New 2015 Specification

AQA
Sociology
EXAM NOTES
For A Level (Year 1) & AS Level

Education
Research Methods (including Methods in Context)
Families and Households

BOOK 1

Exam questions and answers at www.sociologyzone.co.uk Section 1 : Education 2

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 About the Exam Notes

Written with examination success in mind!

•• These exam notes have been written by Sociology examiners and experienced teachers, with only
one purpose in mind— exam success. Using these exam notes will help students achieve the best
possible grade in their Sociology exam.
•• We have provided the depth of information required for your Sociology examinations, both in terms
of knowledge and evaluation, which makes these exam notes more concise than general Sociology
text books, and more comprehensive than standard revision guides (which often lack the depth of
evaluation required to achieve an A grade).

We have focused on the ‘evaluation’ part.

•• Contrary to popular belief, learning and memorising lots of facts and theories will not get you a
grade A or B in your exam. The exam requires you to be able to ‘analyse’ and ‘evaluate’ sociological
knowledge, this does not mean jotting down a few brief criticisms at the end of your essay. The
analysis and evaluation that you make, needs to be expanded upon and explained in an effective
manner. With this in mind, we have written a lot of the evaluation points using the three-step-
rule: identify, expand and conclude. We have done this for you in this book to demonstrate what a
‘developed’ evaluation point looks like. Please try and remember this technique and demonstrate it in
your exam.

Exam questions
•• We have given you lots of exam questions at the end of each exam note to practise. We have covered
most of the different types of questions you may be asked for each topic both at AS and at A Level. If
you are taking the A level course, it is a good way of testing and practising both your knowledge and
examination skills. You may realise some of the questions require the same answers, but are worded
differently, this was deliberate, just so you are familiar with the different way the questions can be
worded.
•• Please visit www.sociologyzone.co.uk for exam notes, exam questions, mark schemes, model
answers and much more.

Exam questions and answers at www.sociologyzone.co.uk Section 1 : Education 4

 Contents

Section 1 – Education
Exam Notes 1: The Functionalist Perspective on Education ....................................... 8
Exam Notes 2: The New Right Perspective on Education...........................................12
Exam Notes 3: The Marxist Perspective on Education..................................................16
Exam Notes 4: Education and the Economy.....................................................................22
Exam Notes 5: Class Differences in Educational Achievement..................................28
Exam Notes 6: Ethnic Differences in Educational Achievement................................39
Exam Notes 7: Gender Differences in Educational Achievement.............................48
Exam Notes 8: Relationships and Processes within Schools......................................57
Exam Notes 9: Educational Policies: Selection, Marketisation
and Greater Equality....................................................................................69
Exam Notes 10: Privatisation & Globalisation of Education Policy..........................81

Section 2 – Research Methods (including Methods in Context)

Exam Notes 1: Research Methods and Key Concepts..................................................87
Exam Notes 2: Choice of Methods.......................................................................................93
Exam Notes 3: Carrying out a Study................................................................................. 101
Exam Notes 4: Sampling....................................................................................................... 104
Exam Notes 5: Experimensts................................................................................................ 110
Exam Notes 6: Questionnaires............................................................................................ 117
Exam Notes 7: Interviews..................................................................................................... 124
Exam Notes 8: Participant and Non-Participant Observation................................ 131
Exam Notes 9: Documents................................................................................................... 140
Exam Notes 10: Official Statistics....................................................................................... 147

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 Section 3 – Families and Households
Exam Notes 1: The Functionalist Perspective on the Family................................... 154
Exam Notes 2: The Marxist Perspective on the Family.............................................. 158
Exam Notes 3: The Feminist Perspective on the Family............................................ 161
Exam Notes 4: The New Right Theory of the Family.................................................. 165
Exam Notes 5: Marriage and Cohabitation.................................................................... 167
Exam Notes 6: Divorce and Separation........................................................................... 170
Exam Notes 7: Family Diversity (Part 1)........................................................................... 173
Exam Notes 8: Lone Parent Families................................................................................. 179
Exam Notes 9: Gender Roles, Domestic Labour and Power Relationships........ 183
Exam Notes 10: Policies and the Family.......................................................................... 189
Exam Notes 11: Demographic Trends in the UK since 1900................................... 195
Exam Notes 12: Childhood................................................................................................... 202

