a) Bandwidth and Bandwidth Utilization:

 Bandwidth refers to the maximum data transfer rate of a communication

channel, typically measured in bits per second (bps). It indicates the
capacity of the channel to transmit data.
 Bandwidth Utilization is the efficient use of available bandwidth to
achieve maximum throughput while minimizing waste. It ensures the
optimal performance of the network.
b) Piggybacking in Sliding Window:
Piggybacking is a technique used in the sliding window protocol where
acknowledgment (ACK) information is combined with outgoing data frames
instead of sending a separate ACK frame. This reduces overhead and increases
efficiency.
c) Wireless LAN and IEEE Standard:
A Wireless LAN (WLAN) is a local area network that uses wireless communication
technologies, such as radio waves, to connect devices. The IEEE standard
governing WLAN is IEEE 802.11.
d) Collision Detection vs. Collision Avoidance:
 Collision Detection (CD): Used in wired networks like Ethernet, where
the system detects collisions when two devices transmit simultaneously
and takes corrective action.
 Collision Avoidance (CA): Used in wireless networks, such as Wi-Fi,
where mechanisms like carrier sensing and back-off timers are employed
to prevent collisions before they occur.
e) Transmission Impairments and Measurements:
 Attenuation: Loss of signal strength over distance; measured in decibels
(dB).
 Distortion: Alteration of signal waveform; measured using frequency
response.
 Noise: Unwanted signals that interfere with data transmission; measured
using the Signal-to-Noise Ratio (SNR).
f) Components of Data Link Layer:
 Framing: Divides data into manageable frames.
 Error Control: Ensures error-free delivery using techniques like parity
checks.
 Flow Control: Manages data flow to prevent buffer overflow.
 Media Access Control (MAC): Governs how devices access the shared
communication medium.
g) Framing Techniques:
 Character Count: Uses a field in the header to specify the number of
characters in the frame.
  Flag Bytes: Uses special flag bytes to indicate the start and end of a
frame.
 Bit Stuffing: Adds extra bits to ensure unique framing patterns.
 Physical Layer Coding Violations: Uses physical layer signals for
framing.
h) Distance Vector Routing Strategy:
A routing strategy where routers share their routing tables with neighbors
periodically. Each router calculates the shortest path to other nodes using
information received from its neighbors.
i) Factors Leading to Congestion in a Network:
 High traffic volume.
 Insufficient bandwidth.
 Slow or overloaded routers.
 Poorly designed network topology.
j) Protocol for Multimedia Transmission and Frame Structure:
The Real-Time Transport Protocol (RTP) is used for multimedia transmission.
Its frame structure includes fields like sequence number, timestamp, payload
type, and synchronization source identifier.

Section B
2. Issues in OSI Model Leading to TCP/IP Development:
 OSI model complexity and excessive layering.
 Lack of practical implementation during its inception.
 Need for a simpler and more flexible protocol stack, leading to the
adoption of TCP/IP.
3. Comparison of Multiplexing Techniques:
 Frequency Division Multiplexing (FDM): Divides bandwidth into
frequency bands.
 Time Division Multiplexing (TDM): Allocates time slots to each signal.
 Wavelength Division Multiplexing (WDM): Similar to FDM but for
optical signals.
 Code Division Multiplexing (CDM): Assigns unique codes to each user
for simultaneous transmission.
4. Network Security and Role of Firewalls:
Network security involves protecting data and resources from
unauthorized access.
  Role of Firewall: Acts as a barrier between internal networks and
external threats.
 Types:
o Packet-filtering firewalls.

o Stateful inspection firewalls.

o Proxy firewalls.

o Next-generation firewalls (NGFW).

