Foundation Engineering Ι 1

3. Design of shallow Foundations

3.1 INTRODUCTION

This chapter deals with the economical and safe design of the common types of shallow
foundations. The main foundation types that are considered here are: isolated or spread
footings, combined footings, strap or cantilever footings and mat or raft foundations.
Shallow foundations are structural members that are used to transfer safely to the
ground the dead load of the superstructure and all external forces acting upon it. The type
and magnitude of the loading will usually be furnished by the engineer design the
superstructure. It is up to the foundation engineer to collect all the information regarding the
purpose of the superstructure, the material that will be used in its construction, its sensitivity
to settlements in general and to differential settlement in particular and all other pertinent
information that may influence the successful selection and execution of the foundation
design. The foundation engineer should also select the soil stratum that most suitable for the
support of the superstructure.
The design of shallow foundations is based on the assumption that they are rigid so that
the variation of pressure under the foundations will be linear. The distribution of pressure will
be uniform if the centroid of the foundation coincides with the resultant of the applied loads.
The requirements in design of foundations are:
1. The pressure on the soil should not exceed the bearing capacity of the soil.
2. The settlement of the structure should be within the permissible limits. Further
there should be no differential settlement.
In order to proportion shallow foundations one should either know the presumptive
allowable soil pressure as dictated by prevalent code or know the appropriate strength
parameters of the soil, i.e., the angle of internal friction,φ , and cohesion, C.
 Foundation Engineering Ι 2
3.1.1 Proportioning of shallow foundations using presumptive
allowable soil pressure.
Through many years of practice, it has been possible to estimate the allowable soil
pressure for different types of soils for uncomplicated soil conditions. Accordingly different
Building codes give allowable average soil pressure. Here EBCS 7 is presented.
Table 3,1 Presumed Design Bearing resistance * under static loading( EBCS 7)
Supporting Description Compactness** Presumed Remarks
Ground or Design Bearing
Type Consistency*** Resistance
(kPa)
Massively crystalline igneous and Hard and
metamorphic rock ( granite, sound
basalt, gneiss) 5600

Foliated metamorphic rock (slate, Medium hard 2800

schist) and sound

Sedimentary rock (hard shale, Medium hard These

Rocks siltstone, sandstone, limestone) and sound 2800 values are
based on the
Weathered or broken-rock (soft Soft 1400 assumptions
limestone) that the
foundations
Soft shale Soft 850 are carried
down to
unweathered
Decomposed rock to be rock
assessed as soil below.

Non- Gravel, sand and gravel Dense 560 Width of

cohesive Medium dense 420 foundation
soils Loose 280 (B) not less
than 1m
 Foundation Engineering Ι 3
Sand Dense 420
Medium dense 280 Ground
Loose 140 water level
assumed to
be depth not
less than B
below the
base of the
foundation.

Cohesive Silt Hard 280

soils Stiff 200
Medium stiff 140
Soft 70

Clay Hard 420

Stiff 280
Medium stiff 140
Soft 70
Very soft Not applicable

* The given design bearing values do not include the effect of the depth of embedment
of the foundation.
** Compactness: dense: N> 30
medium dense: N is 10 to 30
loose: N< 10, where N is standard penetration value
*** Consistency: hard: qu > 400kPa
stiff: qu = 100 to 200kPa
medium stiff qu = 50 to 100kPa
soft: qu = 25 to 50 kPa, where qu is unconfined compressive strength
 Foundation Engineering Ι 4
3.1.2 Proportioning of shallow foundations using the soil strength
parameters φ and c.
For cases where presumptive allowable soil pressures cannot be used, one should
determine the soil strength parameters φ and c. These parameters may be approximated or
determined from laboratory tests. Using the value of φ and c thus obtained, one can easily
determine the area of the foundation in question using bearing capacity equations.
In applying the bearing capacity equations one should differentiate two states of loading,
namely, the initial or instantaneous loading condition and the final or long- term loading
condition.
In the initial loading condition, the load is assumed to act instantaneously. At this stage
the pore water pressure in the soil does not have time to dissipate. This situation
corresponds to the quick or undrained test condition of the triaxial test. The soil parameters
are designated by φu and cu - in most cases φu = 0.
In the final or long-term loading condition, the load is assumed to act gradually as
construction progresses thus giving the pore water pressure in the soil ample time to
dissipate. Here the situation corresponds to the slow or drained test condition of the triaxial
test. The soil parameters in this case are designated by φ’ and c’.
The ultimate load that may be applied on a foundation with sides a and b may be
determined from the following equation