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 Section 1
Education
AQA Specification

Education

Students are expected to be familiar •• the role and functions of the education system, including its
with sociological explanations of the relationship to the economy and to class structure
following content:
•• differential educational achievement of social groups by social
class, gender and ethnicity in contemporary society

•• relationships and processes within schools, with particular

reference to teacher/pupil relationships, pupil identities and
subcultures, the hidden curriculum, and the organisation of
teaching and learning

•• the significance of educational policies, including policies

of selection, marketisation and privatisation, and policies to
achieve greater equality of opportunity or outcome, for an
understanding of the structure, role, impact and experience
of and access to education; the impact of globalisation on
educational policy.

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 EXAM NOTES 1 The Functionalist Perspective on Education

The AQA specification: Education

•• The relationship the role and functions of the education system, including its relationship to the
economy and to class structure.

The exam requires that you are able to:

▸▸ Describe and evaluate the functionalist perspective on education.

Keywords
•• Social solidarity refers to the bonding/integration of people together into society through shared
values, and a common culture and understanding.

•• Meritocratic means that status or position in society is achieved through your own abilities and
efforts rather than because of your class, ethnicity or gender, or the family you were born into or who
you know.

Functionalist perspective on education

•• Functionalists argue that for society to function effectively, there must be social order and stability
(ie, an absence of disorder, conflict and tension), otherwise society will collapse. In order for society
to survive, society needs social solidarity – everyone sharing the same norms and values (value
consensus).
•• Functionalism is seen as a structural theory because it claims that social structures (ie, social
institutions) such as religion, family and school perform a number of positive ‘functions/roles’, both
for society as a whole and for individuals, in order to help maintain social solidarity. Therefore,
functionalists are mainly interested in the positive functions performed by education. There are two
key functions::
—— The socialisation function. The school system helps socialise students into society by teaching
individuals about the accepted behaviour and rules of society, which helps achieve social
solidarity.
—— The economic function. The school system plays a key role in slotting people into ‘appropriate’
future occupational positions in society.

Durkheim: social solidarity

•• Education promotes social solidarity. Durkheim (1903) claims that the education system teaches
students the shared values and norms of society which create social solidarity. The school, with its
rules, rituals and regulations, teaches students the importance of social constraints and cooperation;
in some respects, school is ‘society in miniature’, creating tolerant and law-abiding future citizens who
will cooperate with each other.

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 Parsons: universalistic values and meritocracy
•• Education teaches universalistic values. Parsons (1961) argues that school helps prepare us
for society by moving us from particularistic to universalistic values. Particularistic values are taught
during primary socialisation within the family, in which parents treat their children as if they are special
regardless of their achievement. Society cannot act in this way but must function on universalistic
values: everyone has to be treated equally. Students must learn that success and achievement (or
status with respect to the law) does not depend on where you come from or who you know, but on
individual merit (see below). Learning these universalistic standards enables students to more easily
make the transition from particularistic values (family) to universalistic values (society) which are
essential for cooperation.
•• Meritocracy. Parsons also sees the education system as playing the role of socialising individuals
into accepting the shared values of a meritocratic society. Firstly, this means that everyone achieves
their place in society through their own efforts and abilities, rather than through any inherited status.
Secondly, every individual is given an equal opportunity to achieve their full potential without being
discriminated against on grounds of social class, ethnicity or gender. Therefore, the education system
teaches pupils to understand the values of achievement and of equal opportunity. Parsons sees the
school as a miniature version of ‘society’, as both are meritocratic. In school, individuals succeed or
fail depending on their own ability and effort. This prepares them for life in modern society and its
economy, which is competitive and individualistic.

