Chapter 5

Introducing Network Standards

About This Chapter

As we have seen in the previous chapters, many software and

hardware manufacturers supply products for linking computers in a
network. Networking is fundamentally a form of communication, so the
need for manufacturers to take steps to ensure that their products
could interact became apparent early in the development of
networking technology. As networks and suppliers of networking
products have spread across the world, the need for standardization
has only increased. To address the issues surrounding standardization,
several independent organizations have created standard design
specifications for computer-networking products. When these
standards are adhered to, communication is possible between
hardware and software products produced by a variety of vendors. This
chapter explores these standards in detail.

Before You Begin

Because this chapter builds on material presented in the previous

chapters, you might want to review the lesson and chapter summaries
of chapters 1 through 4 before you begin this chapter.

Lesson 1: Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) Reference Model

This lesson describes the Open Systems Interconnection (OSI)

reference model. The OSI reference model represents the seven layers
of the process by which data is packaged and transmitted from a
sending application through the physical wires to the receiving
application.

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After this lesson, you will be able to:

 Describe the primary function of each layer of the OSI reference

model.
 Identify the OSI layer at which a particular network activity takes
place.
 Identify the OSI layer at which a particular network component
functions.

Estimated lesson time: 35 minutes

Network Communications

Network activity involves sending data from one computer to another.

This complex process can be broken into discrete, sequential tasks.
The sending computer must:

1. Recognize the data.

2. Divide the data into manageable chunks.
3. Add information to each chunk of data to determine the location
of the data and to identify the receiver.
4. Add timing and error-checking information.
5. Put the data on the network and send it on its way.

Network client software operates at many different levels within the

sending and receiving computers. Each of these levels, or tasks, is
governed by one or more protocols. (Protocols are introduced in
Chapter 3, Lesson 2: How Networks Send Data.) These protocols, or
rules of behavior, are standard specifications for formatting and
moving the data. When the sending and receiving computers follow
the same protocols, communication is assured. Because of this layered
structure, this is often referred to as the protocol stack.

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With the rapid growth of networking hardware and software, a need
arose for standard protocols that could allow hardware and software
from different vendors to communicate. In response, two primary sets
of standards were developed: the OSI reference model and a
modification of that standard called Project 802 (covered in the next
lesson).

Acquiring a clear understanding of these models is an important first

step in understanding the technical aspects of how a network
functions. Throughout this lesson we refer to various protocols. The
protocols and how they apply to these models are covered in detail in
Chapter 6, "Defining Network Protocols."

The OSI Reference Model

In 1978, the International Organization for Standardization (ISO)

released a set of specifications that described network architecture for
connecting dissimilar devices. The original document applied to
systems that were open to each other because they could all use the
same protocols and standards to exchange information.

NOTE

To set up a network competently, you need to be aware of the major

standards organizations and how their work affects network
communications. An overview of the most important standards bodies
is presented in Appendix B, "Common Network Standards and
Specifications."

In 1984, the ISO released a revision of this model and called it the
Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) reference model. The 1984
revision has become an international standard and serves as a guide
for networking.

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The OSI reference model is the best-known and most widely used
guide for visualizing networking environments. Manufacturers adhere
to the OSI reference model when they design network products. It
provides a description of how network hardware and software work
together in a layered fashion to make communications possible. The
model also helps to troubleshoot problems by providing a frame of
reference that describes how components are supposed to function.

A Layered Architecture

The OSI reference model architecture divides network communication

into seven layers. Each layer covers different network activities,
equipment, or protocols. Figure 5.1 represents the layered architecture
of the OSI reference model. (Layering specifies different functions and
services as data moves from one computer through the network
cabling to another computer.) The OSI reference model defines how
each layer communicates and works with the layers immediately
above and below it. For example, the session layer communicates and
works with the presentation and transport layers.

Figure 5.1 The seven-layer OSI reference model

Each layer provides some service or action that prepares the data for
delivery over the network to another computer. The lowest layers—1
and 2—define the network's physical media and related tasks, such as

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putting data bits onto the network interface cards (NICs) and cable.
The highest layers define how applications access communication
services. The higher the layer, the more complex its task.

The layers are separated from each other by boundaries called

interfaces. All requests are passed from one layer, through the
interface, to the next layer. Each layer builds upon the standards and
activities of the layer below it.

