 0) [(0.25 x 400 x (21 - 11)] + [(0.2 x 4 200 x
QW = 84T (21 – 11)] = (0.025 x Lf) + [(0.025 x 4 200 x
(11 – 0)]
(iii) Heat lost by the warm water and the 1 000 + 8 400 = 0.025Lf + 1 155
calorimeter. (Answer may be given in terms 0.025Lf = 8 245
of T) (2 marks) Lf = 329 800 Jkg⁻1
QW = mwcw∆θ
QW = 0.2 x 4 200 x (60 – T) 2. By the Electrical Method
QW = 50 400 – 840T
EXPERIMENT 9.10: To determine the
QC = mccc∆θ specific latent heat of fusion of ice by
QC = 0.08 x 900 x (60 – T) electrical method
Q C= 4 320 – 72T
Apparatus
(iv) Final temperature T of the mixture. Crushed ice, two filter funnels, two beakers,
(4 marks) ammeter, voltmeter, rheostat, immersion
(Specific latent heat of fusion of ice = heater, electrical power supply, switch, two
334 000 Jkg⁻1, specific heat capacity of thermometers, stopwatch.
water = 4 200 Jkg⁻1K⁻1 and specific heat
capacity of copper = 900 Jkg⁻1K⁻1)
Assuming no heat losses;
Heat gained = heat lost
6 680 + 84T = 50 400 – 840T + 4 320 – 72T
996T = 48 040
T = 48.23 0C

Example 12
In an experiment to determine the specific
latent heat of fusion of ice, 0.025 kg of dry
ice at 0 0C is melted up in 0.20 kg of water
Figure 9.12
at 21 0C in a copper calorimeter of mass
0.25 kg. If the final temperature of the
Procedure
mixture falls to 11 0C, calculate the specific

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 Weigh each of the empty dry Time during which heater is switched on = t
beakers. seconds
 Put equal quantities of crushed ice
into two identical filter funnels, P Note:
and Q, (figure 9.12).  The funnel Q and its contents is the
 Place an immersion heater connected control experiment.
to an ammeter, voltmeter and  It enables the mass of ice melted due
rheostat in P, making sure it is to the temperature of the room
completely covered with ice. during the experiment to be obtained
 At the same time as you switch on  It is reasonable to assume that the
the immersion heater, place dry same mass will be melted in P.
empty beakers of known masses Thus, the mass of ice melted by the heater is
under P and Q. given by:
 Note the reading of the ammeter and (m2 – m1) – (m4 – m3) = m
voltmeter (adjust the rheostat to keep Then:
them constant throughout the Heat energy supplied by the heater
experiment). = heat energy gained by melting the
 When a reasonable amount of water ice
has collected in the beaker under P,
note the time, remove the beakers
VIt = mLf
and switch off the heater.
 Weigh the beakers and their Lf = ,
contents.
where Lf is the specific latent heat of fusion
of ice.
Results and Calculations
Example 13
Mass of beaker under P before experiment =
In an experiment to determine the power of
m1
an electric heater, melting ice was placed in
Mass of beaker under P after experiment =
a container with an outlet and the heater
m2
placed in the ice as shown in figure 9.13.
Mass of ice melted in P during the
The melted ice was collected.
experiment = m2 – m1
Mass of beaker under Q before experiment =
m3
Mass of beaker under Q after experiment =
m4
Mass of ice melted in P during the
experiment = m4 – m3
Reading of ammeter = I
Reading of voltmeter = V

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 As the liquid boils, it changes its

state to vapour without change in
temperature.
 The heat energy absorbed during
this change of state is called latent
heat of vaporization.
 This would be the same quantity of
heat energy given out by the vapour
as it changes its state to liquid
Figure 9.13 without change in temperature.

(a) Other than the current and voltage, state SPECIFC LATENT HEAT OF
the measurements that would be taken to VAPORISATION (Lv)
determine the quantity of heat absorbed by  This is defined as the quantity of
the melted ice in unit time. (2 marks) heat energy required to change a
(i) Mass, m, of the melted ice. unit mass of material from liquid
(ii) Time, t, taken for the ice to melt. state to vapour without change of
temperature.
(b) If the latent heat of fusion of ice is L,  Q = mLv
show how the measurements in (a) above
 Its SI unit is joule per kilogram
would be used in determining the power P,
(J/kg or Jkg⁻1).
of the heater. (2 marks)
Pt = mL
Example 14
P= An electric kettle rated 2.5 kW contains 1.6
(c) It is found that the power determined in kg of water. It is switched on and the water
this experiment is lower than the allowed to boil. (Specific latent heat of
manufacturer‟s value indicated on the vaporization of water is 2.3 x 106 J/kg).
heater. Give a reason for this. (1 mk) (a) After starting to boil, calculate the
(i) Part of the heat produced by the heater amount of heat energy that will be used in
is lost to the surrounding. turning all the water to steam.
(ii) The temperature of ice may be lower Solution
than zero. Q = mLv
Q = 1.6 x 2.3 x 106
LATENT HEAT OF Q = 3 680 000 J
(b) Determine how long it will take for the
VAPORISATION
kettle to boil dry.
 Supplying heat energy to a liquid
Solution
raises its temperature to boiling
point. Electrical energy = power x time, P =

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t=  Put some water in the round –

bottom flask.
t=  Set up the apparatus as in figure
t = 1 472 s 9.14.
 Record the initial temperature of
Determination of Specific Latent Heat of water in the calorimeter.
Vaporisation of a Liquid (Water)  Boil the water in the flask until
steam starts issuing out freely
1. By the Method of Mixtures through the delivery tube.
EXPERIMENT 9.11: To determine the  Bring the free end of the delivery
specific latent heat of vaporisation of a tube into the water in the
liquid(water) by the method of mixtures calorimeter.
Apparatus  Allow steam to bubble into the water
Calorimeter and stirrer, water, thermometer, while stirring until the temperature
round-bottom flask, delivery tube, heat of the water rises by about 20 0C
source, retort stand and clamp. above room temperature.
 Remove the delivery tube from the
calorimeter and record the
temperature of the water.
 Weigh the mass of the calorimeter
with condensed steam.