Davis and More: role allocation

•• Role allocation. Davis and Moore (1945) see the education system’s main function as one of
selection and the allocation to students of their future work roles. It does this by carrying out a filtering
process of ‘sifting and sorting out’ individuals so that the most talented get the best qualifications and
are allocated to the most important jobs. Individuals have different abilities and skills. Davis and Moore
see some work roles as more complex than others and requiring greater skill. For society to function
efficiently, the most talented individuals need to be allocated to the most important jobs. Higher
rewards are offered for these jobs to motivate everyone to strive for them. A meritocratic education
system allows everyone to compete equally. As a result, society is more productive because the most
able people do the most important jobs.

Human capital theory

•• Human capital theory was developed by Schultz (1971) and suggests that high levels of spending
on education and training (hence ‘human capital’) are required as these develop people’s knowledge
and skills which in turn helps produce an efficient and successful economy. Functionalists argue that
greater investment in human capital has led to the expansion of higher education courses to meet
the demands of modern technological advanced society. The meritocratic education system is more
important than ever as it is the best way to make sure the best-qualified and most highly-skilled
people get the best jobs. This ensures greater economic productivity for society and a higher financial
return for the skilled individual.

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 48 Evaluation
✘✘ Meritocracy is a myth. Marxists argue that the meritocratic education system is a myth. This is
because, in reality, some social groups such as the working class and ethnic or gender groups are
often discriminated against or under-achieve for reasons outside school influence (eg, material
deprivation). This would suggest that the education system is not totally based on equal opportunity
for everyone, as suggested by the functionalists, as the success of some students can be influenced
by factors such as class, ethnicity and gender.

Marxists would also argue that the education system works in favour of the ruling class because it
transmits the values and ideological views of that class rather than society’s shared values, as claimed
by the functionalists.

✘✘ Social class, gender and ethnicity are influential. Evidence has shown that most people in
middle-class occupations have middle-class backgrounds, and that working-class jobs are often
filled by people from working-class backgrounds. Equally, females and certain ethnic/colour groups
(eg, Bangladeshi or Black) are less likely to be in well-paid jobs. This would suggest a person’s class
background, ethnicity and gender are more important in determining their income later in life than is
their achievement in school.

✘✘ Education is not linked to job skill. It is difficult to see a direct link between the subjects
studied at school and what is required of workers in their jobs. It could be argued that beyond basic
standards of literacy and numeracy, and university courses in a few subjects, such as law or medicine,
most formal education is not closely related to the skills required for an efficient workforce. This
would suggest that education does not necessarily equip people for future work roles.

✘✘ Most functional jobs are questionable. Davis and Moore assume that the most important
functional jobs are given to those best qualified for them, and that they are rewarded financially
for them. However, in real life this is not the case. For example, footballers (eg, David Beckham) are
exceptionally well-paid; does this mean that being a footballer is functionally more important for
society than being a doctor, teacher or nurse, because they are paid less?

Practice exam questions

AS level exam questions

1. Define the term ‘meritocracy’. [2 marks]

2. Define the term ‘value consensus’. [2 marks]

3. Define the term ‘social solidarity’. [2 marks]

4. Define the term ‘universalistic norms’. [2 marks]

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 5. Outline three functions that the education system might perform according to the functionalist
view. [6 marks]

6. Outline three ways in which school prepares pupils for work.  [6 marks]

7. Outline and explain two criticisms that may be made of the functionalist view of the role of the
education system.  [10 marks]

8. Using material from Item (…) and your knowledge, evaluate the functionalist contribution to our
understanding of the role of the education system in society.  [20 marks]

A level exam questions

1. Outline and explain two roles that education fulfils according to functionalists. [4 marks]

2. Outline two ways in which schools are ‘based on meritocratic principles’. [4 marks]

3. Outline three criticisms that sociologists may make of the functionalist view of the education
system.  [6 marks]

4. Outline three ways in which school prepares pupils for work. [6 marks]

5. Applying material from Item (…), analyse two ways in which education is ‘based on meritocratic
principles’. [10 marks]

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 EXAM NOTES 12 Childhood

The AQA specification: Families and Households

•• The nature of childhood, and changes in the status of children in the family and society.

