Unit 3: Fluid Mechanics

This unit explores the fascinating properties and behaviors of fluids, both at rest and in motion.
Building upon your previous understanding of forces, pressure, and energy, these notes provide a
structured approach to the key concepts within Unit 3.

Understanding Fluids: Beyond Solids

While we often encounter solids in our daily lives, it's crucial to recognize that fluids – liquids
and gases – play an equally significant role. Unlike solids, which hold their shape, fluids yield to
forces and readily change their form. This distinction arises from the fundamental differences in
the arrangement and interactions of their constituent atoms.

 Solids: Imagine atoms tightly bound in a rigid, repeating lattice structure. The strong
forces between these atoms restrict their movement, allowing solids to maintain a fixed
shape and volume.
 Liquids: In liquids, the atoms are still close together but possess more freedom to move
around. They can slide past each other, enabling liquids to flow and take the shape of
their container while maintaining a relatively constant volume.
 Gases: Gas atoms are far apart and move about freely, almost independent of each other.
They exert very weak forces on one another, allowing gases to expand to fill any
container they occupy. This freedom of movement also makes gases easily compressible,
unlike solids or liquids.

The sources highlight these differences using illustrative diagrams and examples. Make sure to
review Figure 3.1, which visually contrasts the atomic arrangements of solids, liquids, and gases.

Fluid Statics: When Fluids Stand Still

The study of fluids at rest, known as fluid statics, might seem counter-intuitive at first. After all,
fluids are always in motion, right? While this is true in many cases, understanding how fluids
behave when not flowing is essential for a wide range of applications, from designing dams and
storage tanks to comprehending blood pressure in our bodies.

Pressure: The Force Within a Fluid

A central concept in fluid mechanics, and especially in fluid statics, is pressure. The sources
define pressure as the force exerted by a fluid (or a solid) per unit area. Mathematically:

 P = F/A

Where:

 P is the pressure.
 F is the magnitude of the force exerted on the fluid (or solid).
  A is the surface area over which the force acts.

Pressure in Everyday Life

The concept of pressure helps explain why sharp objects, like nails or knives, can easily
penetrate materials. The small contact area of their tips results in a very high pressure,
concentrating the force and enabling them to pierce through surfaces. Conversely, distributing
your weight over a larger area, like when lying down, reduces the pressure on any single point.

Units of Pressure: Pascals and Beyond

The SI unit for pressure is the pascal (Pa), equivalent to one newton per square metre (N/m2).
However, various other units, like atmospheres (atm), millimeters of mercury (mmHg), and
pounds per square inch (psi), are commonly used. Refer to Equation 3.3 in the sources to
understand the conversions between these units.

Pressure in Gases: A Consequence of Molecular Collisions

The pressure exerted by a gas arises from the constant bombardment of gas molecules against the
walls of their container. Each collision exerts a tiny force, but the sheer number of collisions
results in a measurable pressure. The ideal gas law, as described in Equation 3.6, relates a gas's
pressure, volume, temperature, and the number of gas molecules present.

Pressure in Liquids: A Depth-Dependent Force

In contrast to gases, the pressure in a liquid depends on its depth. As you descend deeper into a
liquid, the weight of the fluid above you increases, leading to a higher pressure. Equation 3.9 in
the sources quantifies this relationship, showing that the pressure at a depth (h) in a liquid of
density (ρ) is:

 P = P0 + ρgh

Where:

 P0 is the pressure at the surface of the liquid.

 g is the acceleration due to gravity.

Atmospheric Pressure: The Weight of Air Above

Living on Earth's surface, we constantly experience pressure from the weight of the atmosphere
above us. This atmospheric pressure, typically around 1 atm (101.3 kPa), is crucial for many
natural phenomena, including our ability to breathe and the existence of weather patterns. The
sources explain how a barometer, a device that measures atmospheric pressure, works based on
the balance between the weight of a column of mercury and the pressure exerted by the
atmosphere.
Pascal's Principle and Hydraulic Systems: Amplifying Forces

One of the remarkable properties of fluids is their ability to transmit pressure changes uniformly
in all directions. This principle, known as Pascal's Principle, forms the foundation for hydraulic
systems used in a wide array of applications, from car brakes and hydraulic lifts to construction
equipment.