Vult = A′*σult --------------------------------------------------------- (3.1)

Where A′ = a′ b′= effective area (Fig. 3.1)

a′ = a-2ea = effective length
b′ = b-2eb= effective width
σult = ultimate bearing capacity of the footing
ea and eb = Eccentricities in the long and short directions, respectively.
The actual sustained load on the footing may be related to the ultimate load

Vult =Fs* P ---------------------------------------------------------------------------- (3.2)

Where Fs = factor of safety

P = actual sustained load on the foundation
 Foundation Engineering Ι 5

b’

a’ . ea

eb

Fig 3.1 Effective width and length of a foundation

One may then express Eqn. (3.1) as

Fs *P = A′ σult ----------------------------------------------------------------- (3.3)

From which it follows

Fs * P
A′ = σ ult -------------------------------------------------------------------- (3.4)

From Eqn. (3.4) one easily determines the required area since all the quantities on the
right hand side of the equation are known.

The ultimate bearing capacity, qult, may be determined from the following equation

σult = CNc Scdcic+ ½ b’ γ Nγ Sγdγ iγ + q Nq Sqdqiq ------------------ (3.5)

Where
qult = Ultimate bearing capacity of footing,
C = Cohesion,
q = Effective surcharge at the base level of the footing.
γ = effective unit weight of soil
Nc, Nq, Nγ = Bearing capacity factors

Sc, Sq ,Sγ = Shape factors

dc ,dq, dγ = Depth factors

ic, iq, iγ , = Inclination factors

 Foundation Engineering Ι 6
For initial loading conditions, where φu = 0, the failure surface of the soil consist of
straight lines and an arc of a circle. The bearing capacity coefficient would have the values
Nc =5.14, Nq= 1.0, Nγ = 0. Eqn. (3.5) may be written as

σult = 5.14CuSc dc ic+ q Sq dq iq --------------------------------- (3.6)

3.1.3 Structural Considerations.

Before going into the structural design, one should check if the settlement of the selected
foundation is within the prescribed safe limits. If the settlement exceeds the safe limits, one
should increase the dimensions of the foundations until the danger of settlement is
eliminated.
The last stage in the design of foundations is the structural design. The structural design
process for reinforced concrete foundations include:
• Selecting a concrete with an appropriate strength
• Selecting an appropriate grade of reinforcing steel
• Determining the required foundation thickness
• Determining the size, number and spacing of the reinforcing bars
• Designing the connection between the super structure and the foundation

Shear resistance according to EBCS-2

i. Punching Shear Resistance

Vup = 0.25fctd k1k2 u d (MN)

where k1 = ( 1+50ρe) ≤ 2.0

K2 = 1.6 – d ≥ 1.0 ( d in meters)

For members where more than 50% of the bottom reinforcement is curtailed , k2= 1
dx + dy
d=
2

ρe = ρ ex + .ρ ey ≤ 0.015
d is the average effective hight in the x and y directions
ii. Diagonal Tension (Wide beam) shear resistance

Vud = 0.25fctd k1k2 bwd (MN)

 Foundation Engineering Ι 7

where k1 = ( 1+50ρ) ≤ 2.0

K2 = 1.6 – d ≥ 1.0 ( d in meters)

For members where more than 50 % of the bottom reinforcement is c urtailed , k2= 1