The exam requires that you are able to:

▸▸ Describe and assess how childhood has been socially constructed.
▸▸ Assess whether childhood has improved or not in contemporary society.
▸▸ Describe and assess the different views of the future of childhood.

Key term
•• Childhood is viewed as the early stage of human physiological and psychological development,
typically the time period from infancy to puberty, or before people turn 13 (although some consider
it to last until people are 18 and considered legally adult). In contemporary Britain, childhood is
considered to be a distinctive stage in life that is experienced before becoming an adult.
•• Social construct means that certain things, in this case ‘childhood’, have been created and defined
by society, rather than being a natural biological development.

Is childhood a social construct?

Childhood is viewed as a distinct and separate period of life, a time of innocent vulnerability that requires
protection from the harsh realities of the adult world. It goes without saying that children are younger
and biologically less developed than adults, but sociologists argue that notions of childhood are socially
constructed (see above). This is because the responsibility, treatments, laws and status of children:

—— vary between different cultures (eg, western, non-western and developing countries).
—— vary even in the same societies (eg, as regards class, ethnicity and gender).
—— have changed through history (eg, pre-industrial, industrial and modern/future periods).

Childhood in different cultures

There is a wide variation in how children are viewed and treated across the world. For example, in
European societies, the period of childhood is usually longer. In non-European and developing countries,
childhood is a much shorter period, with some children taking on adult roles as soon as they are
physically able. For example, approximately 150 million children (aged 5 -14) are involved in child labour
with the largest number coming from Africa and China and boys and girls in this age group almost
equally affected (International Labour Organisation, 2015). Even more disturbing is the use of children as
soldiers in Africa, for example in Uganda, Chad, Congo and Somalia (www.warchild.org.uk). There are an
estimated 250,000 child soldiers in the world today. It is estimated that 40% of all child soldiers are girls,
often used as ‘wives’ (ie, sex slaves) of the male combatants.

Childhood in the same society

Experience of childhood is not the same even in the same society. In contemporary Britain, inequality
based on social class, ethnicity and gender means that not all children have the same experience of

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 growing up. For example, girls, particularly Asian girls, will often have a more restricted childhood than
boys. Government statistics show that 27% of children living in Britain (2014) are defined as poor. Poorer
children are likely to suffer more ill-health and disability and have fewer educational qualifications than
those who are better-off.

Historical changes in childhood

Children in pre-industrial society (pre-1760)

Phillipe Ariès (1960) argues that in pre-industrial European society, childhood did not exist. His analysis
through secondary sources such as letters, diaries and historical documents as well as medieval paintings
demonstrated that children were treated no differently from adults: they were seen as ‘little adults’ and
made to work as young as 7 or 8 years of age alongside adults (or be apprenticed out to learn a trade).
Children were seen as economic assets rather than as a focus of love and affection. In the eyes of the
law, 7- and 8-year-olds were seen as being criminally responsible. This means that they could be tried
and punished for crimes such as stealing on a similar basis to adults. Aries argued that two factors
explain why society did not regard children as objects of love and devotion:

—— High level of infant mortality. There was a very high level of infant mortality, which may have
led parents to be indifferent towards infants.
—— Financial reasons. Children had to work in order for the family unit to survive, which in turn
meant they were given adult responsibilities at a younger age.

Children in industrial society (1760-onwards)

Aries argues that it was industrialisation that influenced the social construction of childhood, that is,
changed our attitude towards children. By the 19th century, laws and social changes had resulted in
the emergence of ‘childhood’. For example, laws were introduced that included banning children from
working in mines and factories and which isolated most children from the ‘real world’ of adult work and
responsibilities. The government also introduced a law to provide education for children up to the age of
10 (the Elementary Education Act 1870) and raised the age of sexual consent to 16, to cut down on child
prostitution. Improvements in health, sanitation and diet led to a decline in infant mortality rates. This
gradually led to children becoming objects of love and devotion, regarded as vulnerable and in need of
protection, rather than economic assets. However, some working-class children ignored the new laws and
continued to work in mines and factories, since their families were often dependent on their children’s
wages for survival (there being no welfare or state pensions).