Results and Calculations

Mass of calorimeter and stirrer = m1
Mass of calorimeter, stirrer and water = m2
Mass of calorimeter, stirrer and condensed
steam = m3
Initial temperature of water in the
calorimeter = θ1
Figure 9.14 Final temperature of condensed steam in the
calorimeter = θ2
Procedure Mass of water = m2 – m1
 Weigh the calorimeter and stirrer. Mass of condensed steam = m3 – m2
 Put some water in the calorimeter. Temperature change = θ2 – θ1
 Weigh the calorimeter with stirrer
and water. Note:
 Place the calorimeter with its When steam passes into the water, it first
contents in a felt jacket (lagging changes to water at 100 0C and then cools
material). from 100 0C to final temperature of the
mixture, θ2.

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The quantity of heat energy required to

The specific latent heat of vaporization of change 1 kg of a liquid at boiling point
water is thus calculated as follows; completely to vapour at the same
temperature and atmospheric pressure.
Heat lost by condensing steam +
Heat lost by cooling water = Heat (b) In an experiment to determine the
specific latent heat of vaporization of water,
gained by calorimeter and stirrer +
steam at 100 0C was passed into water
Heat gained by water. contained in a well lagged copper
calorimeter. The following measurements
Heat lost by condensing steam = were made:
(m3 – m2) Lv Mass of calorimeter = 50 g
Heat lost by cooling water = (m3 – Initial mass of water = 70 g
m2) (100 – θ2) cw Initial temperature of water = 5 0C
Final mass of calorimeter + water +
Heat gained by calorimeter and
condensed steam = 123 g
stirrer = m1cc(θ2 – θ1) Final temperature of mixture = 30 0C
Heat gained by water = (m3 – m2) (Specific heat capacity of water = 4 200
cw(θ2 – θ1) Jkg⁻1K⁻1 and specific heat capacity for
Therefore: copper = 390 Jkg⁻1K⁻1)
(m3 – m2) Lv + (m3 – m2) (100 – θ2) (i) Determine the:
I. Mass of condensed steam. (1 mk)
cw = m1cc(θ2 – θ1) + (m3 – m2) cw(θ2 –
mS = 123 – (50 + 70)
θ1) mS = 3 g
(m3 – m2) Lv = [m1cc(θ2 – θ1)] + [(m3
– m2) cw (θ2 – θ1)] – [(m3 – m2) (100 – II. Heat gained by the calorimeter and water.
θ2) cw] (5 mks)
Heat gained by water, QW = mwcw∆θ
Lv = QW = 0.07 x 4 200 x (30 – 5)
QW = 7 350 J
Heat gained by the calorimeter, QC =
Note: mccc∆θ
Errors due to heat loss to the surroundings QC = 0.05 x 390 x (30 – 5)
can be minimised by first cooling the water QC = 487.5 J
in the calorimeter by a given value below QC + QW = 487.5 + 7 350
room temperature and then passing the QC + QW = 7 837.5 J
steam until the temperature rises above room
temperature by the same value. (ii) Given that L is the specific latent heat of
Example 15 vaporization of steam,
(a) State what is meant by the term „specific
latent heat of vaporization.‟

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I. Write down an expression for the heat Example 17

given out by steam. (1 mk) Calculate the amount of heat energy
QS = mL required to convert 5 kg of ice at ⁻20 0C into
QS = 0.003L steam at 100 0C. (Specific heat capacities of
water and ice are 4 200 Jkg⁻1K⁻1 and
II. Determine the value of L. (3 mks) 2 100 Jkg⁻1K⁻1 respectively, s.l.h.f of ice is
Heat given out by steam = Heat gained by 340 000 J/kg and s.l.h.v of water is
water + Heat gained by the calorimeter 2.3 x 106 J/kg)
0.003L = 7 837.5
L= Solution
The solution has four steps as illustrated
L = 2 612 500 Jkg⁻1K⁻1 Jkg⁻1 in the below.
(i) Heating the ice from ⁻20 0C to 0 0C.
Example 16 Qa = mc
In an experiment to determine the specific
Qa = 5 x 2 100 x (0 - ⁻20 0)
latent heat of vaporization of water, steam of
Qa = 210 000 J
mass 10g at 100 0C is passed into 100 g of
water initially at 20 0C in a container of
(ii) Melting the ice at 0 0C.
negligible heat capacity. The temperature of
Qb = mLf
the water rises to 70 0C.
Qb = 5 x 340 000
(Take specific heat capacity of water as 4.2
Qb = 1 700 000 J
x 103 Jkg⁻1K⁻1 and the boiling point of water
as 100 0C). (a) Determine the specific latent
(iii) Heating the ice water from 0 0C to100
heat of vaporization of water. (4 marks) 0
C.
Heat lost by the condensing steam = heat Qc = mc
gained by the water
Qc = 5 x 4 200 x 100
mLv + mc∆θ1 = mc∆θ2
Qc = 2 100 000 J
(0.01 x LV) + [0.01 x 4200 x (100 – 70)] =
0.1 x 4200 x (70 – 20)
(iv) Evaporating the water at 100 0C.
0.01LV + 1260 = 21000
Qd = mLv
0.01LV = 19740
Qd = 5 x 2.3 x 106
LV = Qd = 11 500 000 J
LV = 1 974 000 Jkg⁻1
Total amount of heat energy, QT required
(b) State two sources of error in this = 210 000 + 1 700 000 + 2 100 000 +
experiment. (2 marks) 11 500 000
(i) Heat lost to the surrounding. QT = 15 510 000 J
(ii) Some heat can be absorbed by the
container. Note:

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Most of the heat energy is used for the (i) Heat energy absorbed by melting ice at
change of state from water to steam. This is 0 0C.
the reason why it is very expensive to obtain Qc = miLf
fresh water from salty water by evaporation. Qc = 0.05 x 336 000 = 16 800 J