As
ρ=
bw d
iii. Development length
φ f yd
ld = (cm)
4 f bd

f
f yd = yk ; fbd = f ctd
γs

0.35 f ck
f ctd =
γc
Where
As= area of tension reinforcement (m2)
bw= width of web or rib of a member(m)
d = the distance from extreme compression to centroid of tension reinforcement
(m)
fbd= design bond strength (MPa)
fck = characteristics compressive strength of concrete (MPa)
fctd = design tensile strength of concrete (MPa)
fyd = design yield strength of reinforcement (MPa)
fyk = characteristics yield strength of concrete (MPa)
u = periphery of critical section (m)
γc = partial safety factor for concrete = 1.5
γs = partial safety factor for steel = 1.15
ρ = geometrical ratio of reinforcement
ρe =effective geometrical ratio of reinforcement
ρex = geometrical ratio of reinforcement in the x-direction
ρey= geometrical ratio of reinforcement in the y-direction
φ=diameter of reinforcement bar (m)
 Foundation Engineering Ι 8
3.2 Isolated or Spread Footings
I. Depth of footing
The depth of embedment must be at least large enough to accommodate the required
footing thickness. This depth is measured from the lowest adjacent ground surface to the
bottom of the footing.
Footings should be carried below
a) zone of high volume change due to moisture fluctuation
b) top (organic) soil
c) peat and muck
d) unconsolidated (or fill) material
According to EBCS-7
- minimum depth of footing should be 50cm
- for footings on sloping sites, minimum depth of footing should be 60cm and
90cm below ground surface on rocky and soil formations, respectively.
Footing at different elevations: - When adjacent footings are to be placed at different
levels, the distance between the edges of footings shall be such as to prevent undesirable
overlapping of stresses in soils and disturbance of the soil under the higher footing due to
excavation for the lower footing. A minimum clear distance of half the width of the footing is
recommended.

II. Proportioning of footing

The required area of the footing and subsequently the proportions will be determined
using presumptive allowable soil pressure and/or the soil strength parameters φ and c as
discussed previously.

III. Structural Design

i) Punching shear:- This factor generally controls the depth of footings. It is the
normal practice to provide adequate depth to sustain the shear stress developed without
reinforcement. The critical section that is to be considered is indicated in Fig. 3.2
 Foundation Engineering Ι 9

A b’ +3d A

b’
a
a’ +3d a’

Critical
section

1.5d Critical
1.5d
section

D d

Average soil
b pressure,σ

Section A-A

Fig. 3.2 Critical section for punching shear

From the figure it is apparent the concrete shear resistance along the perimeter
according to EBCS2 would be
2( a’ +3d + b’+ 3d) dVup ……………………………………………… (3.7)
Where Vup = punching shear resistance
The net force on the perimeter due to the soil pressure would be

{a ∗ b − [(a'+3d )(b'+3d )]}σ ult ……………………………………… (3.8)

From equilibrium consideration, Eqn. (3.7) and Eqn. (3.8) should be equal

2( a’ +3d + b’+ 3d) dVup = {a ∗ b − [(a ' + 3 d )(b ' + 3 d )]}σ ult
 Foundation Engineering Ι 10

(
2a' dVup + 6d 2Vup + 2b' dVup + 6d 2Vup = ab − a' b'−3a' d − 3b' d − 9d 2 σ ult )
2a' dVup + 6d 2Vup + 2b' dVup + 6d 2Vup + 3a' dσult + 3b' dσult + 9d 2σult = (ab − a'b')σult

2a' dVup + 2b' dVup +12d 2Vup + 9d 2σ ult + 3a' dσ ult + 3b' dσ ult = (ab − a' b')σ ult

d (2a'Vup + 2b'Vup + 3a'σ ult + 3b'σ ult ) + d 2 (12Vup + 9σ ult ) = (ab − a' b')σ ult

d 2 (12Vup + 9σ ul t ) + d (2Vup (a'+b' ) + 3σ ult (a'+b' )) = (ab − a' b')σ ult

d 2 (12Vup + 9σ ul t ) + d (2Vup + 3σ ult )(a'+b' )) = (ab − a' b')σ ult

d 2 (12Vup + 9σ ult ) + d (2Vup + 3σ ult )(a'+b' ) = (Afooting − Acolumn)σ ult …… (3.9)

For square columns a’ = b’ and round colmns with diameter a’, Eqn. (3.9) would be

d 2 (12Vup + 9σ ult ) + d (2Vup + 3σ ult )(2a' ) = (Afooting − Acolumn )σ ult …… (3.10)

In the above equations, all quantities with the exception of d are known. By solving one
of the equations the effective depth necessary to sustain the punching shear may be
determined.

ii) Diagonal Tension (wide beam shear)

The selected depth using the punching shear criterion may not be adequate to withstand
the diagonal tension developed. Hence one should also check the safety against diagonal
tension. The critical sections that should be considered are given in Fig. 3.3 .
 Foundation Engineering Ι 11