Once the idea of childhood had been established in the 19th century, different notions of children and
childhood emerged. Wendy Rogers (2001) argues that two dominant images of childhood emerged in
the 19th century and remain with us today: that of the sinful child and that of the innocent child:

—— Innocent child. The innocent child view suggests there is something wholesome and precious
about childhood and that children should be protected from the nasty adult world and allowed
the freedom to enjoy their time of innocence.
—— Sinful child. The sinful child view assumes children are essentially selfish and unable to control

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 their selfish desires. This is associated with the ‘control view’ of childhood, in which the job of
adults is to control, regulate and discipline children.

Childhood in modern society (1960-present day)

It was not until the late 20th and early 21st century that major changes took place whereby children are
now seen as a distinct category from adults. British society has become more child-centred in the post-
war period, which means the welfare of children is very important in society: we spend large amounts of
time, effort and money on a smaller number of children. In a child-centred society, children are seen as
naive, vulnerable and in need of protection from bad things (eg, murder, death, violence and conflict).
Parenting children the right way also became a concern for most adults who have children. A large
amount of money and time is invested in children academically, socially and physically to prepare them
for adulthood, and a string of laws have been passed to provide protection for children.

Why did the position of children change in the 19th and 20th centuries?
—— Industrialisation. Formal schooling developed as a direct response to industrialisation. The
1870 Education Act introduced a basic system of primary education with the hope that literate
educated workers would create a skilled workforce.
—— The decline of infant mortality rates. More infants surviving meant parents had fewer children
and made a greater financial and emotional investment in the fewer children they had.
—— Advances in specialist knowledge about children. Advances in the field of psychology during
the 19th and 20th centuries meant the promotion of ideas about the importance of the early
years of child development.
—— Laws banning child labour. From the 1840s, children changed from economic assets to
economic liabilities, financially dependent on their parents.
—— Compulsory schooling. The Elementary Education Act of 1870 made education
compulsory from the ages of five to ten; this created a period of dependency on the family and
separated children from the adult world of work. With the later expansion of education, children
were obliged to spend a minimum of 11 years in school.
—— Contraception. The availability of contraception means parenthood is now a matter of choice
rather than economic necessity or biological accident. Families can have fewer children, investing
more time and care in them.
—— Children protection and welfare laws. The expansion of social welfare services and a number
of acts have given children greater protection. For example, the Children Act (1989) sets outs
parents’ ‘responsibilities’ and protects children who are thought to be at risk, mandating action
if necessary by involving the social services and the police. The Child Support Act (1991) is
designed to protect children’s welfare in the event of parental separation.
—— Laws about social behaviour. The minimum age of a wide range of activities, from sex to
smoking and drinking alcohol, reinforces the attitude that children are different from adults.

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 Has childhood improved?
Many would argue that the lives of children in the western world have greatly improved compared to the
lives of children in earlier centuries and those of children in many other parts of the world.

Positive view

The ‘march of progress’ sociologists take a positive view of childhood and argue that, over time, the lives
of most children have improved, and that the family, including society, is child-centred. This is because:

—— Children’s welfare has improved, in terms of their education, psychology and health.
—— Infant mortality rate has declined; most babies now survive.
—— Smaller family size means parents can afford to provide for children’s needs
—— Children are protected from harm and exploitation by laws against child abuse and child labour.
Negative view

•• Conflict theorists (eg, feminists and Marxist) argue that the ‘march of progress’ view is idealised, and
take a more negative of childhood. They highlight points such as:
—— Gender differences: (the way we see and treat girls and boys). Girls are more likely to perform
domestic duties and parents often are more protective of girls, allowing them much less
independence.
—— Ethnic differences: for example, Asian parents (eg, Muslim, Sikh and Indian) are more likely to be
strict towards their daughters than white parents.
—— Class inequalities: for example, poor children tend to lack many of the experiences that middle-
class children may enjoy (holidays, day-trips and activities).