Example 18 (ii) Heat energy absorbed by ice water from

Dry steam is passed into a well-lagged 0 0C to 20 0C.
copper can of mass 250 g containing 400 g Qd = mc
of water and 50 g of ice at 0 0C. Qd = 0.05 x 4 200 x 20 = 4 200 J
The mixture is well stirred and the steam
supply cut off when the temperature of the Heat energy gained by 400 g of water
ca and its contents reaches 20 0C. Neglecting from 0 0C to 20 0C.
heat losses, calculate the mass of steam Qe = mc
condensed. (Specific heat capacities of Qe = 0.4 x 4 200 x 20 = 33 600 J
water and ice are 4 200 Jkg⁻1K⁻1 and
400 Jkg⁻1K⁻1 respectively, specific latent Heat energy gained by 250 g can from 0
0
heat of vaporization of steam is 2 260 000 C to 20 0C.
J/kg and specific latent heat of fusion of ice Qf = mc
is 336 000 J/kg) Qf = 0.25 x 400 x 20 = 2 000 J
Solution
Heat energy given out by steam = Heat Total heat gained, QT = 16 800 + 4 200 +
energy gained by ice + Heat energy 33 600 + 2 000
gained by water + Heat energy gained by QT = 56 600 J
can
Therefore, 2 596 000m = 56 600
Heat energy given out by steam has two
m=
parts:
(i) Heat energy given out by steam m = 0.02180 kg or 21.80 g
condensing to water at 100 0C.
Qa = mLv 2. By the Electrical Method.
Qa = m x 2 260 000 = 2 260 000m EXPERIMENT 9.12: To determine the
(ii) Heat energy given out by water in specific latent heat of vaporisation of a
cooling from 100 0C to 20 0C. liquid(water) by electrical method
Qb = mc
Qb = m x 4 200 x 80 = 336 000m Apparatus
Beaker, glass flask, heater coil, condenser,
Qa + Qb = 2 260 000m + 336 000m = water, stop watch, ammeter, voltmeter,
2 596 000m rheostat, power source, retort stand and
clamp, switch.
Heat energy gained by ice has two parts:

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Mass of beaker with condensed water = m2

Time taken to collect the condensed water =
t
Mass of condensed water = m2 – m1

Assuming that all the heat supplied by the

heater coil is used in vaporizing the water
and that all the steam is condensed, then
the specific latent heat of vaporization of
water is calculated as follows;

Figure 9.15 Heat supplied by the heater coil =

Heat used to vaporize the water
Procedure
 Set up the apparatus as shown in VIt = (m2 – m1) Lv
figure 9.15.
 Switch on the heater and maintain a Lv =
steady current using the variable
resistor. Example 19
 Allow the heating to continue until Water of mass 3.0 kg initially at 20 0C is
the system reaches a steady state, heated in an electric kettle rated 3.0 kW. The
where the condensed water issues water is heated until it boils at 100 0C. Given
down the tube T at a constant rate. that the specific heat capacity of water = 4
 Weigh the beaker. 200 Jkg⁻1K⁻1, heat capacity of the kettle =
 Place the beaker under the tube T to 450 JK⁻1, specific latent heat of vaporization
collect the condensed water and of water = 2.3 MJkg⁻1, determine:
simultaneously start timing. (a) the heat absorbed by the water. (3 marks)
 When a measurable quantity of water H = mc∆θ
has been collected in the beaker, H = 3.0 x 4 200 x (100 – 20)
remove the beaker as you stop the H = 3 x 4 200 x 80
watch. H = 1,008,000 J
 Record the time taken.
 Weigh the beaker with the (b) The heat absorbed by the electric kettle.
condensed water. (2 marks)
H = C∆θ
Results and Calculations H = 450 x (100 – 20)
Ammeter reading = I H = 450 x 80
Voltmeter reading = V H = 36 000 J
Mass of empty beaker = m1

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(c) The time taken for the water to boil. Describe an experiment to determine the
(3 marks) specific latent heat of vaporization of steam,
Heat supplied by the heater coil = heat Lv, using the set up.
absorbed by water + heat absorbed by In your answer, clearly explain the
kettle measurements to be made and how these
Pt = mc∆θ + C∆θ measurements could be used to determine
3.0 x 103 x t = 1 008 000 + 36 000 Lv. (6 marks)
3000t = 1 044 000 Measure the mass, m1, of the calorimeter
t= with water.
Switch on the heater and allow the water
t = 348 s to heat up.
When the water starts to boil, start the
(d) How much longer it will take to boil
stop watch and after some water has
away all the water. (3 marks)
boiled off, switch off the heater and stop
Pt = mLv
the stop watch and record the time, t.
3000t = 3.0 x 2.3 x 106
Measure the final mass of water and
t= calorimeter, m2.
t = 2 300 s Mass of evaporated water = m2 – m1
Assuming no heat loss:
Example 20 Heat supplied by the heater = Heat used
(a) Define the term heat capacity. (1 mark) to vaporize the water
It is defined as the quantity of heat energy Pt = (m2 – m1 )Lv
required to raise the temperature of a Lv =
body by one degree Celsius or one Kelvin.

(b) You are provided with the apparatus Factors Affecting Melting and
shown in figure 9.16 and a stop watch. Boiling Points
These are:
(a) Pressure
(b) Impurities

1. Melting
(a) Increase in pressure in a substance
(ice) lowers the melting point.

Applications of the Effects of Pressure on

Melting Point of Ice

(i) Ice Skating

 The weight of an ice-skater acts on
Figure 9.16 the thin blades of the skates.