C
D D
B d B
b’
a
a’

d
Critical
section

C
P Critical
section

d d

D d

Average soil
pressure,σ
b
Section B-B
Fig. 3.3 Critical section for diagonal tension
The shear forces are calculated along the plane C-C and D-D

V C-C = (b/2 –d - b’/2) aσult ………………………………………… (3.11)

V D-D = (a/2 –d - a’/2) bσult …………………………………………. (3.12)

The actual shear stress is then calculated from

VC − C
v C-C = ……………………………………………………… (3.13)
ad
VD− D
v D-D = ……………………………………………………. (3.14)
bd
These calculated actual shear stresses should be compared with diagonal shear
resistance.
 Foundation Engineering Ι 12
iii) Bending Moment
The external moment on any section of a footing shall be determined by passing a
vertical plane through the footing, and computing the moment of the forces acting over the
entire area of the footing on one side of that vertical plane. The critical sections for the
bending moment vary according to the type of columns.
According to EBCS 2-1995, the critical section for moment shall be taken as follows:
a) At the face of column, pedestal or wall for footings supporting a concrete
pedestal or wall
b) Halfway between middle and edge of wall, for footings supporting a masonry
wall
c) Halfway between face of column and edge of steel base for footings
supporting a column with base plates.

Critical sections
varies according
to the type of
column as given
in a,b and c
a

Column

Concrete
Column Critical
section

D d
a)
ld
b

Available
embedment length
 Foundation Engineering Ι 13

Masonry
column Critical
section

b) D d

X x/2 ld

b
Available
embedment length

Base plate Steel

column
X
x/2 Critical
section
c) D d

ld
b
Available
embedment length
Fig. 3.4 Critical sections for moments

Flexural Reinforcement
1. Distribution: In one-way footings and two-way square footings,
reinforcement shall be distributed uniformly across the entire width of
footing.
2. In two-way rectangular footings, reinforcement shall be distributed as
follows:
a) Reinforcement in long direction shall be distributed uniformly across the entire width
of footing
b) For reinforcement in the short direction, a portion of the total reinforcement given by
Eqn.(3.15) shall be distributed uniformly over a band width ( centered on center line
of column or pedestal) equal to the length of the short side of footing. The reminder of
the reinforcement required in the short direction shall be distributed uniformly out side
the center band width of the footing.
 Foundation Engineering Ι 14
Re inf orcement in band width 2 ……………
= (3.15)
Total re inf orcement in short direction β + 1
Where β is the ratio of long side to short side of footing (a/b).

IV. Development length

The reinforcement bars must extend a sufficient distance into the concrete to develop
proper anchorage. This distance is called the development length.
The necessary development length may be calculated using the following equation.

φ f yd
ld =
4 f bd
Minimum Footing cover (According to EBCS2-1995)
The thickness of footing above bottom reinforcement shall not be less than 150mm for
footing on soil, or 300mm for footing on piles.

Concrete cover to reinforcement (According to EBCS2-1995)

- Concrete cast directly against the earth, the minimum cover should be greater
than 75mm
- Concrete cast against prepared ground (including blinding) the minimum cover
should be greater than 40mm.
Spacing of reinforcement
The clear horizontal and vertical distance between bars shall be at least equal to the
largest of the following values: (EBCS2-1995)
a) 20mm
b) the diameter of the largest bar
c) the maximum size of the aggregate plus 5mm

The spacing between main bars for slabs shall not exceed the smaller of 2h or 350mm
The spacing between secondary bars shall not exceed 400mm
 Foundation Engineering Ι 15
Examples
3.1 Determine the dimensions of a square footing necessary to sustain an axial column
load of 850kN as shown in Fig. below, if
a) an allowable presumptive bearing pressure of 150kN/m2 is used.
b) Cu = 40 kN/m2 ; C’ = 7.5 kN/m2 ; φ’ =22.50

