CLASS XII PHYSICS

CHAPTER - SEMICONDUCTOR ELECTRONICS

1.CLASSIFICATION ON THE BASIS OF CONDUCTIVITY & RESISTIVITY
(i)CONDUCTORS – They possess very high conductivity and very low resistivity.

(ii).SEMICONDUCTORS – The materials or the substances which have the conductivity

and resistivity intermediate to the conductors and insulators are called semiconductors.

(iii).INSULATORS – They have very high resistivity or low conductivity.

2.TYPES OF SEMICONDUCTORS
a) ELEMENTAL SEMICONDUCTORS – These semiconductors are available in natural
form. For example silicon and germanium

b) COMPOUND SEMICONDUCTORS – These semiconductors are made by

compounding the metals. For example CdS , GaAs , CdSe, InP , etc .

3.ENERGY BANDS – Due to interaction between closed packed atoms in solids, the
splitting of energy levels take place. The collection of these closely spaced energy
levels are called the energy bands.
a)VALENCE BAND – The energy band formed by a series of levels containing valence
electrons is called the valence band.

b)CONDUCTION BAND – The energy band formed just above the valence band is
called the conduction band.

c)FERMI LEVEL – The highest energy level, which an electron can occupy in the
valence band at 0 K is called the Fermi level.

d)FORBIDDEN ENERGY GAP – The energy gap between the valence and conduction
bands is called forbidden energy gap.

4.CLASSIFICATION ON THE BASIS OF ENERGY BANDS – The width of forbidden

energy gap between the valence and conduction band distinguishes conductors,
semiconductors and insulators from each other.
a) For conductors, the forbidden energy gap is very low or the valence and conduction
band overlap each other.

b) For insulators, this gap between valence and conduction band is very large.

c) For semiconductors, this gap is intermediate to conductors and insulators.

4.DOPING – The process of adding impurity to a pure semiconductor crystal (Si or Ge-
crystal) so as to improve its conductivity, is called doping .
The impurity atoms are of two types :
i)Pentavalent impurity atoms – Atoms having 5 valence electrons such as antimony or
arsenic. Such atoms, when added to a pure semiconductor, produce excess of free
electrons i.e. donate electrons to the semiconductor. For this reason, pentavalent
impurity atoms are called donor impurity atoms.

ii) Trivalent impurity atoms – Atoms having 3 valence electrons such as indium or
gallium. Such atoms, on being added to a pure semiconductor, instead of producing
free electrons, accept electrons from the semiconductor. For this reason, trivalent
impurity atoms are called acceptor impurity atoms.

5.CLASSIFICATION ON THE BASIS OF IMPURITIES –

a)INTRINSIC SEMICONDUCTOR – A semiconductor free from all types of impurities is
called intrinsic semiconductor. Examples are Silicon and Germanium. In intrinsic
semiconductor, the number of free electrons, n e is equal to the number of holes n h .
That is n e=nh=n i
Where, ni is called intrinsic carrier concentration .

b)EXTRINSIC SEMICONDUCTOR – The semiconductor so formed by adding the

suitable impurity to a pure semi conductor crystal ( Si or Ge-crystal ) so as to improve
its conductivity, is called the extrinsic semiconductor.
On the basis of impurity, extrinsic semiconductors are of two types :

i)N-TYPE EXTRINSIC SEMICONDUCTOR – When a pentavalent impurity, such as

arsenic or antimony or phosphorus is added to a pure semiconductor, the number of
free electrons become more than the holes in the semiconductor and such an extrinsic
semiconductor is called n-type semiconductor.
In a n-type semiconductor, electrons are majority charge carriers and holes are
minority charge carrires.
ii) P - TYPE EXTRINSIC SEMICONDUCTOR – When a trivalent impurity, such as
indium or gallium or boron is added to a pure semiconductor, the semiconductor
becomes deficient in electrons i.e. number of holes become more than the number of
electrons. Such a semiconductor is called p-type semiconductor.
In a p-type semiconductor, holes are majority charge carriers and electrons are
minority charge carriers.
6.FORMATION OF p-n junction – A p-n junction is a basic semiconductor two terminal
device. When a p-type crystal is placed in contact with n-type crystal so as to form a
single device, the device so obtained is called p-n junction or junction diode.
The surface of contact of p and n-type crystals is called junction. In p-section,
holes are the majority carriers ; while in the n-section, the majority carriers are
electrons. Thus, due to high concentration of different types of charge carriers in the two
sections, holes from p-region diffuse into n-region and electrons from n-region diffuse
into p-region. In both the cases, when an electron meets a hole, the two cancel the
effect of each other and as a result, a thin layer at the junction becomes devoid of
charge carriers. This is called the depletion layer. The thickness of the depletion layer is
of the order of 10−6 m .
The p-section of the junction diode becomes slightly negative, while the n-section
is rendered positive. It appears as if some fictitious battery is connected across the
junction with the negative side connected to p-region and positive side connected to n-
region. The potential difference developed across the junction due to migration of
majority charge carriers is called potential barrier. The magnitude of the potential barrier
is about 0.3 volt for germanium diode and about 0.7 volt for silicon diode.
7.FORWARD AND REVERSE BIASING ON A JUNCTION DIODE – A junction diode
can be biased in the following two ways :