Firestone (1979), a feminist, argues that childhood has not improved because inequalities exist between
children and adults. Children are controlled and dominated by adults. For example, children do not have
the freedom to choose whether they can work, what they do with their time, what they wear and eat, and
whether they want to go to school or not.

Marxists would also point out the class differences in definitions of childhood over the years: it was
mainly working-class children who were expected to work long hours in the 19th century, whereas upper-
class children were the first to be ‘coddled’. They would also argue that how we treat children is likely to
depend on the economy and the needs of the means of production.

•• Functionalists and the New Right see childhood as a natural stage in development and a time
where children are vulnerable and under threat, requiring protection from the adult world. However,
Melanie Phillips (1997), a journalist who supports the New Right view, argues that in modern society
the culture of disciplined parenting is breaking down. She sees two trends as the reason for this:
—— Liberal ideologies. Liberal ideas that children have rights (eg, not to be punished by smacking)
have undermined the ability of parents to establish authority over children, which in turn has
undermined children’s respect for parenting (and authority).
—— Media. The media and peer groups are becoming much more influential in shaping a child’s

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 identity than parents.

Philips argues that the above two trends are detrimental to childhood as they have encouraged children
to become adults faster and simultaneously undermined the ability of parents to regulate their children’s
passage into adolescence and adulthood. As a result, the period of childhood innocence has been
shortened as children are made to mature at a much earlier age, causing all types of problems, such as
inability to cope with choices, leading to psychological disorders (eg, suicide and eating disorders).

•• Family relationships. Childhood can be damaged by family disruption such as divorce, reconstituted
family arrangements, and sexual and physical or emotional abuse. For example, the Child Protection
Register contains approximately 50,000 names of children vulnerable to abuse, mainly from family
members. Their dependency on adults and their inability to obtain legal paid employment mean they
have little opportunity to escape unhappy family life.
•• Mass media. Some sociologists argue that in modern society, children have lost their innocence and
their childhood has been shortened though exposure to adult issues such as sex and death through
the mass media and the internet. The media has also influenced many young girls’ behaviour by
encouraging them to envisage themselves as sexual beings at a much younger age than previously.
•• Children in other countries. Children in developing countries will often experience childhood
differently from those in developed or Western societies. Factors such as the trafficking and
prostitution of children, child pornography, child military service and child labour will mean that
children often experience their childhood negatively.

The future of childhood

Neil Postman in ‘The Disappearance of Childhood’ (1983) argues that childhood is disappearing in the
21st century and children are becoming more like adults. This is mainly due to mass media (eg, internet
and TV) on which children are being exposed to the adult world, (eg, sex, drugs and violence) at younger
and younger ages. The formerly secret aspects of adulthood have been revealed to children at a much
earlier age, forcing them to grow up more quickly.

Palmer (2006) argues that rapid changes in technology and social attitudes are damaging children’s
development (eg, junk food, computer games, intensive marketing to children, testing in education and
long hours worked by parents). As a result, children are deprived of a genuine childhood.

Nick Lee (2001) suggests that childhood has not disappeared but has just become more complex and
ambiguous (unclear). Children are dependent and independent at some points during their growth.
This is due to the increasing similarities between adults and children, which have led to a new social
construction of childhood which at present is unclear. On the other hand, Grossberg (1994) argues that
much of adult culture now increasingly enjoys aspects of ‘youth culture’, with many people in their 30s
and 40s refusing to let go of their youth.

Conclusion
It is clear that being a child in the past was very different to being a child today, although how children
experience their childhood will depend on the country they are born in, and what class, gender and

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 ethnicity they belong to. Changes in the UK since the 19th century have led to the emergence of a
child-centred society, which has had a positive impact on the experience and development of children.
Changing technology and social attitudes now mean children are maturing much faster, but this may
come at a cost. For example, UK youth are at, or near, the top of the international league table for
obesity, self-harm, drug and alcohol abuse, violence and teenage pregnancies, which suggests they are
not ready to cope emotionally and psychologically.

