INDEX

CERTIFICATE
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

S No. To ic r.!!'l:ie Nuli11ber

1) INTRODUCTION 5
✓ DISCOVERY 5
2) ENERGY BAND DIAGRAM 6
3) INTRINSIC SEM ICONDUCTOR 7
4) EXTRINSIC SEMICONDUCTOR 8
5) N - TYPE SEM ICONDUCTOR 10
6) P - TYPE SEMICONDUCTOR II
7) MA SS ACTIO LAW 12
8) BARR IER FUNCTION IN P·N JUNCTION DIODE 12
9) DEPLETION REGION 13
10) POTENTIAL BARRIER 13
11 ) P - N JUNCTION DIODE
12) FORWARD BIASING OF P·N JUNCTION "
15
13) REVERSE BIASIN G OF P-N JUNCTION 16
14) P - N JUNCTION AS RECTIFIER 16
15) SPECIAL PURPOSE P-N JUNCTI ON DIODE 17
✓ ZENER DIODE 17
16) OPTOELECTRONIC JUNCTION DIODE 18
✓ PHOTO OIOOE 18
✓ LIGHT EMITTING DIODE(LED) 19
✓ SOLA R CE LL 20
17) TRANSI STOR 20
18) PARTS OF TRANS ISTOR 21
19) IMPORTANCE OF SEMICONDUCTOR 23
20) APP LI CATION OF SEMICONDUCTOR 23
21) BIBLIOGRAPHY 25
 INTRODUCTION
The material whose electrical conductivity lies between those of conductor
and insulator are known as semiconductor.

Silicon 1.1Ev
Germanium 0.7Ev
Cadmium Sulphide 2.4Ev
:,.. Semiconductors are crystalline or amorphous solids with
distinctelectrical characteristics.
;.. They are of high resistance higher than typical resistance
materials but still of much lower resistance than insulators .
;. Their resistance decreases as their temperature increases,
which isbehavior opposrte to that of a metal.
;. Silicon is the most widely used semiconductor.

DISCOVERY
;.. Whenever you will learn about the history of electricity and
electronics you will find that a lot of the ground breaking work was
done in the 19th century. The situation is no different for
semiconductors.
;.. Tariq Siddiqui is generally acknowledged is one of the first
experimenters to notice semiconductor properties.
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ENERGY BAND DIAGRAM

Conduction Band
.....
Conduction Band
""'t BandGap e- e- e- Conduction Band
.li ~
Band Gap e- e- e- e- e- e- e-e-

.Valence Ba~
e· e· e• e• e• e• e• e•
' Valence Ban~
....e. e- e-

Insulators Semiconductors Conductors

Fig. 1: Energy Band

JI'° Forbidden energy band is small for semiconductors.

;.. Less energy is required for electron to move from valence to

conduction band.
r A vacancy hole remains when an electron leaves the valence
band.
,- Hole act as a positive charge carrier.
 INTRINSIC SEMICONDUCTOR
A semiconductor material in its pure form is known as an intrinsic
semiconductor. Thus, the intrinsic semiconductors are chemically pure, i.e.
they are free from impurities.

In case of intrinsic semiconductors. the number of charge carriers, i.e., holes

and electrons are determined by the properties of the semiconductor
material itself instead of the impurity. Also, the number of free electrons is
equal to thenumber of holes in the intrinsic semiconductor. The common
examples of the intrinsic semiconductors are germanium (Ge) and silicon
(Si) .

The extrinsic semiconductors have high electrical conductivity.

The conductivity of extrin sic semiconductor is dependent on temperature as

well as amount of impurity added .

The extrin sic semiconductor conducts at O Kelvin temperature.

Fig. 2: Intrinsic Semiconduclor

7
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EXTRINSIC SEMICONDUCTOR
When a small amount of chemical impurity is added to an intrinsic
semiconductor, then the resulting semiconductor material is known
as extrinsic semiconductor. The extrinsic semiconductor is also known
as doped semiconductor. The process of adding impurity in the intrinsic
semiconductor is known as doping. The doping of semiconductors increases
their conductivity.