Relationships Among OSI Reference Model Layers

Each layer provides services to the next-higher layer and shields the
upper layer from the details of how the services below it are actually
implemented. At the same time, each layer appears to be in direct
communication with its associated layer on the other computer. This
provides a logical, or virtual, communication between peer layers, as
shown in Figure 5.2. In reality, actual communication between adjacent
layers takes place on one computer only. At each layer, software
implements network functions according to a set of protocols.

Figure 5.2 Relationships among OSI layers

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Before data is passed from one layer to another, it is broken down into
packets, or units of information, which are transmitted as a whole from
one device to another on a network. (Packets were introduced in
Chapter 3, Lesson 2: How Networks Send Data.) The network passes a
packet from one software layer to another in the same order as that of
the layers. At each layer, the software adds additional formatting or
addressing to the packet, which is needed for the packet to be
successfully transmitted across the network.

At the receiving end, the packet passes through the layers in reverse
order. A software utility at each layer reads the information on the
packet, strips it away, and passes the packet up to the next layer.
When the packet is finally passed up to the application layer, the
addressing information has been stripped away and the packet is in its
original form, which is readable by the receiver.

With the exception of the lowest layer in the OSI networking model, no
layer can pass information directly to its counterpart on another
computer. Instead, information on the sending computer must be
passed down through each successive layer until it reaches the
physical layer. The information then moves across the networking
cable to the receiving computer and up that computer's networking
layers until it arrives at the corresponding layer. For example, when
the network layer sends information from computer A, the information
moves down through the data-link and physical layers on the sending
side, over the cable, and up the physical and data-link layers on the
receiving side to its final destination at the network layer on computer
B.

In a client/server environment, an example of the kind of information

sent from the network layer on computer A to the network layer on
computer B would be a network address, with perhaps some error-
checking information added to the packet.

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Interaction between adjacent layers occurs through an interface. The
interface defines the services offered by the lower networking layer to
the upper one and further defines how those services will be accessed.
In addition, each layer on one computer appears to be communicating
directly with the same layer on another computer.

The following sections describe the purpose of each of the seven layers
of the OSI reference model, and identify the services that each
provides to adjacent layers. Beginning at the top of the stack (layer 7,
the application layer), we work down to the bottom (layer 1, the
physical layer).

Application Layer

Layer 7, the topmost layer of the OSI reference model, is the

application layer. This layer relates to the services that directly support
user applications, such as software for file transfers, database access,
and e-mail. In other words, it serves as a window through which
application processes can access network services. A message to be
sent across the network enters the OSI reference model at this point
and exits the OSI reference model's application layer on the receiving
computer. Application-layer protocols can be programs in themselves,
such as File Transfer Protocol (FTP), or they can be used by other
programs, such as Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP), used by most
e-mail programs, to redirect data to the network. The lower layers
support the tasks that are performed at the application layer. These
tasks include general network access, flow control, and error recovery.

Presentation Layer

Layer 6, the presentation layer, defines the format used to exchange

data among networked computers. Think of it as the network's
translator. When computers from dissimilar systems—such as IBM,

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Apple, and Sun—need to communicate, a certain amount of translation
and byte reordering must be done. Within the sending computer, the
presentation layer translates data from the format sent down from the
application layer into a commonly recognized, intermediary format. At
the receiving computer, this layer translates the intermediary format
into a format that can be useful to that computer's application layer.
The presentation layer is responsible for converting protocols,
translating the data, encrypting the data, changing or converting the
character set, and expanding graphics commands. The presentation
layer also manages data compression to reduce the number of bits
that need to be transmitted.

The redirector, which redirects input/output (I/O) operations to

resources on a server, operates at this layer. Redirectors are discussed
in Chapter 8, "Designing and Installing a Network."

Session Layer

Layer 5, the session layer, allows two applications on different

computers to open, use, and close a connection called a session. (A
session is a highly structured dialog between two workstations.) The
session layer is responsible for managing this dialog. It performs name-
recognition and other functions, such as security, that are needed to
allow two applications to communicate over the network.

The session layer synchronizes user tasks by placing checkpoints in the

data stream. The checkpoints break the data into smaller groups for
error detection. This way, if the network fails, only the data after the
last checkpoint has to be retransmitted. This layer also implements
dialog control between communicating processes, such as regulating
which side transmits, when, and for how long.

