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Teaching guide
This resource is provided as guidance for teachers on the minimum content to be covered when delivering the specifications. Please
note that where examples of sociologists or studies have been provided these are a guide to how you may deliver the specification.

Education 3.1.1 and 4.1.1

Education is a compulsory topic for both the AS and A-level. It is assessed on Paper 1 of the AS (7191/1) and Paper 1 of the A-level
(7192/1).

Specification Minimum content to be covered

The role and functions of the education system, including its Functionalist and New Right explanations of the role and
relationship to the economy and to class structure functions of the education system, eg in relation to social
solidarity, skills teaching, meritocracy, selection and role
allocation.

Durkheim, Parsons, Davis & Moore, Chubb & Moe

Marxist explanations of the role and functions of the education

system, eg in relation to ideological state apparatuses,
reproduction of social class inequality, legitimation of social
class inequality.

Althusser, Bowles and Gintis, Willis

Differential educational achievement of social groups by social Patterns and trends in differential educational achievement by
class, gender and ethnicity in contemporary society social class, ethnicity and gender, eg in relation to GCSE
results.

Official statistics on patterns

Different sociological explanations of social class differences in

educational achievement in relation to external factors (outside
the education system), eg cultural deprivation, material
deprivation and cultural capital.

J.W.B. Douglas, Bernstein, Bourdieu

Different sociological explanations of gender differences in

educational achievement in relation to external factors, eg
changes in the family and labour market affecting women and
men and the influence of feminist ideas.

Sharpe, McRobbie, Francis

Different sociological explanations of ethnic differences in

educational achievement in relation to external factors, eg
cultural deprivation, material deprivation and racism in wider
society.

Bereiter & Engelmann, Evans, Lupton

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Relationships and processes within schools, with particular Different sociological explanations of social class differences in
reference to teacher/pupil relationships, pupil identities and educational achievement in relation to internal factors and
subcultures, the hidden curriculum, and the organisation of processes within schools, eg teacher labelling, the self-fulfilling
teaching and learning prophecy, pupil subcultures and pupils’ class identities.

Becker, Lacey, Ball

Different sociological explanations of gender differences in

educational achievement in relation to internal factors, eg the
curriculum, selection and marketisation, feminisation of
education, pupil subcultures and gender identities.

Kelly, Gorard, Weiner

Patterns and trends in subject choice by gender. Different

sociological explanations of gender differences in subject
choice, eg in relation to subject image, teaching and learning
styles and primary socialisation.

Official statistics on patterns

Different sociological explanations of ethnic differences in

educational achievement in relation to internal factors, eg racist
labelling, the self-fulfilling prophecy, pupil subcultural
responses, ethnic identities, institutional racism and the
ethnocentric curriculum.

Gilborn & Youdell, Coard, Moore & Davenport

The significance of educational policies, including policies of The impact of educational policies of selection, marketisation
selection, marketisation and privatisation, and polices to and privatisation, such as the tripartite system and the post-
achieve greater equality of opportunity or outcome, for an 1988 education system, in relation to educational standards
understanding of the structure, role, impact and experience of and class differences of outcome; the globalisation of
and access to education; the impact of globalisation on educational policy.
educational policy
Ball, Whitty, David

The impact of educational policies aimed at achieving greater

equality of opportunity or outcome, eg the comprehensive
system, compensatory education policies, education action
zones and tuition fees.

Douglas, Keddie, Ball

Education policies in relation to gender and ethnic differences

and their impact, eg GIST, WISE and multicultural education.

Francis, Sewell, Mirza

Different sociological explanations of the impact of educational

policies, eg in relation to parentocracy and differences in
economic and cultural capital.

Gewirtz, Gillborn & Youdell, Bartlett

Methods in context (3.1.2 and 4.1.2)

Methods in context is a compulsory topic for both AS and A-level. It is It is assessed on Paper 1 of the AS (7191/1) and Paper 1 of
the A-level (7192/1).

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Specification Content

Students must be able to apply sociological research methods The application of the range of primary and secondary
to the study of education methods and sources of data (as covered below in AS level
Research Methods and in A-level Theory and Methods) to the
particular topics studied in education, with specific reference to
the strengths and limitations of the different methods and
sources of data in different educational contexts.