a)FORWARD BIAS – When an external d.c. source is connected to the junction diode
with p-section connected to the positive terminal and n-section to the negative terminal,
the junction diode is said to be forward biased.
When the p-n junction is forward biased, then the positive holes in the p-section
are repelled by positive terminal of the battery towards the p-n junction. Similarly, the
negative electrons in the n-section are repelled by the negative pole of the battery
towards the junction. The movement of electrons and holes across the junction is
opposed by the fictitious battery voltage developed across the junction. Just near the p-
n junction, electrons and holes combine and cease to exist as mobile charge carriers
after the potential barrier is overcome by the applied potential.
During the forward bias, the applied d.c. voltage opposes the fictitious battery
developed across the p-n junction. Due to this, the potential drop across the junction
decreases and as a result, the diffusion of holes and electrons across the junction
increases. It makes the depletion layer thin and as such, the junction diode offers low
resistance during forward bias.
b)REVERSE BIAS – When a battery is connected to junction diode with p-section
connected to negative terminal and n-section connected to the positive terminal, the
junction diode is said to be reverse biased.
When the p-n junction is reversed biased, the holes in the p-section get attracted
towards the negative terminal of battery and therefore, the holes move away from the
junction. At the same time, the electrons in the n-section get attracted towards the
positive terminal and move away from the junction. As a very small number of holes and
electrons are left in the vicinity of the junction, practically no flow of current takes place.
However, due to thermally generated electron-hole pairs within p-region as well as n-
region, a small current still flows. The maximum reverse potential difference, which a
diode can tolerate without breakdown is called reverse breakdown voltage.
During the reverse bias, the applied d.c. voltage adds the fictitious battery
developed across the junction. Due to this, the potential drop across the junction
increases and as a result, the diffusion of holes and electrons across the junction
decreases. It makes the depletion layer thick and the junction diode offers high
resistance during reverse bias.
8.CHARACTERISTICS OF A P-N JUNCTION
a)FORWARD BIAS CHARACTERISTICS

b)REVERSE BIAS CHARACTERISTICS

9.JUNCTION DIODE AS A RECTIFIER – An electronic device which converts a.c.
power into d.c. power is called a rectifier. The junction diode characteristics reveals that
the junction diode offers a low resistance path, when forward biased ; and a high
resistance path, when reverse biased. This feature of the junction diode enables it to be
used as a rectifier.
The two half cycles of alternating input e.m.f. provide opposite kinds of bias to
the junction diode. If the junction diode gets forward biased during first half cycle, it will
get reverse biased during the second half cycle and vice-versa. In other words, when an
alternating e.m.f. signal is applied across a junction diode, it will conduct only those
alternate half cycles, which bias it in forward direction.

a)HALF WAVE RECTIFIER – A rectifier, which rectifies only one half of each a.c. input
supply cycle, is called a half wave rectifier.
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM –

Principle – It is bassed on the principle that junction diode offers low resistance path,
when forward biased ; and high resistance, when reverse biased. When a.c. input is
applied to a junction diode, it gets forward biased during one half cycle and reverse
biased during the next opposite half cycle. Thus, output is obtained during alternate half
cycles of the a.c. input.

Arrangement – The a.c. supply is fed across the primary coil P of a transformer. The
secondary coil S of the transformer is connected to the junction diode and a load
resistance R L as shown in the figure. The output d.c. voltage is obtained across the
load resistance R L.
Suppose that during the first half of the input cycle, the junction diode gets
forward biased. The conventional current will flow in the direction of arrow hands. The
upper end of R L will be at positive potential with respect to the lower end. The
magnitude of output across R L during first half cycle at any time will be proportional to
the magnitude of current through R L i.e. proportional to the number of majority carriers
crossing the junction, which in turn will be proportional t the magnitude of forward bias
and which ultimately depends upon the value of a.c. input at that time. Hence during the
first half cycle of the input cycle, when junction diode conducts, output across R L will
vary in accordance with a.c. input.
During the second half cycle, junction diode will get reverse biased and hence no
output will be obtained across R L. Critically, a small current will flow due to minority
carriers and a negligible output will be obtained during this half cycle also. During the
next half cycle, output is again obtained as the junction diode gets forward biased. Thus
A half wave rectifier gives discontinuous and pulsating d.c. output across the load
resistance as shown in the figure.
WAVEFORM –
b)FULL WAVE RECTIFIER – A rectifier which rectifies both halves of each a.c. input
cycle is called a full wave rectifier. To make use of both the halves of input cycle, two
junction diodes are used.
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM –

Principle – It also works on the principle that a junction diode offers low resistance
during forward bias and high resistance, when reverse biased. Here, two junction
diodes are connected in such a manner that if one diode gets forward biased during first
half cycle of a.c. input, the other gets reverse biased but when the next opposite half
cycle comes, the first diode gets reverse and the second forward biased. Thus, output is
obtained during both the half cycles of the a.c. input.
WAVEFORM –
Arrangement – The a.c. supply is fed across the primary coil P of the transformer. The
two ends of the secondary coil S of the transformer are connected to the p-sections of
the junction diodes D1 and D2 . A load resistance R L is connected across the n-
sections of the two diodes and the central tapping of the secondary coil. The d.c. output
will be obtained across the load resistance R L.
Suppose that during first half cycle of the input cycle, upper end of coil S is
at positive potential and the lower end is at negative potential. The junction diode D1 will
get forward biased, while the diode D2 reverse biased. The conventional current due to
the diode D1 will flow along the path of full arrows.
When the second half of the input cycle comes, the situation will be exactly
reverse. Now, the junction diode D2 will conduct and the conventional current will flow
along the path of the dotted arrows. Since current during both the half cycles flows from
right to left through the load resistance R L, the output during both the half cycles will be
of the same nature. The right end of the load resistance R L will be at positive potential
with respect to its left end. Thus, in a full wave rectifier the output is continuous but
pulsating in nature.

10.SPECIAL PURPOSE P-N JUNCTION DIODES

a) PHOTO DIODE – A photo diode is basically a p-n junction diode which is always
operated in reverse bias. It is fabricated with a transparent window to allow light to fall
on the diode. When the photodiode is illuminated with light(photons) with energy greater
than the energy gap of the semiconductor, then electron-hole pairs are generated due
to the absorption of photons and a very small current flows through it.
Due to electric field of the junction, electron and holes are separeated before
they recombine. The direction of electric field is such that electrons reach n-side and
holes reach p-side. Electrons are collected on n-side and holes are collected on p-side
giving rise to an e.m.f. The magnitude of the photocurrent depends on the intensity of
incident light .
SYMBOL AND CIRCUIT DIAGRAM –
Uses of Photo diode
i)Photodiodes are used in smoke detector.
ii)Photodiodes are used in light operating switches.
iii)Photodiodes are used in reading film sound tracks.
iv)Photodiodes are used in electronic devices such as compact disc players.
v)Photodiodes are used in light detecting circuits.

b)LIGHT EMITTING DIODE – Light emitting diodes, commonly called LEDs, are found
in all kinds of electronic devices. It is a heavily doped p-n junction which under forward
bias emits spontaneous radiation. The diode is encapsulated with a transparent cover
so that emitted light can come out.
All junction diodes emit some light, when forward biased. So when the diode is
forward biased, the electrons are sent from n→p and holes are sent from p → n. At the
junction boundary on either side of the junction, excess minority charge carriers are
there which recombine with majority carriers near the junction. On recombination, the
energy is released in the form of photons. Photons with energy equal to or slightly less
than the band gap are emitted.
When the forward current of the diode is small, the intensity of light emitted is
small. As the forward current increases, intensity of light increases and reaches a
maximum. LEDs are biased such that the light emitting efficiency is maximum. LEDs
made of different semiconductor materials emit light of different colours. The
wavelength and hence colour of emitted light depends on the forbidden energy gap of
the semiconductor material. LEDs that can emit red, yellow, orange, green and blue
light are commercially available.

SYMBOL AND CIRCUIT DIAGRAM –

Uses of light emitting diode
i)LEDs are used in electronic panels.
ii)Used in burglar alarms.
iii) Used in telephone exchanges.
iv)Used in numeric displays.
v)Used in numeric displays
vi)Used to illuminate the traffic signal lighting.
vii)Used as photovoltaic cells.

c) SOLAR CELL – A solar cell is a semiconductor device that converts photons of solar
light into electricity. It is basically a p-n junction diode which generates emf when solar
radiation falls on the p-n junction. It works on the same principle as the photodiode,
except that no external bias is applied and the junction area is kept much larger for solar
radiation.
The junction diode is made from extremely thin silicon slices or wafers.
The wafers are usually doped lightly with a p-type impurity, on which a surface diffusion
of n-type doping materials is performed on the front side of the wafer. The generation of
emf by a solar cell, when light falls on, it is due to the following three basic processes :
Generation, separation, and collection.
(i)Generation of e-h pairs due to light close to the junction.
(ii) Separation of electrons and holes due to electric field of the depletion region.
(iii)The electrons reaching the n-side are collected by the front contact and holes
reaching p-side are collected by the back contact.
Thus, p-side becomes positive and n-side becomes negative giving rise to
photovoltage.
Uses of Solar Cell
i)Solar cells are used to produce electrical power in the remote areas.
ii)Solar cells are used for pumping water.
iii)Solar cells are used to power traffic signs.
iv)Solar cells are used in handheld calculators in place of conventional batteries.
v)Solar cells are used to supply power to the earth’s satellites.
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