Transport Layer

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Layer 4, the transport layer, provides an additional connection level
beneath the session layer. The transport layer ensures that packets
are delivered error free, in sequence, and without losses or
duplications. At the sending computer, this layer repackages
messages, dividing long messages into several packets and collecting
small packets together in one package. This process ensures that
packets are transmitted efficiently over the network. At the receiving
computer, the transport layer opens the packets, reassembles the
original messages, and, typically, sends an acknowledgment that the
message was received. If a duplicate packet arrives, this layer will
recognize the duplicate and discard it.

The transport layer provides flow control and error handling, and
participates in solving problems concerned with the transmission and
reception of packets. Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) and
Sequenced Packet Exchange (SPX) are examples of transport-layer
protocols.

Network Layer

Layer 3, the network layer, is responsible for addressing messages and

translating logical addresses and names into physical addresses. This
layer also determines the route from the source to the destination
computer. It determines which path the data should take based on
network conditions, priority of service, and other factors. It also
manages traffic problems on the network, such as switching and
routing of packets and controlling the congestion of data.

If the network adapter on the router cannot transmit a data chunk as

large as the source computer sends, the network layer on the router
compensates by breaking the data into smaller units. At the
destination end, the network layer reassembles the data. Internet

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Protocol (IP) and Internetwork Packet Exchange (IPX) are examples of
network-layer protocols.

Data-Link Layer

Layer 2, the data-link layer, sends data frames from the network layer
to the physical layer. It controls the electrical impulses that enter and
leave the network cable. On the receiving end, the data-link layer
packages raw bits from the physical layer into data frames. (A data
frame is an organized, logical structure in which data can be placed.
Data frames are discussed in more detail in Chapter 3, Lesson 4: Token
Ring.) The electrical representation of the data (bit patterns, encoding
methods, and tokens) is known to this layer only.

Figure 5.3 shows a simple data frame. In this example, the sender ID
represents the address of the computer that is sending the
information; the destination ID represents the address of the computer
to which the information is being sent. The control information is used
for frame type, routing, and segmentation information. The data is the
information itself. The cyclical redundancy check (CRC) provides error
correction and verification information to ensure that the data frame is
received correctly.

Figure 5.3 A simple data frame

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The data-link layer is responsible for providing error-free transfer of
these frames from one computer to another through the physical layer.
This allows the network layer to anticipate virtually error-free
transmission over the network connection.

Usually, when the data-link layer sends a frame, it waits for an

acknowledgment from the recipient. The recipient data-link layer
detects any problems with the frame that might have occurred during
transmission. Frames that were damaged during transmission or were
not acknowledged are then re-sent.

Physical Layer

Layer 1, the bottom layer of the OSI reference model, is the physical
layer. This layer transmits the unstructured, raw bit stream over a
physical medium (such as the network cable). The physical layer is
totally hardware-oriented and deals with all aspects of establishing and
maintaining a physical link between communicating computers. The
physical layer also carries the signals that transmit data generated by
each of the higher layers.

This layer defines how the cable is attached to the NIC. For example, it
defines how many pins the connector has and the function of each. It
also defines which transmission technique will be used to send data
over the network cable.

This layer provides data encoding and bit synchronization. The physical
layer is responsible for transmitting bits (zeros and ones) from one
computer to another, ensuring that when a transmitting host sends a 1
bit, it is received as a 1 bit, not a 0 bit. Because different types of
media physically transmit bits (light or electrical signals) differently,
the physical layer also defines the duration of each impulse and how

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each bit is translated into the appropriate electrical or optical impulse
for the network cable.

This layer is often referred to as the "hardware layer." Although the

rest of the layers can be implemented as firmware (chip-level functions
on the NIC), rather than actual software, the other layers are software
in relation to this first layer.

Memorizing the OSI Reference Model

Memorizing the layers of the OSI reference model and their order is
very important, especially when preparing to take a computer
networking exam. Table 5.1 provides two ways to help you recall the
seven layers of the OSI reference model.

Table 5.1 OSI Reference Model Layers

OSI Layer Down the Stack Up the Stack

Application All Away

Presentation People Pizza

Session Seem Sausage

Transport To Throw

Network Need Not

Data Link Data Do

Physical Processing Please

Data Packets and the OSI Reference Model

In Chapter 3, Lesson 2: How Networks Send Data, we discussed the

data packet in general terms. These data packets are assembled and
disassembled according to the OSI reference model. The packet-

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creation process begins at the application layer of the OSI reference
model, where the data is generated. Information to be sent across the
network starts at the application layer and descends through all seven
layers.