AS research methods (3.2.1)

Research methods is a compulsory topic for AS and is assessed on Paper 2 of the AS (7191/2).

Specification Content

Quantitative and qualitative methods of research; research Types of research method and data sources: the differences
design between quantitative and qualitative data, and between
Sources of data, including questionnaires, interviews, primary and secondary sources of data; the strengths and
participant and non-participant observation, experiments, limitations of each of these.
documents and official statistics Primary methods of data collection: questionnaires,
The distinction between primary and secondary data, and interviews, observation and experiments; the main variants
between quantitative and qualitative data of each, eg structured and unstructured interviews,
The relationship between positivism, interpretivism and participant and non-participant observation, laboratory and
sociological methods; the nature of ‘social facts’ field experiments.
The theoretical, practical and ethical considerations Secondary sources of data: documents, official statistics;
influencing choice of topic, choice of method(s) and the different types of document, eg personal, public and
conduct of research historical; different sources of official statistics.
Research design, eg in relation to pilot studies and sampling
techniques; main stages of the research process in relation
to these methods.
Practical issues affecting choice of methods and sources, eg
time, cost, access and researcher’s characteristics; strengths
and limitations of different methods and sources in relation to
these issues.
Ethical issues affecting choice of methods and sources, eg
informed consent, deceit and vulnerable groups; strengths
and limitations of different methods and sources in relation to
these issues.
Theoretical issues affecting choice of methods and sources,
eg reliability, validity, representativeness, positivism,
interpretivism; strengths and limitations of different methods
and sources in relation to these issues.
Practical, ethical and theoretical factors influencing choice of
research topic, eg personal experience and policy concerns.

A-level theory and methods (4.1.3 and 4.3.2)

Theory and methods is a compulsory topic at A-level and assessed on Paper 1 of the A-level (7192/1) and Paper 3 of the A-level
(7192/3).

Specification Content

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Quantitative and qualitative methods of research; research Types of research method and data sources: the differences
design between quantitative and qualitative data, and between
Sources of data, including questionnaires, interviews, primary and secondary sources of data; the strengths and
participant and non-participant observation, experiments, limitations of each of these.
documents and official statistics Primary methods of data collection: questionnaires,
The distinction between primary and secondary data, and interviews, observation and experiments; the main variants
between quantitative and qualitative data of each, eg structured and unstructured interviews,
The relationship between positivism, interpretivism and participant and non-participant observation, laboratory and
sociological methods; the nature of ‘social facts’ field experiments.
The theoretical, practical and ethical considerations Secondary sources of data: documents, official statistics;
influencing choice of topic, choice of method(s) and the different types of document, eg personal, public and
conduct of research historical; different sources of official statistics.
Research design, eg in relation to pilot studies and sampling
techniques; main stages of the research process in relation
to these methods.
Practical issues affecting choice of methods and sources, eg
time, cost, access and researcher’s characteristics; strengths
and limitations of different methods and sources in relation to
these issues.
Ethical issues affecting choice of methods and sources, eg
informed consent, deceit and vulnerable groups; strengths
and limitations of different methods and sources in relation to
these issues.
Theoretical issues affecting choice of methods and sources,
eg reliability, validity, representativeness, positivism,
interpretivism; strengths and limitations of different methods
and sources in relation to these issues.
Practical, ethical and theoretical factors influencing choice of
research topic, eg personal experience and policy concerns.

Consensus, conflict, structural and social action theories The difference between consensus and conflict theories of
society, including consensus theories such as functionalism,
the New Right, and conflict theories, ie Marxism and feminism;
the major variants of such theories, eg scientific and
humanistic Marxism; liberal, radical, Marxist etc feminism.

Marx, Gramsci, Althusser, Durkheim, Parsons, Merton

The difference between structural theories such as

functionalism and Marxism, and action theories; the main types
of action theory, such as social action theory, symbolic
interactionism and ethnomethodology.

Weber, Mead, Blumer, Becker, Goffman, Garfinkel

The concepts of modernity and post-modernity in relation to The concepts of modernity and postmodernity, including
sociological theory variants such as late modernity.