P=850kN

γ = 19.1kN/m3

2m

GWL

Solution
a) Using presumptive value

P 850
A= = = 5.67m 2 = B 2
σ as 150
The dimension of the footing would be 2.40m X 2.40m

b) Using the bearing capacity formula

i) Initial loading condition

σf = 5.14Cu Sc dc ic+ q Sq dq iq
Shape factors
Sc = 1.2 , Sq = 1

Depth factors
 Foundation Engineering Ι 16

dc = (1+0.4(2/B)) , dq = 1

Load inclination factors

ic = 1 , iq = 1

Hence
σult = 5.14*40 *1.2*(1+0.8/B)*1+ 19.1*2*1**1*1 = (244.8+195.84/B +38.2)
A σult = P Fs

P * Fs 850 * 2
A= = = B2
σ ult 253 + 195.84 / B

253 B2 +195.84B – 1700 = 0

The dimension of the footing would be 2.25m X 2.25m

ii) Final or long term loading condition

σult = CNc Scdcic+ ½ B’ γ Nγ Sγdγ iγ + q Nq Sqdqiq

Bearing capacity factors

Nc= 17.45, Nγ = 6.82, Nq = 8.23

Shape factors
Sc = 1+(Nq/ Nc)=1.47, Sγ = 0.6 , Sq = 1+ tan φ= 1.41

Depth factors

dc = 1+ 0.4 (2 / B)=1+0.8/B, dγ = 1, dq = 1+2 tan 22.5(1-sin22.5)2(Df / B) =1+0.63/B

Load inclination factors

ic = 1, iγ= 1 , iq = 1

Hence
σult = 7.5*17.45*1.47*(1+0.8/B’)*1+ ½ B’ *9.1* 6.82* 0.6*1*1 + 19.1*2*8.23*
1.41*(1+0.63/B)*1 = 192.39 +153.91/B +18.62B +443.28 + 279.27/B
A* σult = P* Fs
 Foundation Engineering Ι 17

P * Fs 850 * 2
=
( )
2
B =
σ ult 635.67 + 433.18 + 18.62 B
B
18.62*B3 + 635.67*B2 + 433.18*B = 1700
From the above the dimension of the footing would be 1.35m X1.35m

3.2 Given R.C. column size 30X50 cm with 4φ22.

P = 1500kN
M = 375 kN-m
Ultimate soil bearing pressure = 400kPa
fyk = 300MPa⇒ fyd = 300/1.15 = 260.87 MPa
C25 ⇒fck= 20MPa⇒fctk = 1.5 MPa,
Required:- Design of rectangular R.C. footing

l2

30 l1
b
50
 Foundation Engineering Ι 18
Solution

Size of footing
Let l1 = l2
a − 50 b − 30
Then = ⇒ a − b = 50 − 30 = 20cm = 0.2m
2 2
M 375
Eccentricity, ea = = = 0.25m
P 1500

Contact pressure

σmin
σmax

P ⎛ 6e a ⎞ P ⎛ 6e a ⎞
σ max = ⎜1 + ⎟= ⎜1 + ⎟
A⎝ a ⎠ ab ⎝ a ⎠
1500 ⎛ 6 * 0.25 ⎞
400 = ⎜⎜1 + ⎟
(0.2 + b )b ⎝ (0.2 + b ) ⎟⎠
2550
400(0.20b + b 2 ) = 1500 +
(0.2 + b )
400b 3 + 160b 2 − 1484b − 2550 = 0

by trial and error b= 2.345 m

Take b= 2.4m

Then a = b+0.20m = 2.60m

 Foundation Engineering Ι 19

Actual contact pressure

1500 ⎛ 6 * 0.25 ⎞
σ max = ⎜1 + ⎟ = 379.07kN / m 2 < σ ult ok
(2.6)2.4 ⎝ (2.6) ⎠
1500 ⎛ 6 * 0.25 ⎞
σ min = ⎜1 − ⎟ = 101.70kN / m 2 > 0 ok
(2.6)(2.4) ⎝ (2.6) ⎠

Thickness of the footing

i, Punching shear
The Punching shear resistance according to EBCS-2 is given by

Vup = 0.25fctd k1k2ud (MN)

Take d= 0.40m and ρ = ρmin = 0.5/fyk = 0.5 /300 = 0.0017

k1 = ( 1+50ρ) = (1 +50*0.0017) =1.085
k2 = 1.6 – d =1.6 -0.4 = 1.2

u = 2(3d +b’) +2(3d+a’) = 12d +2b’ + 2a’ = 12*0.4 +2*0.5 +2*0.3 =6.4

Then
Vup = 0.25*1*1.085 *1.2 *6.4*0.4=0.83328MN = 833.28kN

2.15
0.45m 1.5d 1.5d 0.45m

101.70kN/m2 379.07kN/m2
σ1
σ2
σ
 Foundation Engineering Ι 20

0.45 * (379.07 − 101.70)