At each layer, information relevant to that layer is added to the data.

This information is for the use of the corresponding layer in the
receiving computer. The data-link layer in the receiving computer, for
instance, will read information added at the data-link layer in the
sending computer. Figure 5.4 shows the assembly of a packet in the
sending workstation and the disassembly of the packet in the receiving
workstation.

Figure 5.4 Packet assembly and disassembly process

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At the transport layer, the original block of data is broken into the
actual packets. The protocol defines the structure of the packets used
by the two computers.

When the packet reaches the transport layer, sequence information is

added that guides the receiving computer in reassembling the data
from packets.

When the packets finally pass through the physical layer on their way
to the cable, they contain information from each of the other six layers.

Addressing Packets

Most packets on the network are addressed to a specific computer and,

as a result, get the attention of only one computer. Each NIC sees all
packets sent on its cable segment, but it interrupts the computer only
if the packet's address matches the card's individual address.
Alternatively, a broadcast-type address can also be used. Packets sent
with a broadcast-type address can receive the simultaneous attention
of many computers on the network.

In situations involving large networks that cover large regions (or even
countries) and offer several possible communication routes, the
network's connectivity and switching components use the packet's
addressing information to determine the best route for addressing
packets.

Directing Packets

Network components use the addressing information in packets to

direct the packets to their destinations or to keep them away from
network locations where they do not belong. The following two
functions play a key role in properly directing packets:

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  Packet forwarding Computers send a packet on to the next
appropriate network component based on the address in the
packet's header.
 Packet filtering Computers use criteria, such as an address, to
select specific packets.

Windows NT and the OSI Reference Model

Network manufacturers use the OSI reference model when designing

their products. When each follows the model, there is a greater
likelihood that different systems can communicate. One shortcoming of
the model stems from the fact that many manufacturers created their
products before the model was accepted; these early products might
not follow the model exactly. To demonstrate how the OSI reference
model is adapted to a specific network operating system, we next
examine Windows NT and how it fits the model.

OSI Layers and Windows NT

To simplify the model, Windows NT compresses the seven layers into

only three layers: file system drivers, transport protocols, and NIC
drivers. Figure 5.5 shows how the groups relate to OSI.

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Figure 5.5 Windows NT and OSI

Windows NT uses drivers to provide for communication between the

operating system and the network. A driver is a device-specific control
program that enables a computer to work with a particular device,
such as a printer or a disk drive. Every time you install a new piece of
hardware, such as a printer, sound card, or network card, you need to
install the software drivers that operate the card.

File System Drivers

File system drivers work in the application, presentation, and session

layers of the OSI reference model. When these drivers detect that an
application is requesting resources on a remote system, they redirect
the request to the appropriate system. Examples of these drivers
include the Windows NT file system (NTFS) and file allocation table
(FAT) drivers, and the services applications installed on Windows NT
Server and Windows NT Workstation.

Transport Protocols

Transport protocols operate in the transport and network layers of the

OSI model. They are responsible for adding software address
information to the data and for ensuring the reliability of the
transmission. The transport protocols are bound to or combined with
the NIC to provide communication. During installation and
configuration of Windows NT, you must always bind these protocols to
a specific network card.

Network Interface Card (NIC) Drivers

NIC drivers operate in the data-link and physical layers of the OSI
reference model. They are responsible for adding the hardware
address information to the data packet and for formatting the data for

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transmission through the NIC and cable. NIC drivers are protocol-
independent, allowing systems based on Windows NT to transport data
to a variety of network systems.

Figure 5.6 shows how software and protocols relate to the OSI
reference model and the Windows NT model.

Figure 5.6 Software and protocols

Windows NT Interfaces

Windows NT supports many different network redirectors, transport

protocols, and NICs. With so many possible combinations, it was
necessary to develop a method of handling the interactions between
them. To resolve this problem, Microsoft developed common interfaces
—boundary layers—to act as translators between each layer. Thus, as
long as any network component was written to communicate with the
boundary interfaces, it could be used with the model. Figure 5.7 shows
the three boundary interfaces.