Baudrillard, Giddens, Beck, Harvey

Modernist and postmodernist theories of contemporary society.

Baudrillard, Giddens, Beck, Harvey

The nature of science and the extent to which Sociology can Debates about the scientific status of sociology: positivist and
be regarded as scientific interpretivist views.

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Durkheim, Weber, Glaser & Strauss, Atkinson

Different views of the natural sciences, eg Popper, Kuhn,

realism, and implications for sociology’s scientific status.

Popper, Kuhn, Keat & Urry

The relationship between theory and methods The relationship between theoretical perspective and
preference for particular research methods and sources of
data, eg positivism and quantitative data, interpretivism and
qualitative data.

Durkheim, Atkinson, Jack Douglas

Debates about subjectivity, objectivity and value freedom Concepts of objectivity, subjectivity, value freedom and
ideology.

Comte, Durkheim, Marx, Weber, Becker, Gouldner

Different views of whether sociology can and should be

objective or value free, eg classical sociology, value neutrality
and committed sociology; relativism.

Comte, Durkheim, Marx, Weber, Becker, Gouldner

The relationship between Sociology and social policy The difference between social problems and sociological
problems; perspectives on social policy and on the role of
sociology in relation to policy.

Worsley, Comte, Durkheim, Marx, Murray

Culture and identity (3.2.2.1 and 4.2.1)

Culture and identity is an optional topic at AS and A-level. It is assessed at AS on Paper 2 (7191/2) and at A-level on Paper 2
(7192/2).

Specification Content

Different conceptions of culture, including subculture, mass The meaning of these different concepts of culture.
culture, folk culture, high and low culture, popular culture and
Bourdieu, Durkheim, The Frankfurt school
global culture
How are they used by different sociologists?

The Frankfurt school, Strinati, Storey

Sociological views, eg functionalist, Marxist, neo-Marxist,

interactionist, feminist and postmodernist, on the role of culture
in society.

Durkheim, Parsons, Marx, Frankfurt school, Wolf, Strinati

Goffman

The socialisation process and the role of the agencies of Different sociological perspectives on socialisation, eg
socialisation functionalist, Marxist, feminist, interactionist and
postmodernist.

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Parsons, Marx, Oakley, Mead, Lyotard

Different sociological views on the role of different agencies of

socialisation, ie primary and secondary, and their relative
importance.

Durkheim, Zaretsky, Oakley

Meaning of concepts such as norms, values, role, status.

Parsons, Marx, Goffman

How individuals are socialised into the social constructs of age,

disability, ethnicity, gender, nationality, sexuality and social
class.

Bradley, Barnes, Gilroy, McRobbie, Hall, Bourdieu

The self, identity and difference as both socially caused and How an individual’s sense of self and identity, and also
socially constructed differences between social groups, develop according to
structuralist views, eg functionalist, feminist and Marxist.

Parsons, Marx, Oakley

How an individual’s sense of self and identity, and also

differences between social groups, develop according to social
action views, eg interactionist, and postmodernist views;
including concepts such as labelling, master status and
stereotype. How an individual’s identity is shaped by interaction
with others.

Goffman, Mead, Becker, Cooley

The relationship of identity to age, disability, ethnicity, gender, How an individual’s experiences and sense of identity are
nationality, sexuality and social class in contemporary society shaped by these factors.

Bradley, Barnes, Gilroy, McRobbie, Hall, Bourdieu

Their relative importance and the extent to which these factors

are changing in contemporary society.

Bradley, Barnes, Gilroy, McRobbie, Hall, Bourdieu

The relationship of identity to production, consumption and How identity is shaped by traditional structures such as the
globalisation relationship an individual has to work (including social class).

Roberts, Bourdieu, Parker

How identity is shaped by consumption choices, including

leisure, and how social identity affects
consumption/lifestyle/leisure choices.

Clarke and Critcher, Bauman, Rojek

To what extent can individuals choose and shape their social

identity independent of wider social constructs.

Bauman and May, Deem, Strinati

The effect of globalisation on identity.

Ritzer, Hall, Anderson

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Families and households (3.2.2.2 and 4.2.2)

Families and households is an optional topic at AS and A-level. It is assessed at AS on Paper 2 (7191/2) and at A-level on Paper 2
(7192/2).

