➡ ➡

Unit 1: Data Communication Components & Network Basics

1. Components of Data Communication
● Message: The data to be communicated.
5
● Sender: Originates the message.
4
● Receiver: Destination of the message.
3
● Medium: The physical path (e.g., cables, air).
2
● Protocol: Set of rules for communication.
1
All components work in coordination to encode, transmit, and decode data reliably.
2. Analog vs Digital Data
Feature Analog Digital
Representation Continuous signals Discrete 0s and 1s
Transmission AM/FM, voice over Binary pulses over
telephone computers
In networks, digital
data is often converted
to analog (modulation)
for transmission.
3. LAN, MAN, WAN
Type Area Covered Example
LAN Small, local Office building
MAN City-wide Cable TV network
WAN Global The Internet
4. Network Topologies
● Bus: Single backbone; cheap but prone to collisions.
● Star: Central hub; easy to manage, scalable.
● Ring: Circular data flow; failure in one node affects all.
● Mesh: Every node connects to others; costly but robust.
Best for large orgs: Star or Hybrid, due to scalability and fault tolerance.
5. Protocols and Standards
● Protocols: Rules (e.g., TCP/IP, HTTP).
● Standards: Defined by bodies (IEEE, ISO).
Ensure interoperability between devices.
6. OSI Model (7 Layers)
. Physical – Bits over medium.
. Data Link – Frames, MAC addressing.
. Network – IP addressing, routing.
. Transport – End-to-end delivery, TCP/UDP.
. Session – Session management.
 . Presentation – Data translation, encryption.
. Application – Interface for users.
7
7. OSI vs TCP/IP
6
OSI TCP/IP
7 Layers 4 Layers
Conceptual Practical
Strict layering Flexible
8. Transmission Media
● Guided: Twisted pair, coaxial, fiber optic.
● Unguided: Radio, microwave, infrared.
Fiber offers high bandwidth; radio good for mobility.
9. Wired vs Wireless LAN
● Wired: Uses Ethernet; fast, secure.
● Wireless: Uses Wi-Fi; mobile but less secure.
10. LAN vs VLAN vs VPN
Feature LAN VLAN VPN
Scope Local Logical Secure remote
segmentation access
Security Low High Very High
VLAN
improves
performance by
reducing
broadcast traffic
and isolating
segments.

Unit 2: Bandwidth Utilization & Spread Spectrum

1. Multiplexing
● FDM: Different frequencies (radio).
● TDM: Time slots (digital telephony).
● WDM: Light wavelengths (fiber optics).
2. Spread Spectrum
● Spreads signal over wider bandwidth.
● FHSS: Rapid frequency changes.
● DSSS: Spreads signal using pseudorandom code.
3. Bandwidth Utilization
 ● Efficient use = better performance.
● E.g., TDM allows multiple users over a single link.

Unit 3: Data Link Layer & MAC Sub-layer

1. Need for Error Control
● Ensures accurate transmission across unreliable mediums.
2. Block Coding & Redundancy
● Adds redundant bits to detect/correct errors.
3. Hamming Distance
● Number of bit differences between two words.
● Used to determine error detection/correction capability.
4. CRC (Cyclic Redundancy Check)
● Divides data by generator polynomial.
● Remainder (CRC) sent with data.
● Receiver verifies by checking if remainder is zero.
5. Flow Control: Stop-and-Wait ARQ
● Sender waits for ACK before next frame.
● Simple, but inefficient.
6. Go-Back-N vs Selective Repeat
Feature Go-Back-N Selective Repeat
Retransmit All from error Only erroneous ones
Buffering Sender only Sender + Receiver
7. Sliding Window Protocol
● Allows multiple frames in transit.
● Piggybacking: ACKs sent with outgoing data frames.
8. Pure ALOHA vs Slotted ALOHA
Feature Pure Slotted
Time Any Time slots
Efficiency ~18% ~36%
9. CSMA/CD vs CSMA/CA
● CSMA/CD: Collision detection (Ethernet).
● CSMA/CA: Collision avoidance (Wi-Fi).

Unit 4: Network Layer

1. Switching Types
● Circuit: Dedicated path.
● Packet: Data broken into packets.
● Message: Entire message sent at once.
2. IPv4 vs IPv6
Feature IPv4 IPv6
Size 32-bit 128-bit
Example 192.168.1.1 2001:0db8::1
Addresses ~4.3B Virtually unlimited
3. ARP & RARP
● ARP: IP → MAC.
● RARP: MAC → IP (obsolete; replaced by DHCP).
4. BOOTP vs DHCP
● Both assign IP addresses.
● DHCP: Dynamic, flexible, supports lease time.
● BOOTP: Static, older.
5. Datagram Delivery & Forwarding
● Routing tables used to forward packets to destination via best path.
6. Unicast Routing Protocols
● Distance Vector: Periodic updates, e.g., RIP.
● Link State: Complete map, faster convergence, e.g., OSPF.
7. Subnetting Example
Given IP: 192.168.1.0/24, subnet into 4:
● Borrow 2 bits → /26 → 64 IPs/subnet
● Subnets: 192.168.1.0, 192.168.1.64, 192.168.1.128, 192.168.1.192
UNIT 5: Transport Layer
1. Process-to-Process Communication
● Ensures that data is delivered to the correct application process (e.g., browser, email
client).
● Achieved using:
○ Port Numbers (e.g., HTTP: port 80, SMTP: port 25)
○ Transport layer protocols (TCP/UDP) multiplex and demultiplex data based on port
numbers.