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Figure 5.7 Windows NT architecture with boundary interfaces

Application Programming Interfaces (APIs)

The application programming interfaces (APIs) are system routines that

give programmers access to the services provided by the operating
system. Windows NT networking APIs lie between user applications and
the file system drivers and redirectors. These APIs allow an application
to control or be controlled by other applications. They are responsible
for setting up a session between the sender and the receiver on the
network. Windows NT supports a variety of APIs for networking.

Transport Driver Interfaces (TDIs)

The transport driver interfaces (TDIs) work between the file system
drives and the transport protocols. These will allow any protocol
written to TDI to communicate with the file system drivers.

Network Driver Interface Specifications (NDISs)

The Network Driver Interface Specifications (NDISs) work between the

transport protocols and the NIC drivers. As long as a NIC driver is
written to NDIS standards, it will communicate with the transport
protocols.

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Exercise 5.1: Reviewing the OSI Reference Model Layers

This two-part exercise will give you the opportunity to memorize and
review the layers of the OSI reference model.

The left column is a listing of a memorization tool: "All People Seem To Need Data
Processing." Next to each word in that column, enter the appropriate name of the
applicable OSI layer in the center column and a brief description of that layer's function
in the right column.

Memorization Tool OSI Layer Function

All

People

Seem

To

Need

Data

Processing

In the second part of Exercise 1 that follows, a device or standard is listed in the left
column. In the space provided in the right column, write in the applicable OSI layer(s) for
each device or standard.

Device OSI layer

Gateway

NIC

Hub

Router

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IEEE 802.x

Answers

Lesson Summary

The following points summarize the main elements of this lesson:

 The OSI reference model architecture divides network protocols

into seven layers: the application, presentation, session,
transport, network, data-link, and physical layers.
 Windows NT groups the OSI reference model into three layers:
file system drivers, transport protocols, and NIC drivers.
 The Windows NT network model requires three interfaces to
provide communication between groups: APIs, TDIs, and NDISs.

Lesson 2: The IEEE 802.x Standard

The bottom two layers of the OSI reference model pertain to hardware:
the NIC and the network cabling. To further refine the requirements for
hardware that operate within these layers, the Institute of Electrical
and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) has developed enhancements specific
to different NICs and cabling. Collectively, these refinements are
known as the 802 project. This lesson describes these enhancements
and how they relate to OSI.

After this lesson, you will be able to:

 Describe the 802 enhancements to the OSI reference model.

 Describe the function of the sublayers to the data-link layer of
the OSI reference model.

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Estimated lesson time: 20 minutes

The 802 Project Model

When local area networks (LANs) first began to emerge as potential

business tools in the late 1970s, the IEEE realized that there was a
need to define certain LAN standards. To accomplish this task, the IEEE
launched what became known as Project 802, named for the year and
month it began (1980, February).

Although the published IEEE 802 standards actually predated the ISO
standards, both were in development at roughly the same time, and
both shared information that resulted in the creation of two compatible
models.

Project 802 defined network standards for the physical components of

a network (the interface card and the cabling) that are accounted for in
the physical and data-link layers of the OSI reference model.

The 802 specifications set standards for:

 Network interface cards (NICs).

 Wide area network (WAN) components.
 Components used to create twisted-pair and coaxial cable
networks.

The 802 specifications define the ways NICs access and transfer data
over physical media. These include connecting, maintaining, and
disconnecting network devices.

NOTE

Choosing which protocol to run at the data-link layer is the single most
important decision you make when designing a LAN. This protocol

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defines the speed of the network, the method used to access the
physical network, the types of cables you can use, and the NICs and
drivers you install.

IEEE 802 Categories

The LAN standards defined by the 802 committees are classified into
16 categories that can be identified by their 802 number as shown in
Table 5.2:

Table 5.2 802 Specification Categories

Specificat Description
ion

802.1 Sets Internetworking standards related to network

management.

802.2 Defines the general standard for the data-link layer.

The IEEE divides this layer into two sublayers: the LLC
and MAC layers (discussed in the previous lesson). The
MAC layer varies with different network types and is
defined by standard IEEE 802.3.

802.3 Defines the MAC layer for bus networks that use
Carrier-Sense Multiple Access with Collision Detection
(CSMA/CD). This is the Ethernet Standard.