Specification Content

The relationship of the family to the social structure and social Different sociological views, eg functionalist, feminist, Marxist,
change, with particular reference to the economy and to state New Right and postmodernist, on the role of the family and its
policies relationship to wider social structures such as the economy.

Parsons, Murdock, Zaretsky, Oakley

The impact of government legislation, eg divorce, adoption and

same sex marriage, and policies, eg education, housing and
welfare, on the family.

Donzelot, Leonard, Murray

Changing patterns of marriage, cohabitation, separation, An understanding of the trends in contemporary family and
divorce, childbearing and the life course, including the household structures, eg symmetrical family, beanpole families,
sociology of personal life, and the diversity of contemporary matrifocal families, serial monogamy, lone-parent families,
family and household structures house husbands, living apart together, same sex couples etc.

Chester, Giddens, Rapoports

Different sociological explanations for the reasons and

significance of these trends.

Weeks, Chester, Stacey

Including the significance of individual choice in personal

relationships and the significance of relationships beyond the
traditional family structures.

May, Smart, Stacey

Gender roles, domestic labour and power relationships within Different sociological arguments and evidence on this,
the family in contemporary society including an understanding of the extent of changes and also
diversity of experiences.

Dunscombe and Marsden, Pahl, Dunne

Different aspects of relationships, eg domestic labour,

childcare, domestic violence, finance, dual burden triple shift
etc.

Pahl and Vogler, Dobash and Dobash, Gershuny

The nature of childhood, and changes in the status of children How childhood is socially constructed.
in the family and society
Pilcher, Aries, Wagg

Different sociological views on the nature and experience of

childhood.

Postman, Palmer, Womack

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How childhood is experienced differently across gender,

ethnicity and social class.

McRobbie and Garber, Brannen, Howard

Cross cultural differences and how the experience of childhood

has changed historically.

Aries, Punch, Donzelot

Demographic trends in the United Kingdom since 1900: birth Sociological debates about the nature, causes and significance
rates, death rates, family size, life expectancy, ageing of these changes.
population, and migration and globalisation
McKeown, Hirsch, Townsend

How these changes impact on family and households, and also

wider society, including concepts such as net migration, infant
mortality rate and fertility rate.

The Griffiths report, Picher, Blaikie

Health (3.2.2.3 and 4.2.3)

Health is an optional topic at AS and A-level. It is assessed at AS on Paper 2 (7191/2) and at A-level on Paper 2 (7192/2).

Specification Content

The social construction of health, illness, disability and the Includes concepts such as the biomedical model,
body, and models of health and illness medicalisation, iatrogenesis, social models and impairment.

Parsons, Illich, Oliver

Social and cultural definitions of health, illness, disability and

the body.

Blaxter, Shakespeare, Oakley

Strengths and limitations of these approaches.

Giddens, McKeown, Goffman

The unequal social distribution of health chances in the United Differences in patterns of health chances by social class,
Kingdom by social class, gender, ethnicity and region gender, ethnicity and region.

ONS, The Acheson report, The Marmot Review

Reasons why some groups have higher/lower rates of illness

than others, including cultural, behavioural and material
factors.

Shaw et al, Graham, Wilkinson and Marmot

Inequalities in the provision of, and access to, health care in The nature, including inequalities, of health care in
contemporary society contemporary society.

Mencap, Age UK, Tudor-Hart

The patterns of inequalities in access to that health care in

relation to age, disability, ethnicity, gender, region and social

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class.

Dixon et al, Wilkins et al, Latif

Explanations for inequalities in access to that health care in

relation to age, disability, ethnicity, gender, region and social
class.

Checkland et al, Calnan, Alford

The nature and social distribution of mental illness Mental illness as a social construction.

Szarz, Scheff, Goffman

Sociological views on the nature and causes of the social

distribution of mental illness by social class, gender and
ethnicity.

Link and Phelan, Brown et al, Nazroo

Biomedical, structural and interactionist approaches.

Foucault, Laing, Goffman

The role of medicine, the health professions and the globalised Sociological views on the power of the medical profession, eg
health industry functionalist, feminist, interactionist, Marxist, Weberian and
postmodernist.