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 The high pressure exerted by the thin making the pressure of the steam
blades melts the ice underneath, inside it to build up.
forming a thin film of water over  The boiling point is raised to a
which the skater slides. higher temperature of 120 0C,
enabling the food to cook more
(ii) Joining Ice Cubes Under Pressure quickly and economically than at
 Two ice cubes can be joined together 100 0C.
by pressing the hard against each Note:
other.  The reverse effect occurs when food
 The high pressure lowers the melting is cooked at high altitudes, since air
point of ice at the points of contact. pressure decreases with altitude.
 With the pressure lowered, the water  A mountaineer has difficulty in
re-condenses and the two cubes join cooking an egg in boiling water
together because the water boils at a
(b) Presence Impurities in a substance (ice) temperature much lower than 100 0C.
lowers the melting point.
(b) Presence of impurities in a liquid raises
Applications of the Effects of Impurities on its boiling point.
Melting Point of Ice
(i) During winter, salt is spread to prevent Example 22
freezing on roads and paths. State two factors affect the boiling point of a
(ii) A freezing mixture can be made by liquid. (2 marks)
mixing ice with salt. (a) Pressure
(b) Presence of impurities
Example 21
State two factors that affect the melting Example 23
point of ice. (2 marks) (a) When the temperature of water reaches
(a) Pressure its boiling point, bubbles rise to the surface.
(b) Impurities (i) State what is contained in the bubbles.
(1 mark)
2. Boiling
Water vapour o steam
(a) Increase in pressure of a liquid raises
its boiling point.
(ii) State the reason why bubbles rise to the
surface only at boiling point. (1 mark)
Application of the Effects of Pressure on
Vapour pressure at boiling point equals
Boiling
or exceeds prevailing external pressure.
The pressure cooker
 It has a tight-fitting lid which
prevents free escape of steam, thus

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(b) Figure 9.17 shows a graph of vapour

pressure against the temperature of water Example 25
vapour, in a laboratory where a mercury Water is known to boil at 100 0C. A student
barometer indicates a height of 61.8 cm. heated some water and noticed that it boiled
at 101 0C. State two possible reasons for this
observation.
(a) Pressure is higher than normal
atmospheric pressure.
(b) Presence of impurities.

EVAPORATION

Definition
This is the process by which molecules at
the surface of a liquid acquire sufficient
kinetic energy to overcome the attractive
force from the neighbouring molecules in a
liquid and thus escapes.
Figure 9.17
Some Effects of Evaporation
(i) Determine the atmospheric pressure in (a) When some methylated spirit is
the laboratory in Nm⁻2. (Take g = 10 ms⁻2 poured at the back of the hand, the
and density of mercury = 13 600 kgm⁻3). hand feels cold as the spirit
(3 maks) evaporates from the skin.
Prevailing atmospheric pressure, Pa = ρgh Explanation
Pa = 13 600 x 10 x 0.618 The evaporating methylated spirit extracts
Pa = 84 048 Nm⁻2 latent heat of vaporization from the skin,
thus making it feel cold.
(ii) Use the graph to determine the boiling
point of water in the laboratory. (1 mark) (b) When a stream of air is bubbled through
96 0C ether in a test tube, frost forms on the
outside surface of the test tube.
Example 24 Explanation
Explain why it is advisable to use a pressure  The ether evaporates into the
cooker for cooking at high altitudes. (2 mks) bubbles, and the vapour is carried
At high altitudes, the pressure is low and quickly away as the bubbles rise to
therefore the boiling point is low. A the surface and burst, thus increasing
pressure cooker increases pressure inside the rate of evaporation
it which raises the boiling point hence  The evaporating ether draws latent
cooking faster. heat of vaporization from the liquid

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ether, the test tube and the gain more kinetic energy and they
surrounding space. move faster.
 The test tube therefore cools so that  This makes it easier for more of
frost forms around it. them to escape, thus enhancing
Note: evaporation.
(i) Ether is poisonous and therefore the Note:
experiment is done in a fume chamber. It takes shorter time for clothes to dry on a
(ii) Bubbling the stream of air increases the hotter day.
surface area of ether exposed to air.

(c) A glass beaker containing ether is placed

on a film of water on a wooden block. 2. Surface Area
Air is blown through the ether by means of a Increasing the area of the liquid surface
rubber tube using a foot pump. increases the rate of evaporation.
Observation
The ether quickly evaporates and after Note:
sometime it is found that the beaker is stuck A wet bed-sheet dries faster when spread out
on the wooden block, a thin layer of ice than when folded.
having formed between them.
Explanation 3.Draught
 The ether evaporates into the  Passing air over a liquid carries with
bubbles, and the vapour is carried it along the escaping vapour
quickly away as the bubbles rise to molecules.
the surface and burst, thus increasing  This clears the way for more
the rate of evaporation. escaping molecules to occupy the
 The evaporating ether draws latent space.
heat of vaporization from the liquid Note:
ether, the glass beaker and the film Wet clothes dry faster on a windy day than
of air below it. on a non-windy day.
 The frozen water film makes the
glass beaker to stick to the wooden 4. Humidity
block.  This refers to the moisture content in
Conclusion the atmosphere.
Evaporation causes cooling.  When the humidity is high, there are
more vapour molecules in the space
Factors Affecting the Rate of above the liquid surface.
Evaporation  This makes it more difficult for the
1. Temperature water molecules to leave the liquid
 Raising the temperature of a liquid surface.
makes its molecules on its surface Note:

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Wet clothes take longer time to dry up on a 

It operates on the basic principle of
humid day. „cooling by vaporization under
Applications of Cooling by Evaporation reduced pressure.‟
 A volatile liquid called Freon
1. Sweating circulates through the capillary tubes
 When sweat evaporates, it draws under the action of
latent heat from the skin, producing a the compression pump.
cooling effect.
 Animals have different mechanisms Example 26
of cooling their bodies e.g.; (a) Explain how the volatile liquid is
(i) A dog exposes its tongue when it made to vaporize in the cooling
is hot. (freezing) compartment and to
(ii) The muzzle of a cow gets more condense in the cooling fins
wet when it is hot.  In the freezing compartment, the
pressure of the volatile liquid is
2. Cooling of water in a porous pot lowered suddenly by increasing the
 A porous pot has tiny pores, through diameter of the tube causing
which water slowly seeps out. vaporization in the evaporator coil.
 When this water evaporates, it cools  The latent heat required for the
the pot and its contents. volatile liquid to evaporate is
removed from the air and food inside
3. The Refrigerator the refrigerator thereby making them
 Figure 9.18 shows the main parts of cold.
a refrigerator.  The compression pump aids
evaporation by pumping the vapour
out of the evaporator coil.
 In the compression pump, the
pressure of the vapour is increased
and gives out latent heat of
vaporization to the outside causing
condensation.

(b) Explain how cooling takes place in the

refrigerator.
 When the volatile liquid evaporates
inside the evaporator coil in the
freezing compartment, it takes away
Figure 9.18 latent heat of vaporization and
cools in the coil.