Hydraulic Lift: Multiplying Forces

The sources provide a clear illustration of Pascal's Principle in action with the example of a
hydraulic lift (Figure 3.13). In this system, two pistons of different areas are connected by a
fluid-filled tube. Applying a small force to the smaller piston creates pressure that is transmitted
undiminished throughout the fluid. Since pressure is force per unit area, the larger piston
experiences a much greater force due to its larger surface area. This force multiplication enables
hydraulic lifts to raise heavy objects with relatively small input forces.

Archimedes' Principle: Buoyancy and Floating

Have you ever wondered why ships, often made of dense materials like steel, can float on water?
Or why some objects sink while others float? The answer lies in a fundamental principle
discovered by the ancient Greek mathematician Archimedes: Archimedes' Principle.

The Buoyant Force: An Upward Push

Archimedes' Principle states that any object submerged in a fluid experiences an upward force,
known as the buoyant force (FB), equal to the weight of the fluid displaced by the object. In
other words, the fluid tries to "push" the object back up, counteracting the downward force of
gravity.

Float or Sink? It's All About Density

The relative magnitudes of the buoyant force and the object's weight determine whether it will
float or sink. If the buoyant force is greater than the object's weight, the object will float.
Conversely, if the object's weight is greater, it will sink.

Density: A Key Player

The sources highlight that density plays a crucial role in determining buoyancy. Objects denser
than the fluid they are submerged in will displace a volume of fluid weighing less than their own
weight, resulting in a net downward force and causing them to sink. On the other hand, less
dense objects will displace a volume of fluid weighing more than themselves, leading to a net
upward force and causing them to float.

Icebergs: A Chilling Example

The example of an iceberg floating in water provides a striking illustration of these concepts.
Since ice is less dense than water, a large portion of an iceberg remains submerged, displacing a
volume of water with a weight equal to the iceberg's weight. The sources use this example to
emphasize the importance of understanding buoyancy, especially in contexts like maritime
navigation where the hidden volume of an iceberg can pose significant risks.

Fluid Flow: Dynamics in Motion

Moving beyond static fluids, Unit 3 explores the behaviour of fluids in motion, a field known as
fluid dynamics. This area encompasses a wide range of phenomena, from the flow of blood in
our vessels and air over aeroplane wings to the currents in rivers and oceans.

Steady Flow vs. Turbulent Flow

Fluid flow can be broadly categorized into two types: steady (laminar) flow and turbulent flow.
The sources explain that in steady flow, fluid particles follow smooth, predictable paths, whereas
turbulent flow is characterized by irregular, chaotic motion.

Flow Rate: Quantifying Fluid Motion

To describe the rate of fluid flow, we use the concept of flow rate (Q). The sources define flow
rate as the volume of fluid passing a given point per unit time:

 Q = V/t

Where:

 V is the volume of fluid passing the point.

 t is the time interval.

Equation of Continuity: Conservation of Mass in Fluids

The equation of continuity is a fundamental principle in fluid dynamics that expresses the
conservation of mass. For an incompressible fluid (a fluid whose density remains constant)
flowing through a pipe of varying cross-sectional area, the equation of continuity states that:

 A1v1 = A2v2

Where:

 A1 and A2 are the cross-sectional areas at two different points along the pipe.
 v1 and v2 are the fluid speeds at those points.

This equation implies that as the cross-sectional area of the pipe decreases, the fluid speed must
increase to maintain a constant flow rate. Think about what happens when you cover part of a
garden hose with your thumb; the water shoots out with a higher speed.
Bernoulli's Principle: Pressure, Speed, and Flight

Named after the Swiss mathematician Daniel Bernoulli, Bernoulli's Principle elegantly
connects a fluid's pressure to its speed and elevation. It states that as the speed of a fluid
increases, the pressure within the fluid decreases. This principle has profound implications for
understanding how aeroplane generate lift and why objects in a fast-moving airstream experience
a pressure difference.

High-Pressure Systems: Applications and Safety

Unit 3 concludes by highlighting the importance of understanding and respecting high-pressure

systems. From everyday appliances like pressure cookers to industrial equipment, high-pressure
systems offer numerous benefits. However, they also pose inherent risks if not handled
responsibly. The sources emphasize the need for proper maintenance, adherence to safety
protocols, and user awareness to prevent accidents and ensure the safe operation of these systems.