Chapter 2

Network Models

2.1
 Network
 A network is a combination of hardware and
software that sends data from one location to
another.
 The hardware consists of the physical
equipment that carries signals from one point
of the network to another.
 The software consists of instruction sets that

make possible the services that we expect from

a network.

2.2
 LAYERED TASKS

We use the concept of layers in our daily life. As an

example, let us consider two friends who communicate
through postal mail. The process of sending a letter to a
friend would be complex if there were no services
available from the post office.

Topics discussed in this section:

Sender, Receiver, and Carrier
Hierarchy

2.3
 Layered Tasks
An example from the everyday life

Hierarchy?
Services

4
 Layered Architecture
• The main aim of the layered architecture is to divide
the design into small pieces.
• Each lower layer adds its services to the higher layer
to provide a full set of services to manage
communications and run the applications.
• It provides modularity and clear interfaces, i.e.,
provides interaction between subsystems.
• It ensures the independence between layers by
providing the services from lower to higher layer
without defining how the services are implemented.
Therefore, any modification in a layer will not affect
the other layers.
 Layered Architecture
• The number of layers, functions, contents of
each layer will vary from network to network.
• The basic elements of layered architecture are
services, protocols, and interfaces.
– Service: It is a set of actions that a layer provides to the
higher layer.
– Protocol: It defines a set of rules that a layer uses to
exchange the information with peer entity. These rules
mainly concern about both the contents and order of
the messages used.
– Interface: It is a way through which the message is
transferred from one layer to another layer.
 Layered Architecture
• In a layer n architecture, layer n on one machine will have a communication
with the layer n on another machine and the rules used in a conversation are
known as a layer-n protocol.

• In case of layered architecture, no data is transferred from layer n of one

machine to layer n of another machine. Instead, each layer passes the data
to the layer immediately just below it, until the lowest layer is reached.

• Below layer 1 is the physical medium through which the actual

communication takes place.

• The data is passed from the upper layer to lower layer through an interface.
A Layered architecture provides a clear-cut interface so that minimum
information is shared among different layers. It also ensures that the
implementation of one layer can be easily replaced by another
implementation.

• A set of layers and protocols is known as network architecture.

 Why layered communication?
• Divide-and-conquer approach: To reduce complexity of
communication task by splitting the unmanageable tasks
into small and manageable tasks.
• Modularity: Layered architecture is more modular.
Modularity provides the independence of layers, which is
easier to understand and implement.
• Easy to modify: It ensures the independence of layers so
that implementation in one layer can be changed without
affecting other layers.
• Easy to test: Each layer of the layered architecture can be
analyzed and tested individually.
• Each layer has its own task
• Each layer has its own protocol 9
 Reference Models

• OSI reference model

• TCP/IP

10
 Introduction
• OSI stands for Open System Interconnection is a reference
model that describes how information from a software
application in one computer moves through a physical medium
to the software application in another computer.

• OSI model was developed by the International Organization for

Standardization (ISO) in 1984, and it is now considered as an
architectural model for the inter-computer communications.

• Know as ISO-OSI Reference Model as it deals with

connecting open systems.

ISO is the organization.

OSI is the model.
• An open system is a set of protocol that allows
any two different systems to communicate
regardless of their underlying architecture (H/W
and S/W).
• OSI consists of seven layers, and each layer
performs a particular network function.
• OSI model divides the whole task into seven
smaller and manageable tasks. Each layer is
assigned a particular task.
• Each layer is self-contained, so that task assigned
to each layer can be performed independently.
Seven layers of the OSI model

2.13
 Organization of the Layers
• The seven layers can be thought of as belonging to
three subgroups:
1) Layers 1,2, and 3 – physical, data link, and network
– are the network support layers.
2) Layers 5,6, and 7 – session, presentation, and
application – are user support layers; they allow
interoperability among unrelated software
systems.
3) Layer 4, the transport layer, links the two groups
and ensures that what the lower layers have
transmitted is in a form that the upper layers can
use. 2.15
The interaction between layers in the OSI model

2.17
An exchange using the OSI model

2.18
Functions of the OSI Layers
 Physical layer
• This is the lowest layer of the model. It
coordinates the functions required to transmit
a bit stream over a communication channel
Functions of physical layer
1) Physical characteristics of interfaces & media
The PL defines the characteristics of interface
between devices and transmission medium.
2) Representation of bit
PL encodes the bit stream in to electrical or
optical signals
3) Data rate/Transmission rate
The PL defines the number of bits sent each second
4) Synchronization of bits
The transmission rate & receiving rate must be same.
This is done by synchronizing clocks at sender &
receiver.
5) Line Configuration: Point-to-point or multi point
6) Physical Topology: How devices connected to make a
network. Star, Mesh, Bus and Ring
7) Transmission Mode: Simplex, Half-duplex and duplex
Physical layer