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 This heat is carried away and

dissipated at the condenser coil
fitted with copper cooling fins where
the vapour is compressed and
condensed thereby giving up its Comparison between Boiling and
latent heat of vaporization to the Evaporation
surrounding air.
Evaporation Boiling
(c) State the reason for using a volatile 1 It takes place at It takes place at a
liquid all temperatures. fixed
So that it vaporizes easily. temperature.
2 It takes place at It takes place
(d) State the purpose of the following
the surface of the throughout the
features:
liquid. liquid.
(i) double walls?
3 No bubbles are Bubbles of steam
They reduce the rate of heat transfer
formed. form all over the
from the outside.
liquid.
4 Its rate increases The boiling point
(ii) copper cooling fins.
with decrease in is lowered with
They increase the surface area over which
the atmospheric decrease in the
heat is conducted away and therefore
pressure. atmospheric
increases the rate at which heat is
pressure.
dissipated.

 The rate of vaporization and the

Example 27
consequent degree of cooling is
Figure 9.19 shows two aluminium
controlled by a thermostat switch,
containers, A and B placed on a wooden
which switches the pump motor on
table. Both containers have equal volumes
and off at intervals.
of hot water initially at the same
 The thermostat is adjustable and is
temperature.
provided with a dial which may be
set to give the desired low
temperature inside the refrigerator
cabinet. Figure 9.19

Explain why the water in container B cools

faster than the water in container A.
(2 marks)
The rate of cooling depends on the rate of
evaporation which in turn depends on the

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surface area. Since the surface area of B

is bigger than that of the surface area of
A. Hence, the water in container B cools
faster.

Example 28 Chapter 10
Water of mass 3.0 kg, at a temperature of
90 0C is allowed to cool for 10 minutes. GAS LAWS
State two factors, other than humidity, that
determine the final temperature. (2 marks) Specific Objectives
(a) Surface area of water. By the end of this topic, the learner should
(b) Nature of surface of the container. be able to:

Example 29 (a) state the gas laws for an ideal gas

Explain why a drop of methylated spirit on (b) verify experimentally the gas laws
the back of the hand feels colder than a drop (c) explain how the absolute temperature
of water at the same temperature. (2 marks) may be obtained from the pressure-
Methylated spirit evaporates faster (is temperature and volume-temperature
highly volatile) than water taking away graphs.
the latent heat away faster from the hand. (d) convert Celsius scale to Kelvin of
temperature
(e) state the basic assumptions of the
kinetic theory of gases
(f) explain the gas laws using the kinetic
theory of gases
(g) solve numerical problems involving gas
laws.

Introduction

 Gas laws show the relationship

between the pressure, volume and
the temperature of a fixed mass of
gas.
 These laws are:
1. Boyle’s Law.
2. Charles’ Law
3. Pressure Law

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of a fixed mass of a gas at constant

temperature.

Apparatus

Thick-walled J-shaped glass tube with one

end closed, oil, Bourdon gauge, foot pump,
metre rule.
A. BOYLE’S LAW
 It relates the pressure and volume of
a fixed mass of gas at constant
temperature.
 The arrangements in figure 10.1 (a)
and (b) can be used to demonstrate
the relationship between pressure
and volume of a fixed mass of gas at
constant temperature.

Figure 10.2

Procedure
 Set up the apparatus as shown in
figure 10.2.
Figure 10.1  Connect the foot pump to the
apparatus and with the tap open,
The nozzle of the syringe is closed with a pump in air until the oil rises a small
finger and the piston slowly pushed inwards. but measurable height, then close the
tap.
Observation
 Allow the air to adjust to room
It is observed that an increase in pressure
temperature, then read the value of
of a mass of gas results in decrease in
the pressure, P on the gauge and the
volume.
height, h of the air column.
Note:
EXPERIMENT 10.1: To investigate the
relationship between pressure and volume

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The height, h of the air column represents  So, PV = constant,

the volume of the air, since the glass tube i.e., P1V1 = P2V2, for any given
has a uniform area of cross-section. mass of a gas.
(Volume = Area of uniform cross-section x
 Figure 10.3 (a), (b) and (c) show
Height)
sketches of the relationship between
 Repeat the experiment by varying pressure, P and volume, V of a fixed
the values of pressure to obtain mass of gas at constant temperature.
corresponding readings of height of
the air column.
 Record your results in the table 1.
Table 1
Pressure, Volume, ( ⁻
) PV
P (Pa) V (h cm)

 Using the results in the table, plot a

graph of:
(a) P against V.
(b) P against . Determine the slope.
(c) PV against P.
Results and Conclusion
 This experiment shows that an
increase in pressure of a fixed mass
of gas causes a decrease in its
volume.
 This is summarized in Boyle’s Law.
 It states that:
The pressure of a fixed mass of a gas is
inversely proportional to its volume,
provided that the temperature is kept
constant.
 In symbols;
P , or, P

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Figure 10.5

Example 1
Figure 10.3 Determine the pressure required to compress
a gas in a cylinder initially at 20 0Cand at a
pressure of 1.03 x 105 Pa to one-eighth of its
original volume.
Solution
Note:
(a) If the experiment above is repeated at = ↔ =
different temperatures, similar curves are
obtained as shown in figure 10.4. 1.03 x 105 Pa, = v, V2 = v

P2= 8.24 x 105 Pa

Example 2
Figure 10.6 shows an air bubble of volume
2.0 cm3 at the bottom of a lake 40 m deep.

Figure 10.4

Each of the curves is called an isothermal

curve.

(b) When P is plotted against for each of Figure 10.6

the isothermals, the results obtained would
be as shown in figure 10.5.