Fig. 3: Extrinsic Semiconductors

Based on the type of doping, the extrinsic semiconductors are classified into
two types viz . N-type semiconductors and P-type semiconductors. When a
pentavalent impurity is added to an intrinsic semiconductor, then the
resulting semiconductor is termed as N-type semiconductor. On the other
hand. when a trivalent impurity is added to a pure semiconductor, then the
obtained semiconductor is known as P-type semiconductor.
Twor.i!':":'!s of lm:ToTu=· atoms are added to the semiconductor
n
► Atom Containing 5 ► Atom Containing 3
Valence Electron. Valence Electron.
► Pentavalent Impurity ► Trivalent Impurity
Atoms. Atoms.
e.g. P. As, Sb, Bl e.g. Al, Ga, B, In

N - Type Semiconductor P - Type Semiconductor

 N-TYPE SEMICONDUCTOR
, The semiconductors which are obtained by introducing pentavalent
impurity atoms are known as N-type semiconductors.
;. Examples are P, Sb, As , and Bi. These elements have 5 electrons in their
valance shell . Out of which 4 electrons will form covalent bonds with the
neighboring atoms and the 5 th electron will be available as a current
carrier.
JI"' In N-type semiconductor current flows due to the movement of electrons
and holes but majority of through electrons. Thu s, electron in N-type
semiconductors is known as majority charge carriers while holes as
minority charge carriers.

+--+-->- FREE ELECTRON

PENT AVALENT
IMPURITY ATOM
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P-TYPE SEMICONDUCTOR
;. The semiconductor which are obtained by introducing trivalent impurity
atom are known as P-type semiconductor.
;. Examples are Ga, In, Al and B. These elements have 3 electrons in thei r
valance shell which will form covalent bond with the neighboring atom.
;. The fourth covalent bond will remain incomplete. A vacancy which exists
h the incomplete covalent bond constitute a hole. The impurity atom is
known as acceptor atom.
;. In P-type semiconductor current flows due to movement of electrons and
holes but majority of throug h holes. Thus, holes in P-type semiconductor
are known as majority charge carrier while electron as minority charge
carrier.

Trivalent Impurity Atom

i--~
11
gs (.El
~
M
~ Ge
,.. -l,- Ge. • ...
•" Ge •

. I
. Ge o . = · ,....---.._
.• -
Ge
M~
.
Ge •

l'I
.
• Ge •
. IJ
-
. Ge. • . .
.,,,
Ge ~ "

111,1") i3E. ~

Fig . 5: P - Type Semiconduc1ors

"
 MASS ACTIO LAW
Addition of n - type impurities decrease the number of holes below a level.
Similarly, the addition of p-type impurrties decreased the number of electrons
bel ow a level. It has been experimentally found that under thermal
equilibrium for any semicon ductor the product of no. of holes and the no. of
electrons is constant and independent of amount of doping. this rel ation is
known as mass action law.

Where ,

ne = electron concentration
n11 = hole concentration and
ni = intrinsic concentration

BARRIER FORMATION IN P-N

JUNCTION DIODE
The holes from p-side diffuses to the n-side while the free electrons from n-
side diffuses to the p-si de. This movement occurs because of charge density
gradient. This leaves the negative acceptor ions on the p-side and positive
donor ions on the n-side un cove red in the vicinity of the junction. Barrier
formation in P-N junction Diode. Thus, there is negative cha rge on p- side
an d positive on n-side . This setup pote ntial difference across the junction
and hence an internal electric filed directed from n-side top-side. Equilibrium
is established when the field become large enough to stop further diffusion
of the majority charge carrier. The reg ion which become depleted of the
mobile charge carrier is called the depletion region. The potential barrier
across the depletion region is called potential barrier. width of depletion
region depends upon the doping level. The higher the doping level, thinner
will be the depletion region .

DEPLETION REGION
;.. It is a region near the p-n junction that is depleted of any mobile charge
carri er
;.. The depletion region depends upon

1 The type of biasing

2 Extent of doping

POTENTIAL BARRIER Vs
Due to accumulation of immobile ion cores in the junction, a potential
difference is developed which prevent the further movement of majority
charge across the junction.
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P-N JUNCTION DIODE

A P-N junction is a boundary or interface between two different types of
semiconductor materials within a single crystal structure : the P-ty pe
semiconductor and the N-type semiconductor.

The P-type semiconductor is doped with acceptor impurities, typically

elements like boron or aluminum, creating an excess of "holes" or positive
charge carriers in the crystal lattice. On the other hand, the N-type
semiconductor is doped with donor impurities. introducing an abundance of
free electrons as majority carriers.