802.4 Defines the MAC layer for bus networks that use a
token-passing mechanism (Token Bus LAN).

802.5 Defines the MAC layer for token ring networks (Token
Ring LAN).

802.6 Sets standards for metropolitan area networks (MANs),

which are data networks designed for towns or cities.
In terms of geographic breadth, MANs are larger than

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 LANs, but smaller than WANs. MANs are usually
characterized by very-high-speed connections using
fiber-optic cables or other digital media.

802.7 Used by the Broadband Technical Advisory Group.

802.8 Used by the Fiber-Optic Technical Advisory Group.

802.9 Defines integrated voice/data networks.

802.10 Defines network security.

802.11 Defines wireless network standards.

802.12 Defines Demand Priority Access LAN, 100BaseVG-

AnyLAN.

802.13 Unused.

802.14 Defines cable modem standards.

802.15 Defines wireless personal area networks (WPAN).

802.16 Defines broadband wireless standards.

Enhancements to the OSI Reference Model

The bottom two OSI layers, the physical layer and the data-link layer,
define how multiple computers can use the network simultaneously
without interfering with each other.

The IEEE 802 project incorporated the specifications in those two

layers to create standards that have defined the dominant LAN
environments. Figure 5.8 shows the data-link layer and its two
sublayers.

After deciding that more detail was needed at the data-link layer, the
802 standards committee divided the data-link layer into two
sublayers:

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  Logical Link Control (LLC) Establishing and terminating links,
controlling frame traffic, sequencing frames, and acknowledging
frames
 Media Access Control (MAC) Managing media access, delimiting
frames, checking frame errors, and recognizing frame addresses

Figure 5.8 Project 802 LLC and MAC sublayers

Logical Link Control (LLC) Sublayer

The LLC sublayer manages data-link communication and defines the

use of logical interface points called service access points (SAP). Other
computers can refer to and use SAPs to transfer information from the
LLC sublayer to the upper OSI layers. Category 802.2 defines these
standards.

Media Access Control (MAC) Sublayer

As Figure 5.9 indicates, the MAC sublayer is the lower of the two
sublayers, providing shared access to the physical layer for the
computers' NICs. The MAC layer communicates directly with the NIC
and is responsible for delivering error-free data between two
computers on the network.

Categories 802.3, 802.4, 802.5, and 802.12 define standards for both
this sublayer and OSI layer 1, the physical layer.

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Figure 5.9 Project 802 LLC and MAC standards

Exercise 5.2: Describing IEEE 802.x Standards Categories

In this exercise, IEEE 802 standards categories are listed in the left column. In the right
column, enter a description of what each category represents.

802.x Standard Basis for standard

802.1

802.2

802.3

802.4

802.5

802.6

802.7

802.8

802.9

802.10

802.11

802.12

802.13

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802.14

802.15

802.16

Answers

Lesson Summary

The following points summarize the main elements of this lesson:

 IEEE 802 standards define the specifications for NICs, networking

components, and media for the data-link and physical layers of
the OSI reference model.
 802.3 defines the Ethernet specifications.
 802.5 defines the Token Ring LAN specifications.
 The IEEE 802 standards divide the data-link layer into two
subgroups: Logical Link Control (LLC) and Media Access Control
(MAC).

[Previous] [Next]

Lesson 3: Device Drivers and OSI

NICs play an important role in connecting a computer to the physical

part of the network. No discussion of networking standards is complete
without including drivers, the small software programs that enable a
computer to work with a network card or other device. In this lesson
we look at device drivers and how they relate to the OSI reference
model.

After this lesson, you will be able to:

 Describe the function of a driver.

 Describe the role of drivers in the OSI reference model.

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  Describe the function of NDIS and ODI.

Estimated lesson time: 15 minutes

The Role of Drivers

A driver (sometimes called a device driver) is software that enables a

computer to work with a particular device. Although a device might be
installed on a computer, the computer's operating system cannot
communicate with the device until the driver for that device has been
installed and configured. The software driver tells the computer how to
drive or work with the device so that the device performs the job it is
assigned in the way it is supposed to.

There are drivers for nearly every type of computer device and
peripheral including:

 Input devices, such as mouse and keyboard devices.

 SCSI and IDE disk controllers.
 Hard and floppy-disk drives.
 Multimedia devices such as microphones, cameras, and
recorders.
 Network interface cards (NICs).
 Printers, plotters, tape drives, and so on.