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Determine the volume of the bubble just Volume of the air column is proportional
below the surface S, if the atmospheric to length of the air column
pressure is equivalent to a height of 10 m of
water. Form Boyle’s Law, =
In fig (a), air pressure = atm. pressure +
Solution
ρgh
10 m water column = 1 atmosphere
In fig (b), air pressure = atm. pressure -
Therefore, 40 m water column = 4
ρgh
atmospheres.
ρ = Density of mercury.
Total pressure, P1 at the bottom = 1 + 4
Let the atm. pressure be x cm of mercury.
= 5 atmospheres
(x + 5) x 26 = (x- 5) x 30
Pressure P2 at the surface = 1 atm.
26x + 130 = 30x – 150
Volume, V1 at the bottom = 2.0 cm3
280 = 4x
By Boyle’s law, =
x = 70 cmHg
5 x 2.0 = 1 x
= 10.0 cm3

Example 3 Example 4
A column of air 26 cm long is trapped by a Figure 10.8 shows a graph of pressure P,
mercury thread 5 cm long as shown in against volume, V, for a fixed mass of gas at
figure 10.7 (a). When the tube is inverted as constant temperature.
in figure 10.7 (b), the air column becomes
30 cm long.

Figure 10.8

Sketch on the same axes, a graph for the

same mass at gas with a temperature T2
Figure 10.7 lower than T1. (1 mark)
Determine the value of the atmospheric
Example 5
pressure.
Figure 10.9 shows a set-up that may be used
Solution
to verify Boyle‟s law.

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(2 marks)
The pressure in B is higher than in A.
There are more hydrogen gas molecules
than oxygen gas molecules. The collision
of hydrogen gas molecules with the walls
of the container is therefore higher in B.

B. CHARLES’ LAW
Figure 10.9
 It relates volume and temperature
(a) Describe the measurements that should of a fixed mass of gas at constant
be taken in the experiment. (2 marks) pressure.
(i) Pressure by use of bourdon gauge.  The set up in figure 10.10 can be
(ii) Length (or volume) of the enclosed air used to demonstrate the relationship
column. between temperature and volume of
a fixed mass of a gas at constant
(b) Explain how the measurements taken in pressure.
(a) above may be used to verify Boyle‟s law.
(4 marks)
 Adjust the pressure entering from
the pump and note the
corresponding length (or volume)
of the enclosed air.
 Repeat the experiment for other
values of the pressure and tabulate
the values.
 Plot the graph of against P. The Figure 10.10
graph is a straight line passing The flask is grasped firmly and the water
through the origin, showing that index observed.
Pα .
Observation

Example 6 The water index rises higher when the flask

Two identical containers A and B are placed is held and falls when the hands are
on a bench. Container A is filled with withdrawn, showing that the volume of gas
oxygen gas and container B with hydrogen increases when its temperature is raised.
gas such that the two gases have equal
EXPERIMENT 2: To Investigate the
masses. If the containers are maintained at
Relationship between Volume and
the same temperature, state with reason the
Temperature of a Fixed Mass of a Gas at
container in which the pressure is higher.
Constant Pressure.

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Apparatus Height, h (cm)

Capillary tube sealed at one end,

concentrated sulphuric acid, thermometer,
half metre rule, stirrer, source of heat, retort
stand, rubber band, water bath.

Note:
(i) The sulphuric acid index serves as a
pointer to the volume (height) of the gas on
the scale as well as a drying agent for the
air.
(ii) Pressure of the trapped air is equal to the
atmospheric pressure plus pressure due to
the sulphuric acid index, which remains
constant throughout the experiment.

(iii) Before taking the readings, stir the

water bathe so that the temperature of the
gas is equal to that of the water bath.
Figure 10 .11 Observation
Procedure
 As the temperature rises, the height,
 Introduce concentrated sulphuric h (volume) of the gas also increases.
acid deep into the glass tube to trap  Figure 10.12 shows a graph of
air in the tube. volume (cm3) against temperature
 Attach the tube, thermometer and the (0C).
half metre rule using the rubber
band.
 Assemble the apparatus as shown in
the figure 10.11.
 Record the room temperature and the
corresponding height, h of air
column in the tube.
 Heat the water bath and record the Figure 10.12
temperature and the corresponding
height at suitable temperature  The graph is a straight line,
intervals in the table 2. indicating proportional changes in
Table 2 volume and temperature.
Temperature (θ  The graph cuts the volume axis
0
C) above the origin.

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 If the graph is extrapolated, it cuts temperature, provided that the pressure is

the temperature axis at about ⁻273 kept constant.
0
C.  In symbols:
 At the temperature of ⁻273 0C, the V T or V = kT and k = where k is a
volume of a gas is assumed to be
zero. constant of proportionality.
 ⁻273 0C is the lowest possible Hence, = = constant
temperature that a gas can fall to.
 ⁻273 0C is called the absolute zero. Note:
 The scale of temperature based on This formula is only applicable when the
the absolute zero is called the temperature is expressed in Kelvin.
absolute scale or Kelvin scale of
temperature. Relation between Celsius and Kelvin
 A graph of volume against absolute Scale
temperature is a straight line that
Figure 10.14 relates the Kelvin (Absolute)
passes through the origin, figure
scale to the Celsius scale.
10.13.

Figure 10.14

(i) To convert temperature in degrees

Figure 10.13
Celsius to Kelvin, add 273 to the Cel
Note: sius temperature i.e.
It is impossible to get to absolute zero for θ 0C = (θ + 273) K
gases because they condense at fairly higher
temperatures. (ii) To convert temperature in Kelvin to
 It follows that on the Kelvin scale, degrees Celsius, subtract 273 to the
the volume of the gas is directly Celsius temperature i.e.
proportional to the absolute (or θ K = (θ - 273) 0C
Kelvin) temperature.
Example 7
 This relation is called Charles’ Law.
Convert each of the following Celsius
It states that:
temperatures to Kelvin temperatures.
The volume of a fixed mass of a gas is
(a) 0 0C = (0 + 273) K = 273 K
directly proportional to its absolute

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(b) 50 0C = (50 + 273) K = 323 K Figure 10.15 shows a set-up that may be
used to verify Charles‟ law.
(c) ⁻92 0C = (⁻92 + 273) K = 181 K

(d) 100 0C = (100 + 273) K = 373 K

(e) ⁻273 0C = (⁻273 + 273) K = 0 K

Example 8
State what is meant by absolute zero
temperature (Zero Kelvin 0r ⁻273 0C)
(1 mark)
This is the temperature at which an ideal
gas has zero volume. Figure 10.15