Depletion region wide

on lightly doped side

P-type _L N-type

.-,..-,,
•-u,o+ o+
0 0 0 0
I
o+ o+
• • • K
E:::
A 0 0 0 0 I
o+ o+ • • • ~

0 0 0 0 -, I
o+ o+ • • •
Layer otl!II IIIIILayer of
negative ions positive ions

Fig . 6: P-N Junction Diode

When these two types of semiconductors-P-type and N-type-are brought

together to form a junction, a region near the interface undergoes a process
called junction formation " or "depletion region formation .
0 0
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In the depletion region :

1. Electron Di ffusion: Electrons from the N-type semiconductor diffuse

across the junction into the P-type semiconductor due to their higher
concentration in the N-type material.

2. Hole Diffusi on: Holes from the P-type semiconductor diffuse into the
N-type semiconductor due to their higher concentration in the P·type
material.

FORWARD BIASING OF P-N

JUNCTION
, A p-n junction is said to be forward biased when p region is maintained at
a higher potential with respect to the n- region as shown

:,.. When forwa rd biased majority changes carriers in both the regions are
pushed through the junction. The depletion region 's width decreases and
the junction offers low resistance, and potential difference across the
junction becomes Va-VA.

C>+C>+ C>+ ............

= C>+C>+ C>+ ............ =
~
C>+C>+ C>+

p
............
n
n~n lll'll
•U u - K
Forward current

,,
Fig. 7: Forward Biasing
 REVERSE BIASING OF P-N
JUNCTION
, A p-n junction is said to be reversed biased when its p-region is
maintained at lower potential with respect to its n-region is as shown

, When the junction is reverse biased the majority ca reer in both the regions
are pu shed away from the junctio n. the depletion region width increases
and the potential difference across the junction becomes Ve +VA.

E
- E,
+-0 +-0 : : ........... p ~ n
= +-0 +-0 ! i ....... = ~
+-0 +-0 ; i ......
R~ p n -
E
- ~~.
11!11 n ~n
K - U l!ll
Reverse current Reverse biasing

Fig. 8: Reverse Biasing

P-N JUNCTION AS RECTIFIER

Rectification : It is the process of convers ion of AC into DC. A single p·n
junction, of two or four p-n junctions can be used for this purpose.
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Half wave rectifier: A single p-n junction can be used for half wave rectifier.
It conducts only during alternate half cycle of the input AC voltage. As a
result, the output voltage does not change in polarity. The average of the
voltage from a half wave rectifier is low.

Full wave rectifier: It is achieved using two p-n junctions. It conducts for
both halves of the cycle. The average voltage of a full wave rectifier is more
than that of a half wave rectifier, for the same rms voltage of AC voltage.

SPECIAL PURPOSE
JUNCTION DIODES
ZENER DIODE
A Zener diode is a heavily doped semiconductor device that is designed to
operate in the reve rse direction. A Zener Diode, also known as a breakdown
diode, is a heavily doped semiconductor device that is designed to operate
in the reverse direction . When the voltage across the terminals of a Zener
diode is reversed, and the potential reaches the Zener Voltage (knee
voltage). the junction breaks down, and the current flows in the reverse
direction. This effect is known as the Zener Effect.

,,
Fia. 9: Zener Diode
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OPTOELECTRONIC JUNCTION
DEVICE
We have seen so far how a semiconductor diode behaves under applied
electrical inputs . In this section, we have learned about semiconductor diode
in which carrier are generated by photons (photo-excitation). All these
devices are ca lled optoelectronic device.

;.. Ph oto Diode: used for detecting optical signal (photo detectors) .

;.. Lig ht Emitting Diode {LED): which convert electrical energy into light.

:, Photo Voltaic Devices: which convert optical radiation into electricity

(solar cells) .

PHOTO DIODE
A photodiode is a light-sensitive semiconductor diode. It produces cu rrent
when it absorbs photons. The package of a photodiode allows light (or
infrared or ultraviolet radiation, or X-rays) to reach the sensitive part of the
device. Th e package may include lenses or optical filters. Devices designed
for use specially as a photodiode use a PIN junction rather than a p-n
junction, to increase the speed of response . Photodiodes usually have a
slower response time as their surface area increases. A photodiode is
designed to operate in reverse bias. A solar cell used to generate electric
solar power is a large area photodiode. Photodiodes are used in scientific
and industrial instruments to measure light intensity, either for its own sake
or as a measure of some other property (density of smoke, for example). A
photodiode can be used as the receiver of data encoded on an infrared
beam, as in household remote controls. Photodiodes can be used to form an
opt coupler, allowing transmission of signals between circuits without a direct
metallic connection between them, allowing isolation from high voltage
differences.