5. Improvements of Slotted ALOHA over Pure ALOHA:

Slotted ALOHA improves efficiency by allowing transmission only at the
beginning of time slots, reducing the probability of collisions. This
increases throughput to approximately 37% compared to 18% in Pure
ALOHA.
6. Comparison of UDP and TCP Protocols:
 TCP: Connection-oriented, reliable, with error and flow control. Frame
includes sequence number, acknowledgment, flags, and checksum.
 UDP: Connectionless, fast, but unreliable. Frame includes source port,
destination port, length, and checksum.

i) DNS (Domain Name System):

DNS is a hierarchical system used to translate human-readable domain names
(like www.example.com) into IP addresses (like 192.168.1.1) that computers use
to communicate over the internet. It is a distributed database system that allows
users to access websites and services using names rather than remembering
numerical IP addresses. DNS servers are organized in a tree-like structure with
root servers, authoritative servers, and caching servers.
ii) SNMP (Simple Network Management Protocol):
SNMP is a protocol used for network management, monitoring, and control of
network devices like routers, switches, servers, etc. It allows a central system
(called the manager) to query and control devices (called agents) within a
network. SNMP works with a structure of MIB (Management Information Base),
which defines the data that can be accessed. It is used to monitor performance,
configuration, and errors in the network.
iii) WWW (World Wide Web):
The World Wide Web is a system of interlinked hypertext documents accessed
via the internet. Using web browsers, users can view text, images, videos, and
other multimedia, linked through hyperlinks. It uses HTTP (HyperText Transfer
Protocol) and is based on web pages, which are hosted on servers and can be
accessed by domain names. WWW is a subset of the internet, which also
includes other services like email and FTP.
8. Two error correction techniques in data transmission:
i) Hamming Code:
Hamming code is a method of error detection and correction that uses parity bits
added to data. These parity bits are placed at specific positions in the data and
are calculated in such a way that they can be used to detect and correct single-
bit errors. If a single bit of the transmitted data is corrupted, the receiver can use
the parity bits to identify and correct the error.
Example:
For 4 data bits, the Hamming code might add 3 parity bits, making a total of 7
bits. When the receiver receives these 7 bits, it can use the parity bits to
determine the position of any errors and correct them.
ii) CRC (Cyclic Redundancy Check):
CRC is a technique used to detect errors in data transmission. The sender divides
the data by a predefined polynomial and sends the remainder (checksum) along
with the data. The receiver performs the same division and checks if the
remainder matches the transmitted one. If the remainders don’t match, it
indicates an error.
Example:
If the data 110101 is to be sent, it might be divided by a polynomial like 1011.
The sender calculates the remainder, appends it to the original data, and sends
it. The receiver performs the same division to check for errors.

9. Advantages of IPV6 addressing and Frame Structure of IPV6 header:

Advantages of IPV6:
 Larger Address Space: IPV6 provides a much larger address space (128-
bit) compared to IPV4’s 32-bit address, allowing for more unique
addresses.
 Simplified Header Structure: IPV6 has a more efficient and streamlined
header, reducing the overhead of routing and making packet processing
faster.
 Better Security: IPV6 has built-in security features like IPsec, which
ensures secure communication.
 Improved QoS (Quality of Service): IPV6 supports better Quality of
Service (QoS) mechanisms, allowing for more efficient traffic
management.
Frame Structure of IPV6 header: The basic structure of an IPV6 header
consists of the following fields:
1. Version (4 bits): Specifies the version of the IP protocol (for IPV6, it's
always 6).
 2. Traffic Class (8 bits): Indicates the priority of the packet for quality of
service (QoS).
3. Flow Label (20 bits): Used to identify packets that belong to the same
flow.
4. Payload Length (16 bits): Specifies the length of the data (excluding
the header).
5. Next Header (8 bits): Indicates the type of data following the IPV6
header (e.g., TCP, UDP).
6. Hop Limit (8 bits): Similar to TTL (Time to Live) in IPV4, it defines the
maximum number of hops the packet can make before being discarded.
7. Source Address (128 bits): The IPV6 address of the sender.
8. Destination Address (128 bits): The IPV6 address of the receiver.
Address Resolution Protocol (ARP):
ARP is responsible for address resolution in the network layer. It is used to map a
device's IP address to its MAC (Media Access Control) address. When a device
wants to communicate with another device on the same local network, it uses
ARP to determine the MAC address corresponding to the IP address of the
destination. This is essential for data link layer communication (e.g., Ethernet).
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