(a) State the measurements that should be

Example 9 taken in the experiment. (2 marks)
0.02 m3 of a gas at 27 0C is heated at (i) Length (or volume) of the air column.
constant pressure until the volume is 0.03 (ii) Temperature
m3. Calculate the final temperature of the (b) Explain how the measurements taken in
gas in 0C. (a) above may be used to verify Charles‟
law. (4 marks)
Solution  Air is trapped by thin mercury
= constant, i.e. = ↔ T2 = thread in a capillary tube.
 The initial temperature is noted.
T2 =  The water in the bath is heated
and this in turn heats up the air
T2 = 450 K inside the capillary tube.
450 K = (450 – 273) 0C = 177 0C  The length (or volume) of the air
column is read against the scale
Example 10 and the temperature is recorded
A mass of air of volume 750 cm3 is heated at on the thermometer.
constant pressure from 100C to 100 0C.  Several values of temperature and
Calculate the final volume of the air. the corresponding length of the air
Solution column are recorded.
 A graph of volume of air against
= constant, i.e. = ↔ V2 = temperature is drawn. The graph
is a straight line cutting the
V2 = temperature axis at ⁻273 0C.
(c) What is the purpose of the water bath?
V2 = 988.5 m3
(1 mark)
Example 11 It allows the air to be heated uniformly.

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Apparatus
Round-bottomed flask, tight-fitting rubber
Example 12 cork with two holes, pressure gauge, water
State the law that relates the volume of a gas bath, Bunsen burner, tripod stand,
to the temperature of a gas. (1 mark) thermometer, retort stand.
Charles’ law: It states that, for a fixed
mass of gas at constant pressure, the
volume is directly proportional to the
absolute temperature.

Example 13
A long horizontal capillary tube of uniform
bore sealed at one end contains dry air
trapped by a drop of mercury. The length of
the air column is 142 mm at 17 0C.
Determine the length of the air column at
25 0C. (3 marks)
Since the area of cross-section of the bore
is uniform, then the length of air column Figure 10.16
is directly proportional to volume. Procedure
V1 = 142 mm, T1 = 17 + 273 = 290 K,
V2 =?, T2 = 25 + 273 = 298 K 
Set up the apparatus as shown in the
= (Charles’ law) figure 10.16.
 Record the initial temperature and
= pressure readings.
 Heat the water bath gently and obtain
= at least seven more pairs of readings
V2 = 145.92 mm at suitable temperature intervals.
 Record your results in the table 3.
C. PRESSURE LAW Table 3

This law relates pressure of a fixed mass of Temperature, T

gas to its absolute temperature at constant (0C)
volume. Pressure, P (Pa)

EXPERIMENT 3: To investigate the

relationship between pressure and
temperature of a fixed mass of a gas at Note:
constant volume. The air in the tube connecting the pressure
gauge to the glass flask may be at a lower

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temperature than the air in the flask. This  This conclusion is summed up in
tube should therefore be as short as possible. pressure law. It states that:
Observation The pressure of a fixed mass of gas is
 Increase in temperature causes an directly proportional to its absolute
increase in pressure. temperature, provided that volume is kept
 The graph of pressure against time is constant.
a straight line that cuts the pressure In symbols:
axis above the origin, figure 10.17. P T or P = kT ↔ k = , where k is a
constant of proportionality.

So, =

Example 14
A cylinder contains oxygen at 0 0C, and 1
atmosphere pressure. What will be the
pressure in the cylinder if the temperature
rises to 100 0C.
Solution
Figure 10.17

 When the graph is extrapolated, it = ↔ P2 =

cuts the temperature axis at ⁻273 0C,
the absolute zero. P2 =
 A graph of pressure against absolute P2 = 1.366 atmospheres
temperature is a straight line that
passes through the origin, figure Example 15
10.18. At 20 0C, the pressure of a gas is 50 cm o
mercury. At what temperature would the
pressure of the gas fall to 10 cm of mercury?
Solution

= ↔ T2 =

T2 =
T2 = 58.6 K (or ⁻214.4 0C)
Figure 10.18
Example 16
Conclusion
(a) State the pressure law of an ideal gas.
 On the absolute scale, the pressure of (1 mark)
a gas is directly proportional to its The pressure of a fixed mass of an ideal
absolute temperature. gas is directly proportional to its absolute

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temperature, provided that volume is pressure is directly proportional to

kept constant. the temperature.

(b) Figure 10.19 shows a simple set up for Example 17

pressure law apparatus. The pressure acting on a gas in a container
was changed steadily while the temperature
of the gas was maintained constant. The
value of the volume, V, of the gas was
measured for various values of pressure.
The graph in figure 10.20 shows the relation
between the pressure, P, and the reciprocal
of the volume, .

Figure 10.19

(i) (a) State the measurements that should be

taken in the experiment. (2 marks)
(i) Pressure
(ii) Temperature

(b) Explain how the measurements taken in

Figure 10.20
(a) above may be used to verify Charles‟
law. (5 marks)
(a) Suggest how the temperature of the gas
 The water in the bath is heated could be kept constant. (1 mark)
and the air in the flask in turn gets By changing the pressure very slowly or
heated. by allowing gas to go to original
 The temperature of the gas is temperature after the change.
noted and the corresponding value (b) Given that the relation between the
of pressure noted on the bourdon pressure, P, and the volume, V, of the gas is
gauge. given by PV = k, where k is a constant, use
 Several values of the temperature, the graph to determine the value of k.
T and the corresponding values of (4 marks)
pressure, P are tabulated.
P = ( )k ⇒ k is the slope of the graph.
 A graph of P against T is drawn,
 The graph is a straight line passing
⁻
through the origin, indicating het
k= ⁻