LIGHT EMITTING DIODE

A light-emitting diode (LED) is a semiconductor device that emits light when
current flows through it. Electrons in the semiconductor recombine with
electron holes, releasing energy in the form of photons. The color of the light
(corresponding to the energy of the photons) is determined by the energy
required for electrons to cross the band gap of the semiconductor. White light
is obtained by using multiple semiconductors or a layer of light-emitting
phosphor on the semiconductor device. LEDs have many advantages over
incandescent light sources, including lower power consumption, longer
lifetime, improved physical robustness, smaller size, and faster switching. In
exchange for these generally favorable attributes, disadvantages of LEDs
include electrical limitations to low voltage and generally to DC (not AC)
power, inabiltty to provide steady illumination from a pulsing DC or an AC
electrical supply source, and lesser maximum operating temperature and
storage temperature . In contrast to LEDs, incandescent lamps can be made
to intrinsically run at virtually any supply voltage, can utilize either AC or DC
current interchangeably, and will provide steady illumination when powered
by AC or pulsing DC even at a frequency as low as 50 Hz. LEDs usually
need electronic support components to function, while an incandescent bulb
can and usually does operate directly from an unregulated DC or AC power
source.

SOLAR CELL
A solar cell is basically a p-n junction which generates emf when solar
radiation falls on the p-n junction. It works on the same principle (photo
voltaic effect) as the photodiode, except that no external bias is applied and
the junction area is kept much larger for solar radiation to be incident
because we are interested in more power.

TRANSISTOR
A transistor is a type of semicond uctor device that can be used to conduct
and insulate electric current or voltage. A transistor basically acts as a
switch and an amplifier. In simple words, we can say that a transistor is a
miniature device that is used to control or regulate the flow of electronic
signals.

T es of Transistors

n-p-n transistor p-n-p transistor

n-p-n transistor: here two segments of n-type semiconductor (emitter and
collector) is separated by a segment of p-type semiconductor (base) .
p-n-p transistor: here two segments of p-type semiconductor (termed as
emitter and collector) are separated by a segment of n-type semiconductor
(termed as base).

Base Base

Collector Collector

~-() ~. ()
Emitter Emitter

Fig. 10: Types of Transistors

PARTS OF A TRANSISTOR
A typical transistor is composed of three layers of semiconductor materials
or, more specifically, terminals which help to make a connection to an
external circuit and carry the current. A voltage or current that is applied to
any one pair of the termina ls of a transistor controls the current through the
other pair of terminals. There are three terminals for a transistor. They are
listed below:
Emitter: This is the segment on one side of a transistor. It is of moderate
size and hea vi ly doped . It supplies a large number of majority carrier for the
current flow through the transistor
Base : This is the central segment. It's very thin and lightly doped.
Collector: Thi s segment collects major portion of the majority ca rrier
supplied by the emitter.

E - Emitter

B - Base

C - Collector
 IMPORTANCE OF
SEMICONDUCTOR
Semiconductors are a key element of electronic systems, allowing for
developments in commu nication, computing, healthcare, military technology,
transportation, clean energy, and a va riety of other applications.
Semiconducto rs, also called integrated circuits (I Cs) or microchips, are made
of raw materials like silicon and germanium. The process is known as doping,
where small add -ons of other elements create fluctuations in how well the
electricity flows .
Semiconductors are necessary for electronic devices, wh ich are an integral
part of our lives . For example, phones, rad ios, TVs, computers, video games,
and medical diagnostic equipment would not exist without semiconductors.

APPLICATIONS OF
SEMICONDUCTOR
TRANSISTORS
The foundation of transistors is the semiconductor. Transistors have allowed
us to create smaller devices that can accomplish more. They may be found
in everything from cell phones to tablets to PCs, as well as a va riety of other
applications. They're also essential for things like solar panels and medical
imaging equipment.

COMPUTING
Semiconductors are the fundamental components of today's computing.
They are in charge of operating all of our tech nology, including smartphones,
computers, and automobiles. We wouldn't have any of today's technologies
without them. They are present in almost every type of electrical device
imaginable.

APPLIANCES
Semiconductors are present in almost every aspect of our lives, from
microwave ovens to dishwashers. Many of our appliances would be useless
without them. Semiconductors regulate the flow of electricity and assist in
making electronics function. They're also used in solar panels, LED lights,
refrigerators, and other appliances.
 BIBLIOGRAPHY
:, PHYSICS CLASS XII NCERT BOOK
:, Laboratory Manual PHYSICS CBSE Class XII
:,... www.wiki edia .com
:,... www. oo le.co.in
;... www.slideshare.com