σ 1 = 101.7 + = 149.71kN / m 2
2.60
2.15 * (379.07 − 101.7)
σ 2 = 101.7 + = 331.06kN / m 2
2.60
σ +σ2 331.06 + 149.71
σ= 1 * 1.7 = * 1.7 = 408.65kN / m
2 2
V = 408.65 * 1.5 = 612.98kN

Net shear force developed = 1500 – 612.98 = 887.02 kN > Vup not ok !

Since the developed shear force is greater than the punching shear resistance, one may
increase the depth.

Take d= 0.45m and ρ = ρmin = 0.5/fyk = 0.5 /300 = 0.0017

k1 = ( 1+50ρ) = (1 +50*0.0017) =1.085
k2 = 1.6 – d =1.6 -0.45 = 1.15

u = 2(3d +b’) +2(3d+a’) = 12d +2b’ + 2a’ = 12*0.45 +2*0.5 +2*0.3 =7

Then
Vup = 0.25*1*1.085 *1.15 *7*0.45=0.98260MN = 982.60kN

2.225
0.375m 1.5d
1.5d 0.375m

101.70kN/m2 379.07kN/m2
σ1
σ2
σ
 Foundation Engineering Ι 21

0.375 * (379.07 − 101.70)

σ 1 = 101.7 + = 141.71kN / m 2
2.60
2.225 * (379.07 − 101.7)
σ 2 = 101.7 + = 339.07 kN / m 2
2.60
σ +σ2 339.07 + 141.71
σ= 1 *1.85 = *1.85 = 444.72kN / m
2 2
V = 444.72 * 1.65 = 733.79kN
Net shear force developed = 1500 – 733.79 = 766.21 kN < Vup ok !

The depth satisfies the punching shear requirement for the assumed ρmin.

ii, Wide beam shear

1.05m
1.55m
d

101.7kN/m2 σ 379.07kN/m2

σ1
Contact stress at distance d from the face of the column, σ

σ = 101.7 +
(379.07 − 101.7 )(1.55 + 0.45) = 315.06kN / m 2

2.60

⎛ σ max + σ ⎞ ⎛ 379.07 + 315.06 ⎞

σ1 = ⎜ ⎟(1.05 − d ) = ⎜ ⎟0.6 = 208.24kN / m
⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎝ 2 ⎠
Developed wide beam shear
Vd = 208.24 *2.4 =499.78kN
The wide beam shear resistance according to EBCS-2 is given by
Vud = 0.25fctd k1k2 bwd (MN)
= 0.25*1*1.085*1.15*2.4*0.45 =0.33689MN =336.89kN < Vd not ok !
 Foundation Engineering Ι 22
Since the developed shear force is greater than the wide beam shear resistance, one
may increase the depth

Take d = 0.60m

Contact stress at distance d from the face of the column, σ

σ = 101.7 +
(379.07 − 101.7 )(1.55 + 0.60
2.60
σ = 331.06kN / m 2

⎛ σ max + σ ⎞ ⎛ 379.07 + 331.06 ⎞

σ1 = ⎜ ⎟(1.05 − d ) = ⎜ ⎟0.45
⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎝ 2 ⎠
= 159.78kN / m
Developed wide beam shear
Vd = 159.78 *2.4 =383.47kN
Wide beam shear resistance
Vud = 0.25fctd k1k2 bwd (MN)
= 0.25*1*1.085*1*2.4*0.60 =0.3906MN =390.60kN > Vd ok !