Usually, the computer's operating system works with the driver to

make the device perform. Printers provide a good illustration of how
drivers are used. Printers built by different manufacturers all have
different features and functions. It would be impossible for computer
makers to equip new computers with all the software necessary to
identify and work with every type of printer. Instead, printer
manufacturers make drivers available for each printer. Before your
computer can send documents to a printer, you must install the driver
for that printer on your computer's hard drive.

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As a general rule, manufacturers of components, such as peripherals
or cards that must be physically installed, are responsible for supplying
the drivers for their equipment. For example, NIC manufacturers are
responsible for making drivers available for their cards. Drivers
generally are included on a disk with the equipment when it is
purchased, included with the computer's operating system, or made
available for downloading from an Internet service provider such as the
Microsoft Network (MSN), CompuServe, or others.

The Network Environment

Network drivers provide communication between a NIC and the

network redirector running in the computer. The redirector is the part
of networking software that accepts input/output (I/O) requests for
remote files and then sends, or redirects, them over the network to
another computer. During installation, the driver is stored on the
computer's hard disk.

Drivers and the OSI Reference Model

NIC drivers reside in the MAC sublayer of the OSI reference model's
data-link layer. The MAC sublayer is responsible for providing shared
access to the physical layer for the computer's NICs. As shown in
Figure 5.10, the NIC drivers provide virtual communication between
the computer and the NIC. This, in turn, provides a link between the
computer and the rest of the network.

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Figure 5.10 Communication between the NIC and network software

Drivers and the Networking Software

It is common for a NIC manufacturer to provide drivers to the

networking-software vendor so that the drivers can be included with
the network operating software.

NOTE

When purchasing a new hardware device, always make sure that it

contains the correct drivers for the specified computer operating
system on which it will be installed. If in doubt, or if you are missing
the appropriate driver, consult the manufacturer before you install the
device. Updated drivers or drivers for various operating systems often
are available over the Internet for downloading.

The hardware compatibility list (HCL) supplied by operating-system

manufacturers describes the drivers they have tested and included
with their operating system. The HCL for a network operating system
might list more than 100 NIC drivers. This does not mean that an
unlisted driver won't work with that operating system; it means only
that the operating-system manufacturer has not tested it.

Even if the driver for a particular card has not been included with the
network operating system, it is usual for the manufacturer of the NIC to
include drivers for most popular network operating systems on a disk
that is shipped with the card. Before buying a card, however, make
sure that the card has a driver that will work with a particular network
operating system. Installation and configuration of drivers is discussed
in detail in Chapter 8, "Designing and Installing a Network."

Network Driver Interface Specification (NDIS)

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Network Driver Interface Specification (NDIS) is a standard that defines
an interface for communication between the MAC sublayer and the
protocol drivers. By permitting the simultaneous use of multiple
protocols and drivers, NDIS allows for a flexible environment of data
exchange. It defines the software interface, known as the NDIS
interface. Protocol drivers use this interface to communicate with the
NICs. The advantage of NDIS is that it offers protocol multiplexing,
so that multiple protocol stacks can be used at the same time. Three
types of network software have interfaces described by NDIS:

 Protocol stack Provides network communications. A stack

generates and disassembles frames (control information and
data) that are sent to and received from the network.
 Adapter driver Controls the network interface hardware. Works in
the MAC sublayer and moves frames between the protocol stack
and the interface hardware.
 Protocol Manager Controls the activity between the protocol
stack and the MAC.

Microsoft and 3Com jointly developed the NDIS specification for use
with Warp Server and Windows NT Server. All NIC manufacturers make
their boards work with these operating systems by supplying NDIS-
compliant software drivers.

Open Data-Link Interface (ODI)

Open Data-Link Interface (ODI) is a specification adopted by Novell and

Apple to simplify driver development for their network operating
systems. ODI provides support for multiple protocols on a single NIC.
Similar to NDIS, ODI allows Novell NetWare drivers to be written
without reference to the protocol that will be used on top of them. All
NIC manufacturers can make their boards work with these operating
systems by supplying ODI-compliant software drivers.

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Bridging NDIS and ODI

ODI and NDIS are incompatible. They present different programming

interfaces to the upper layers of the network software. Novell, IBM, and
Microsoft offer ODI-to-NDIS translation software to bridge the two
interfaces. Two examples are ODI2NDI.SYS and ODINSUP.SYS.

NOTE

Most network card manufacturers supply both NDIS- and ODI-compliant

drivers with their boards.