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k = 0.0825 Nm pressure inside the bubble exceeds that of

outside causing the bubble to expand.
(c) What physical quantity does k represent?
(1 mk) (b) From the graph, determine the pressure
The work done on the gas on the bubble:
(i) At the bottom of the liquid column.
(d) State one precaution you would take (2 marks)
when performing such an experiment.
(1 mark) P=
(i) Use dry gas P=
(ii) Make very small changes in
P = 2 Pa
temperature.
The corresponding pressure is 1.88 x 105
Example 18 Pa
An air bubble is released at the bottom of a
(ii) At the top of the liquid column. (1 mark)
tall jar containing a liquid. The height of the
liquid column is 80 cm. The volume of the P=
bubble increases from 0.5 cm3 at the bottom P=
of the liquid to 1.15 cm3 at the top.
P = 0.8698 Pa
Figure 10.21 shows the variation of
The corresponding pressure is 8.0 x 104
pressure, P, on the bubble with the
Pa
reciprocal of the volume, , as it rises in the
liquid. (c) Hence determine the density of the liquid
in kgm⁻3. (Take g = 10 Nkg⁻1) (3 marks)
Change in pressure, ∆P =
1.88 x 105 - 8.0 x 104
∆P = 1.08 x 105 Pa
But ∆P = ρgh
ρ x 10 x 0.8 = 1.08 x 105
ρ=
ρ = 13 500 kgm⁻3

(d) What is the value of the atmospheric

Figure 10.21 pressure of the surrounding? (1 mark)
Pressure at the top, Pt = atmospheric
(a) State the reason why the volume pressure, Pa = 8.0 x 104 Pa
increases as the bubble rises in the liquid.
(1 mark)
This is because the pressure due to the Example 19
liquid column decreases and therefore the

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Figure 10.22 shows an insulated cylinder (Take g = 10 Nkg⁻1)

fitted with a pressure gauge, a heating coil
= (pressure law)
and a frictionless piston of cross-sectional
area 100 cm2. =

T2 =
T2 = 330 K
T2 = (330 – 273) 0C
T2 = 57 0C
Figure 10.22
Equation of State
(a) While the piston is at position O, the  This is a general gas law relating the
pressure of the enclosed gas is 10 Ncm⁻2 at a changes in pressure, volume and the
temperature of 27 0C. When a 10 kg mass absolute temperature as follows:
is placed on the piston, it comes to rest at
position A without change in the = constant, k
temperature of the gas.
(i) Determine the new reading on the
pressure gauge. (4 marks) So, =
P=
 The constant k depends on the:
P= (i) Type of the gas.
P = 1 Ncm⁻2 (ii) Quantity of the gas.
Total pressure, Pt = (10 + 1) Ncm⁻2  When the amount of the gas is 1
Pt = 11 Ncm⁻2 mole, the equation changes to:
=R
(ii) State with a reason how the value
 R is a constant for all gases and is
obtained in (a) compares with the initial
called the universal gas constant.
pressure. (2 marks)
Example 20
The pressure increases since the volume
A mass of 1 200 cm3 of oxygen at 27 0C and
of the gas increases.
a pressure of 1.2 atmospheres is compressed
(b) The gas is now heated by the heating coil until its volume is 600 cm3 and its pressure
so that the piston moves back to the original 3.0 atmospheres. Determine the temperature
position O. of the gas after compression in 0C.
(i) State the reading on the pressure gauge.
Solution
(1 mark)
2
10 Ncm⁻
= ↔ T2 =
(ii) Determine the temperature of the gas in
0
C. (4 marks)

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T2 = When the temperature of a gas rise,

kinetic energy of the molecules of
T2 = 375 K the gas increases.
T2 = (375 – 273) 0C  The particles move faster and the
T2 = 102 0C rate of collision with the walls of the
container increases.
 Since the pressure is required to be
Example 21 constant, then the volume must
125 cm3 of gas is collected at a temperature
increase accordingly so that although
of 15 0C and pressure of 755 mm of
the molecules are moving faster, the
mercury. Calculate the volume of the gas at
number of collisions at the walls of
s.t.p.
the container per unit time is
Note:
reduced, since the distance between
00C and 760 mmHg are called standard the walls is increased by increasing
temperature and pressure (s.t.p.) the volume.
3. Pressure Law
Solution
 When the temperature of a gas rise,
kinetic energy of the molecules of
= ↔ V2 = the gas increases.
 Since volume is constant, the rate of
V2 = collision with the walls of the
container increases.
V2 = 117.7 cm3  This increase in collisions increases
the pressure of the gas.
GAS LAWS AND THE KINETIC Example 22
THEORY OF MATTER A house in which a cylinder containing
cooking gas is unfortunately catches fire.
1. Boyle’s Law The cylinder explodes. Use the kinetic
 If the volume of a fixed mass of gas theory of gases to explain the cause for the
is halved, the number of molecules explosion. (2 marks)
per unit volume will be doubled. High temperatures increase the kinetic
 The number of collisions per unit energy of the gas molecules which leads to
time, and therefore the rate of change higher rate of collision with the cylinder
of momentum, will also be doubled, walls, resulting in increase in pressure
i.e. the pressure is doubled. thereby causing explosion.
 Consequently, halving the volume of
the gas doubles the pressure of the Example 23
gas. When an inflated balloon is placed in a
2. Charles’ Law refrigerator it is noted that its volume

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reduces. Use the kinetic theory of gases to

explain this observation. (3 mks)
Low temperature reduces the kinetic
energy of the air molecules which leads to
lower rate of collision with the walls of the
balloon fabric which results to reduction
of pressure.

Example 24
The pressure of the air inside a car tyre
increases if the car stands out in the sun for
some time on a hot day. Explain the pressure
increase in terms of the kinetic theory of
gases. (3 marks)
The hot temperature heats up the tyre
which in turn heats up the air inside it.
The air molecules gain more kinetic
energy and move faster. Since the volume
is constant, the molecules collide more
frequently with the walls of the tyre
which leads to greater change of
momentum per unit time. This leads to an
increase in pressure.

Limitations of Gas Laws

1. Kinetic theory of gases assumes that:
(a) the size of the gas molecules is
negligible.
(b) the inter-molecular forces are
negligible.
2. Real gases have molecules with definite
volumes and therefore the idea of zero
volume or zero pressure is not real. Real
gases get liquefied before zero volume is
reached.
Note:
A gas that obeys the gas laws completely (or
perfectly) is called ideal or perfect gas.

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