2. UDP vs TCP vs SCTP

Feature UDP TCP SCTP
Type Connectionless Connection- Message-
oriented oriented,
connection-
oriented
Reliability No Yes (ACK, Yes
retransmission)
Ordering No Yes Yes
Ordering No Yes Yes
Overhead Low Higher Highest
Use Cases DNS, VoIP, Web, Email, File Telecom (VoIP +
Streaming transfer signaling)

3. TCP Connection Establishment (3-Way Handshake)

. Client → Server: SYN (synchronize)
. Server → Client: SYN + ACK
. Client → Server: ACK
Termination: 4 steps (FIN, ACK from both sides)

4. What is Congestion?
● Occurs when demand > network capacity → packet loss, delays.
● Causes: Too many packets, slow routers.
Control Mechanisms:
● TCP Congestion Control: Slow Start, Congestion Avoidance
● Queue Management: RED (Random Early Detection)

5. Leaky Bucket vs Token Bucket

Feature Leaky Bucket Token Bucket
Mechanism Fixed rate output Tokens added at rate;
(constant flow) allows bursty traffic
Burst Support No Yes
Diagram

UNIT 6: Application Layer & Security Concepts

1. Domain Name System (DNS)
● Hierarchy: Root → TLD (e.g., .com) → Domain (e.g., google.com) → Subdomain (e.g.,
mail.google.com)
● Resolution Process:
○ Client queries recursive DNS server.
○ Queries root → TLD → authoritative server to get IP.

2. TELNET vs FTP
Feature TELNET FTP
Use Remote login File transfer
Port 23 21
Security Insecure (plaintext) Insecure (unless FTPS/
 SFTP used)

3. Email Protocols
Protocol Function
SMTP Sends email from client to server
POP3 Downloads emails (no sync)
IMAP Syncs email across devices
SMTP for sending, POP3/IMAP for receiving.

4. HTTP vs HTTPS
Feature HTTP HTTPS
Port 80 443
Security None SSL/TLS encryption
Usage General browsing Banking, secure
transactions

5. SNMP (Simple Network Management Protocol)

● Used for managing devices on IP networks.
● Components:
○ Agent: On device (router, switch)
○ Manager: Collects data
○ MIB: Database of objects managed
● Used for monitoring CPU usage, interface status, etc.

6. Bluetooth Architecture
● Piconet: Master + slaves
● Scatternet: Multiple interconnected piconets
● Uses: Wireless headsets, IoT devices, smartwatches

7. Firewall
● A security device/software that controls traffic flow.
● Types:
○ Packet Filtering
○ Proxy Firewall
○ Stateful Inspection
● Blocks unauthorized access while allowing safe communication.

8. Cryptography Basics
Concept Description
 Symmetric Same key for encryption/decryption
(e.g., AES)
Asymmetric Public/private key pairs (e.g., RSA)
Asymmetric is slower but used in
key exchange (e.g., HTTPS).

BONUS / HIGH-WEIGHT QUESTIONS

OSI Model (Draw + Explain)
Diagram:
pgsql
Copy code
+------------------+ ← Layer 7: Application
| Application |
+------------------+ ← Layer 6: Presentation
| Presentation |
+------------------+ ← Layer 5: Session
| Session |
+------------------+ ← Layer 4: Transport
| Transport |
+------------------+ ← Layer 3: Network
| Network |
+------------------+ ← Layer 2: Data Link
| Data Link |
+------------------+ ← Layer 1: Physical
| Physical |
+------------------+
● Each layer performs a distinct function.
● Helps standardize networking protocols and ensure interoperability.

TCP vs UDP
Feature TCP UDP
Reliability Reliable (ACK, error Unreliable
recovery)
Speed Slower due to overhead Faster
Order Maintains order May arrive out of order
Usage Web, Email, File Transfer Streaming, DNS, VoIP

Multiplexing Techniques
 Type Advantage Disadvantage
FDM Multiple signals Interference, needs
simultaneously filters
TDM Efficient use of channel Idle slots possible
WDM High bandwidth (optical) Expensive equipment

DHCP and IP Allocation

● DHCP (Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol): Automatically assigns IP addresses,
gateway, DNS, etc.
● Process:
. Discover
. Offer
. Request
. Acknowledge
● Role: Avoids manual configuration, supports dynamic addressing, simplifies network
management.
Question 7
(a) Functions of the MAC Sublayer
● Media Access Control (MAC) is a sublayer of the Data Link Layer.
● Main Functions:
○ Frame Delimiting: Defines beginning and end of frames.
○ Addressing: Uses MAC addresses to identify source/destination.
○ Channel Access Control: Decides which device can transmit (CSMA/CD, CSMA/CA).
○ Error Checking: Detects errors using CRC/FCS.
○ Flow Control: Ensures sender does not overwhelm receiver.