Bending Moment

1.35m

1.05m

101.70kN/m2 379.07kN/m2

σ σ2 σ1
 Foundation Engineering Ι 23
1.55 * (379.07 − 101.7)
σ = 101.70 + = 267.06 N / m 2
2.60
1
σ 1 = (1.05)(379.07 − 267.06) = 58.81kN / m
2
σ 2 = (1.05)(267.06) = 280.41kN / m
⎡ 2 1.05 ⎤
M = ⎢σ 1 (1.05) + σ 2 ( )⎥b
⎣ 3 2 ⎦
⎡ 1.05 ⎤
M = ⎢(58.81) (1.05) + (280.41)(
2
) 1 = 188.38kN − m / m
⎣ 3 2 ⎥⎦

Moment capacity of concrete

M = 0.32 ∗ f cd ∗ bd 2
= 0.32 ∗ 11.33 × 10 3 ∗ 1.0 ∗ (0.6 ) = 1305 .22 kN − m / m
2

Calculation of reinforcement

Long direction

f cd ⎡ 2M ⎤
ρ= ⎢1 − 1 − ⎥
f yd ⎢⎣ f cd bd 2 ⎥⎦
11 .33⎡ 2 ∗ 188 .38 ⎤
= ⎢1 − 1 − 2 ⎥
= 0 .0021 > ρ min
⎢⎣
260 .87 11 .33 × 10 3 ∗ 1 .0 ∗ (0 .6 ) ⎥⎦
As = ρ bd = 0 .0021 ∗ 100 ∗ 60 = 12 .6 cm 2 / m

use φ16

as ∗100 2.01 ∗100

spacing = = = 16cm
As 12.6

Use φ16c/c16cm
 Foundation Engineering Ι 24

Short direction

1.15m
0.85m

σ
σ1

Average contact pressure,σ

σ max + σ min
σ avg =
2
379.07 + 101.7
σ avg = = 240.39kN / m 2
2

⎡ 1 . 05 ⎤
M = ⎢σ 1 ( ) a
⎣ 2 ⎥⎦
⎡ 1 . 05 ⎤
M = ⎢ 240 . 39 ( ) ⎥1 = 126 . 21 kN − m / m
⎣ 2 ⎦

f cd⎡ 2M ⎤
ρ= ⎢ 1 − 1 − ⎥
f yd⎣⎢ f cd bd 2 ⎥⎦

11.33 ⎡ 2 ∗ 126.21 ⎤
= ⎢1 − 1 − 2 ⎥
= 0.0014 < ρ min
260.87 ⎢⎣ 11.33 × 10 ∗ 1.0 ∗ (0.584 ) ⎥⎦
3

As = ρ min bd = 0.0017 ∗ 100 ∗ 58.4 = 9.928cm 2 / m

as ∗ 100 2.01 ∗ 100

spacing = = = 20.2cm
As 9.98
Use φ16c/c20cm
 Foundation Engineering Ι 25
Since there is no much difference between a and b, distribute these reinforcement
uniformly.

Development length

φ f yd
ld =
4 f bd
f yd =
f yk
γ s = 260.87 MPa
; f bd = f ctd
0 . 35 f ck 0 . 35 20
f ctd = = = 1 MPa
γc 1 .5
φ f yd 1.6 ∗ 260.87
ld = = = 104.35cm
4 f bd 4 ∗1

ldavailable = 100cm < ld , bend the bars upward with a minimum length of 10cm

3.3 Combined Footing

A) Rectangular Combined footing
a) Area of use :- Used to carry two or more columns in one row
-used to carry two columns when X’ = L’/2,
X’= distance to center of gravity of column load

X’

c.g

L’

b) Design Assumptions :- footing is infinitely rigid

Linear soil pressure distribution under footing
 Foundation Engineering Ι 26
c) Analysis: - In the long direction, it is analyzed as a continuous beam
In the short direction, it is analyzed as spread footing with effective
widths at exterior and interior columns being a’ +d/2 and a’ +d respectively

a’ a’

a’+d/2 a’+d

d) Design procedure
i) determine length of footing (L) in such a way that the center of gravity(c.g.)of
footing area coincides that of the c.g. of loads
i.e., L = 2x’
ii) determine the width of footing(B) such that the allowable soil pressure is not
exceeded