48 Evaluation
✘✘ Cognitive development. Psychologists such as Piaget have shown that children develop mentally
(cognition) through a number of different stages and are not capable of thinking in the same way
as adults. The process of socialisation also indicates that ‘childhood’ is a learned concept: the young
person learns how to be a ‘child’ and the adult learns how to create a ‘child’.
✘✘ Childhood not all a social construct. It could be argued that childhood is not completely
constructed socially. The physical and mental development of the young human being helps to
define the roles and responsibilities they can take, and also the treatment they receive. The physical
boundaries of age must play some part in determining what a child can do.
✘✘ Exaggeration of children’s lives in pre-industrial times. Ariès has been criticised for his
interpretation of childhood in pre-industrial society. It has been argued that in certain respects,
children in medieval Europe were seen as different from adults. For example, there were laws
prohibiting the marriage of children under the age of 12.
✘✘ Poverty in less developed countries. Although childhood is experienced differently in less-
developed countries, this is mainly for economic reasons, that is, that children are essential for the
economic survival of the family, rather than because they have a different social construction of
childhood. For example, poverty and lack of decent work for adults forces many children into work,
a factor preventing them from going to school and equipping themselves with literacy skills, even if
being illiterate will further propel the poverty cycle.
✘✘ Child abuse. The child-centeredness of society does not necessarily mean that childhood has
improved. Child abuse still exists, whether physical, sexual or mental. For example, the NSPCC claims
that in 2014, nearly 50,000 children were on the Child Protection Register because they were said to
be at risk of significant harm from family members. These figures emphasise the dark side of family
life, of which children are victims.
✘✘ Child-centered society. Frank Furedi (2000) argues that a child-centered society has led to an age
of ‘paranoid parenting’: an over-exaggerated level of constant fear and paranoia of the potential
threats their children face in terms of health, safety and welfare (eg, parks, foods, cots, baby-sitters,
pedophiles, gangs or drugs). This has caused parents to be over-controlling and more restrictive of
children’s activities (eg, playing in the park). This restrictive approach towards play stifles children’s
initiative and desire for play/adventure, which is important for the child’s social and cognitive
development. For example, for children to become responsible, they have to learn to make decisions
for themselves, something they can never do under a parent’s watchful eye.

Exam questions and answers at www.sociologyzone.co.uk Section 3 : Families and Households 207
 Practice exam questions

AS Level type questions

1. Define the term ‘child-centred society’. [2 marks]
2. Define the term ‘social construction’. [2 marks]
3. Using one example, briefly explain how the difference between adults and childhood may be
becoming less clear.  [2 marks]
4. Using one example, briefly explain how there may be a ‘loss of childhood’ in contemporary
British society.  [2 marks]
5. Outline three ways in which adults may control the activities of children. [6 marks]
6. Outline three ways in which adults control children’s time, space or bodies. [6 marks]
7. Outline three reasons why children have less power in society than adults. [6 marks]
8. Outline three ways in which the position of children can be said to have improved over the last
one hundred years. [6 marks]
9. Outline three ways in which differences between childhood and adulthood are becoming less
clear in society today. [6 marks]
10. Outline three ways in which childhood may not be a specially protected and privileged time of
life.  [6 marks]
11. Outline three reasons why the experience of childhood may differ between children in
contemporary British society. [6 marks]

AS & A Level type questions

12. Outline and explain two reasons why childhood as a separate age-status is a ‘relatively modern
invention’ [10 marks]
13. Outline and explain two changes in society which may be reducing the distinction between
‘childhood’ and ‘adulthood’. [10 marks]
14. Applying material from Item (…) and your knowledge, evaluate sociological explanations of
changes in the status of childhood. [20 marks]
15. Applying material from Item (…) and your knowledge, evaluate the view that contemporary
families have become more child-centred. [20 marks]
16. Applying material from Item (…) and your knowledge, view that childhood is being lost in
society today. [20 marks]

A Level type question

17. Applying material from Item (…), analyse two arguments against the view that childhood is a
fixed, universal stage. [10 marks]

18. Applying material from Item (…), analyse two changes in the position of children in society over
the last 100 years. [10 marks]

Exam questions and answers at www.sociologyzone.co.uk Section 3 : Families and Households 208