(b) Pure ALOHA vs Slotted ALOHA

Feature Pure ALOHA Slotted ALOHA
Time Division Not used Time is divided into slots
Transmission Time Any time Only at the beginning of
a slot
Vulnerable Time 2 × T (frame time) T (frame time)
Efficiency ~18% ~36%
Working Principles:
● Pure ALOHA: Transmits whenever data is ready → if collision → wait random time →
retransmit.
● Slotted ALOHA: Transmits only at start of slot → reduces collision window.

(c) Go-Back-N Protocol (with Diagram)

Features:
 ● Uses a sliding window.
● If a packet is lost or corrupted, the receiver discards it and all following ones.
● Sender goes back and retransmits from the errored frame.
Diagram:
vbnet
Copy code
Sender: [1] → [2] → [3] → [4] → [5]
↑
Error in 3

Receiver: [1] ✓ [2] ✓ [3] ✗ [4] ✗ [5] ✗

→ Sender retransmits from frame 3.

Question 8
(a) Private IP Address
● Private IPs are reserved for local networks; not routable on the internet.
● Ranges:
○ 10.0.0.0 – 10.255.255.255
○ 172.16.0.0 – 172.31.255.255
○ 192.168.0.0 – 192.168.255.255
● Why needed?
○ IP address conservation
○ Internal network communication
○ Used with NAT to access the internet

(b) DHCP State Transition Diagram

States:
. INIT → Broadcast DHCPDISCOVER
. SELECTING ← Receive DHCPOFFER
. REQUESTING → Send DHCPREQUEST
. BOUND ← Receive DHCPACK
. RENEWING/REBINDING: Lease renewal
css
Copy code
[INIT] --DHCPDISCOVER--> [SELECTING] --DHCPREQUEST--> [BOUND]
<--DHCPOFFER-- <--DHCPACK--

(c) IP Block: 205.16.37.39/28

● /28 → 32 - 28 = 4 host bits → 2⁴ = 16 addresses
● Network Address: Make last 4 bits of host = 0000
○ IP: 205.16.37.32
● First Address (usable): 205.16.37.33
● Last Address (usable): 205.16.37.46
● Broadcast Address: 205.16.37.47
Question 9
(a) Three-Way Handshake in TCP (with Diagram)
. Client → Server: SYN, seq = x
. Server → Client: SYN + ACK, seq = y, ack = x + 1
. Client → Server: ACK, ack = y + 1
pgsql
Copy code
Client Server
| --- SYN ---> |
| <--- SYN+ACK |
| --- ACK ---> |

(b) Importance of Port Number

● Identifies the application process at the sender/receiver.
● Allows multiplexing (many apps on one device).
Example TCP Connection:
● From Host A → B: source port = x, dest port = y
● From Host B → A: source port = y, dest port = x

(c) Leaky Bucket vs Token Bucket

● Leaky Bucket:
○ Data enters bucket, leaks at fixed rate → smooths bursty traffic.
● Token Bucket:
○ Tokens added at fixed rate. Send data only if token available → supports burstiness.
Combining Both:
● Token Bucket allows burst → Leaky Bucket smooths it before transmission → better QoS
(Quality of Service)control.

Question 10
(a) Packet Filter Firewall
● Filters traffic based on:
○ IP address
○ Port number
○ Protocol
● Stateless: Each packet is inspected independently.
Working:
. Packet arrives → Check rules
. If matches → ALLOW or DENY
Limitation: Can't inspect payload, vulnerable to spoofing.

(b) Symmetric Key Encryption (with Diagram)

● Same key for encryption & decryption
 ● Fast and efficient
Diagram:
css
Copy code
Plaintext → [Encryption + Key] → Ciphertext
Ciphertext → [Decryption + Same Key] → Plaintext
Example algorithms: AES, DES

Question 11
(a) Two-Node Instability in Distance Vector Routing
● If Node A and Node B are only connected to each other and a link breaks, they may
repeatedly advertise wrong routes to each other.
● Causes routing loops and infinite updates.

(b) Solutions
. Split Horizon: Don’t advertise route back to the source.
. Poison Reverse: Advertise unreachable routes with ∞ distance.
. Hold-Down Timer: Wait before accepting bad updates.

(c) Layer Visitation in Transmission

For 2 routers:
● Data Link Layer: Visited at every hop (each link)
● Network Layer: Visited at every router
So:
● Data Link Layer: Source → Router1, Router1 → Router2, Router2 → Destination = 3 times
● Network Layer: Source, Router1, Router2 = 3 times