∑P
i.e., B=
Lσ all
iii) determine and draw shear force and bending moment diagrams along the
length of the footing
iv) calculate depth of footing
v) calculate steel reinforcement for bending moment requirement
 Foundation Engineering Ι 27
B) Trapezoidal combined footing
Area of use:- used in case where exterior column carries largest load and X’ < L’/2
X’
but X’ > L’/3

c.g
B1 B2

L’
L

a) Design Assumptions :- footing is infinitely rigid

Linear soil pressure distribution under footing
b) Analysis: - In the long direction, it is analyzed as a continuous beam
In the short direction, it is analyzed as spread footing similar to that
of rectangular combined footing.
c) Design procedure
1) determine the sizes of footing (L,B1,B2) from conditions that
i) the minimum required are
∑P
A=
σ all
⎛ B + B2 ⎞
A=⎜ 1 ⎟L
⎝ 2 ⎠
ii) the c.g. of footing are coincides that of column loads. The
distance to the c.g. of trapezoidal footing x’ is calculated from

L ⎛ 2 B2 + B1 ⎞
X '= ⎜ ⎟
3 ⎜⎝ B2 + B1 ⎟⎠
2) determine and draw shear force and bending moment diagrams along the
length of the footing. In this case, the shear force and bending moment diagrams
are 2nd degree and 3rd degree curves, respectively.
3) calculate depth of footing
4) calculate steel reinforcement for bending moment requirement
 Foundation Engineering Ι 28
3.4 Strap or Cantilever Footings
Strap footings are used as alternatives to combined footings when the cost of combined
footings is relatively high.
Essentially a strap footing consists of a rigid beam connecting two pads (footings) to
transmit unbalanced shear and moment from the statically unbalanced footing to the second
fotting.
Design Assumptions
- strap is infinitely rigid
- strap is a pure flexural member and does not take soil reaction. (To confirm
with this, strap is constructed slightly above soil or soil under strap is loosened).

a1 a2
Strap

b2
b1 b’ b’’
a’ a’’

WS XS
P1 XC P2

a1 a2

σa2
σa1
XR
a’/2 R2
e R1
a/2

1. a) Assume a1 and establish the eccentricity, e of the soil reaction force R1.
a1 − a '
e=
2
e = XC − X R
b) Determine the magnitude of the soil reaction force by taking moments about R2.
Xc X
R1 = P1 + Ws s
XR XR
 Foundation Engineering Ι 29
In this equation the weight of the strap, Ws, may be neglected if the strap is relatively
short.
c) Determine the reaction R2 from equilibrium consideration

R2 = P1 + P2 + Ws − R1
2. Determine sizes of footings using known values of R1, R2 and σall.
R1
b1 =
σ a1 * a1
R2
b2 =
σ a 2 * a2

R2
(For square footing b2 = a2 = . For rectangular footing assume some value
σ a2
of a2 and determine b2).
It should be noted that the actual bearing pressures under the footings should not very
different from each other in order to minimize differential settlement.
3. Determine and draw shear force and bending moment diagrams along the length of
the footings.
4. Select depths of footings for shear requirement.
5. Select steel reinforcement for bending requirement.
6. In short direction, the footings analyzed as spread footing subject to uniform soil
pressure.
7. Design strap as flexural member for the shear and moment obtained above.

3.5 Mat/Raft Foundation

Mat or raft foundation is a large concrete slab supporting several columns in two or
more rows. It is used where the supporting soil has low bearing capacity. The bearing
capacity increased by combining all individual footings in to one mat –since bearing capacity
is proportional to width and depth of foundations. In addition to increasing the bearing
capacity, mat foundations tend to bridge over irregularities of the soil and the average
settlement does not approach the extreme values of isolated footings. Thus mat foundations
are often used for supporting structures that are sensitive to differential settlement.
 Foundation Engineering Ι 30
Design of uniform mat
Design Assumptions
- mat is infinitely rigid
- planner soil pressure distribution under mat

Design Procedure
i) Determine the line of action of the resultant of all the loads acting on the mat
ii) Determine the contact pressure distribution as under
a) If the resultant passes through the center of gravity of the mat, the contact
pressure is given by
Q
σ=
A
b) If the resultant has an eccentricity of ex and ey in the x and y direction

Q Qex Qe y
σ = ± x± y
A Iyy Ixx

The maximum contact pressure should be less than the allowable soil pressure
c) Divide the slab mat into strips in x and y directions. Each strip is assumed to
act as independent beam subjected to the contact pressure and the columns
loads.
d) Determine the modified column loads
e) Draw the sheer force and bending moment diagrams for each strip.
f) Select depth of mat for shear requirement
g) Select steel reinforcement for moment requirement
Y

X
ex
. ey
X