Lesson Checkup

1. Define ODI and describe the role it plays in Novell and Apple
NOSs.
2. Printer manufacturers are responsible for writing _______________
for their printer products.
3. Drivers described in an operating system manufacturer's ________
have been tested and included with their operating system.
4. NIC drivers reside on the computer's _________ _________.
5. Protocol drivers use an _________ interface to communicate with
the NICs.
6. Translation software is required to _____________ ________________
NDIS and ODI.

Answers

Lesson Summary

The following points summarize the main elements of this lesson:

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  A driver is a device-specific control program that enables a
computer to work with a particular device, such as a printer or a
disk drive.
 In networking, drivers are needed to provide the connection
between the computer and the NIC.
 NIC drivers reside in the MAC sublayer of the data-link layer of
the OSI reference model.
 NDIS is a standard that defines the interface for Windows NT
Server and Warp Server.
 ODI is a standard that defines the interface for Apple and Novell
systems.

[Previous] [Next]

Chapter Summary

The following points summarize the key concepts of this chapter:

OSI Reference Model

 The OSI reference model architecture divides network protocols

into seven layers: the application, presentation, session,
transport, network, data-link, and physical layers.
 Microsoft Windows NT groups the OSI reference model into three
layers: file system drivers, transport protocols, and NIC drivers.
 The Windows NT network model requires three interfaces to
provide communication between groups: APIs, TDIs, and NDISs.

IEEE 802.x

 IEEE 802 standards define the specifications for NICs, WAN

components, and media for the data-link and physical layers of
the OSI reference model.
 802.3 defines Ethernet specifications.
 802.5 defines Token Ring LAN specifications.

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  The IEEE 802 standards divide the data-link layer into two
subgroups: Logical Link Control (LLC) and Media Access Control
(MAC).

Device Drivers and OSI

 A driver is a program that gives directions to the computer for

how to operate a device.
 In networking, drivers are needed to provide the software
connection between the computer and the NIC.
 NIC drivers reside in the MAC sublayer of the data-link layer of
the OSI reference model.
 NDIS is a standard that defines the interface for Windows NT
Server and Warp Server.
 ODI is a standard that defines the interface for Apple and Novell
systems.

[Previous] [Next]

Chapter Review

1. The OSI reference model divides network activity into

____________ layers.
2. The purpose of each layer is to provide services to the next
_____________ layer and shield the upper layer from the details of
how the services are actually implemented.
3. At each layer, the software adds some additional formatting or
_________________ to the packet.
4. Each layer on one computer appears to communicate directly
with the ___________ layer on another computer.

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5. The top, or ___________________, layer handles general network
access, flow control, and error recovery.
6. At the sending computer, the _____________________ layer
translates data from a format sent down from the application
layer.
7. The ________________ layer determines the route from the source
to the destination computer.
8. The data-link layer is responsible for sending __________
___________ from the network layer to the physical layer.
9. The ________________ information in a data frame is used for
frame type, routing, and segmentation information.
10. The __________________ layer defines how the cable is
attached to the NIC.
11. Windows NT groups the seven OSI layers into three. The
three NT layers are ________ ____________ ___________, ____________
_______________, and ________ _____________.
12. An _________ provides the interface between the Windows
NT applications and file system drivers layer.
13. A _________ provides the interface between the Windows NT
file system drivers layer and the transport protocols.
14. An _________ provides the interface between the Windows
NT, the transport protocols layer, and the NIC drivers.
15. The Project 802 specifications define the way __________
access and transfer data over physical media.
16. The 802 project divided the __________ - __________ layer of
the OSI reference model into two sublayers, the Logical Link
Control (LLC) layer and the Media Access Control (MAC) layer.
17. The _________ sublayer communicates directly with the NIC
and is responsible for delivering error-free data between two
computers on the network.
18. The IEEE category __________ covers LAN standards for
Ethernet.

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 19. The IEEE category __________ covers LAN standards for
Token Ring.
20. A driver is _______________ that enables a computer to work
with a device.
21. NICs work in the _________ sublayer of the __________ -
_________ layer of the OSI reference model.
22. NDIS defines an interface for communication between the
__________ sublayer and the protocol drivers.
23. NDIS was jointly developed by ___________________ and
____________.
24. ODI works just like NDIS but was developed by
______________ and ________________ for interfacing hardware to
their protocols.

Answers

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