2.22
 Data Link Layer
• The data link layer ensures that all packets of information
are passed on free of errors.
Functions of Data Link Layer
• Framing: The data link layer divides the streams of bits
received from the network layer into manageable data
units called frames.
• Physical Addressing: The Data Link layer adds a header to
the frame in order to define physical address of the
sender or receiver of the frame, if the frames are to be
distributed to different systems on the network.
• Flow Control: A flow control mechanism to avoid a fast
transmitter from running a slow receiver by buffering the
extra bit is provided by flow control. This prevents traffic
jam at the receiver side.
• Error Control: Error control is achieved by
adding a trailer at the end of the frame.
Duplication of frames are also prevented by
using this mechanism.
• Access Control: Protocols of this layer
determine which of the devices has control
over the link at any given time, when two or
more devices are connected to the same link.
 Example of data link layer

H2
Node T2 Data 20 Node
Frame 80
With physical With physical
address say 20 address say 80
 Data Link layer
- hop-to-hop delivery-

26
Data Link layer
- example-

27
 Network Layer
• Data is transferred in the form of packets via logical
network paths in an ordered format controlled by the
network layer
• Network layer works for the transmission of data from
one host to the other located in different networks.
• It also takes care of packet routing i.e. selection of the
shortest path to transmit the packet, from the
number of routes available.
• The sender & receiver’s IP address are placed in the
header by network layer.
• The functions of the Network layer are :
• Routing: The network layer protocols
determine which route is suitable from source
to destination.
• Logical Addressing: In order to identify each
device on internetwork uniquely, network
layer defines an addressing scheme. The
sender & receiver’s IP address are placed in
the header by network layer.
Network layer

2.30
 Transport layer
• The transport layer is responsible for the delivery of
a message from one process to another.
• At the sender side, it receives application data and
passes it down to the network layer.
• At the receiver side, it receives data from the
network layer and passes it up to the appropriate
process.

2.31
Transport layer

2.32
 Transport layer

• Unlike the network layer which is source-to-

destination delivery, the transport layer is
process-to-process delivery of the entire
message.

2.33
Reliable process-to-process delivery of a message

2.34
 Session layer
• This layer is responsible for establishment of connection,
maintenance of sessions, authentication and also ensures
security.
The functions of the session layer are :
• Session establishment, maintenance and
termination: The layer allows the two processes to
establish, use and terminate a connection.
• Synchronization : This layer allows a process to add
checkpoints which are considered as synchronization
points into the data. These synchronization point help to
identify the error so that the data is re-synchronized
properly, and ends of the messages are not cut
prematurely and data loss is avoided.
• Dialog Controller : The session layer allows
two systems to start communication with each
other in half-duplex or full-duplex.
Session layer

2.37
 Presentation Layer
• The presentation layer is concerned with
syntax and semantics of the information
exchange between two systems.
• Specific responsibilities of presentation
layer:
– Translation
– Encryption
– Compression
 Presentation Layer

Application
7 L7 data layer
L7 data

Encoded, Presentation Encoded,

6 H6
encrypted &
compressed data
layer encrypted & H6
compressed data

Session
5 L6 data layer L6 data
 Application Layer
• The AL contains a variety of protocols that are
commonly needed by users.
• One widely used application protocol is HTTP
which is the basic for WWW.
• When a browser wants a web page, it sends
the name of the page it wants to the server
using HTTP.
• The server then sends the page back.
• Other application layer protocols are
 File transfer protocol
 Electronic mail
 Network news
Summary of layers

2.42
 TCP/IP PROTOCOL SUITE

The layers in the TCP/IP protocol suite do not exactly

match those in the OSI model. The original TCP/IP
protocol suite was defined as having four layers: host-to-
network, internet, transport, and application. However,
when TCP/IP is compared to OSI, we can say that the
TCP/IP protocol suite is made of five layers: physical,
data link, network, transport, and application.

Topics discussed in this section:

Physical and Data Link Layers
Network Layer
Transport Layer
Application Layer
2.43
 TCP/IP and OSI model

2.44