Parsons, Weber, Navarro

Changes in the role of medicine and the power of the medical

profession in contemporary society.

Giddens, Nettleton, Witz

The role of the global health industry, eg the role of ‘big

pharma’.

Williams et al, Law, Goldacre

Work, poverty and welfare (3.2.2.4 and 4.2.4)

Work, poverty and welfare is an optional topic at AS and A-level. It is assessed at AS on Paper 2 (7191/2) and at A-level on Paper 2
(7192/2).

Specification Content

The nature, existence and persistence of poverty in Definitions and measurements of poverty including absolute,
contemporary society relative, subjective poverty and social exclusion.

Townsend, Mack and Lansley, Byrne, The Rowntree

Foundation

Structural, individual and cultural explanations, including

feminist, functionalist, Marxist, New Right, Social Democratic
and Weberian, on the causes of poverty and why it continues
to exist in contemporary society.

Marsland, Townsend, Miliband

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The distribution of poverty, wealth and income between The pattern of the distribution of poverty, wealth and income
different social groups across social class, gender, ethnicity, age, disability and family
structure.

Lister, Flaherty et al, Palmer

Why some groups are more/less likely to experience poverty.

Lister, Flaherty et al, Alcock

Different sociological explanations for these patterns and

reasons for change in distribution, eg the widening gap
between rich and poor.

Murray, Weber, Townsend

Responses and solutions to poverty by the state and by Government policies, eg means-tested versus universal
private, voluntary and informal welfare providers in benefits.
contemporary society
Giddens, Marsland, Page

Different sociological views on the nature, extent and

effectiveness of state, private, voluntary and informal providers.

Pierson, Bartholomew, Townsend

Organisation and control of the labour process, including the Sociological debates about the nature and underlying reasons
division of labour, the role of technology, skill and de-skilling for the organisation and control of the labour process, including
the division of labour.

Braverman, Marx, Durkheim

The nature, extent and significance of technology and its

impact on the labour process including organisation, control
and levels of skill.

Braverman, Zuboff, Piore

The significance of work and worklessness for people’s lives Sociological views on the role that work plays in people’s lives
and life chances, including the effects of globalisation not only in terms of its effect on life chances but also in terms
of identity, sense of purpose, fulfilment, alienation, work
satisfaction etc.

Grint, Marx, Blauner

The impact of worklessness, including being unemployed,

underemployed, retired, unable to work.

Fagin and Little, Cumming and Henry, Hockey and James

The impact of globalisation on these issues.

Ritzer, Klein, Marx

Beliefs in society (4.2.5)

Beliefs in society is an optional topic at A-level and is assessed on Paper 2 (7192/2).

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Specification Content

Ideology, science and religion, including both Christian and Science as a social construct. Issues in defining religion.
non-Christian religious traditions
Durkheim, Giddens, Berger

Religion and science as belief systems and ideological

influences.

Bainbridge, Weber, Berger

Different theoretical views on the role and function of religion,

eg functionalist, Marxist (including neo-Marxist), feminist and
postmodernist.

Durkheim, Parsons, Marx, El Sadaawi

The relationship between social change and social stability, Sociological views on religion as a conservative force and, as a
and religious beliefs, practices and organisations force for social change, for stability or conflict.

Durkheim, Marx, Weber

The impact of social change on religious belief, practices and

organisations.

Wilson, Bruce, Wallis

Religious organisations, including cults, sects, denominations, Characteristics of different types of religious organisation.
churches and New Age movements, and their relationship to
Troeltsch, Wallis, Wilson
religious and spiritual belief and practice

Explanations for growth or decline of different forms of religious

organisation.

Wallis, Weber, Barker

The relationship between different social groups and Patterns of religiosity among different social groups, such as
religious/spiritual organisations and movements, beliefs and social class, ethnicity, gender and age.
practices
Weber, El Sadaawi, Davies

Explanations for changes in these patterns.

Modood et al, Woodhead, Bruce

The significance of religion and religiosity in the contemporary Defining and measuring secularisation. The extent of belief and
world, including the nature and extent of secularisation in a practice.
global context, and globalisation and the spread of religions
Wilson, Glock and Stark, Davie

Competing explanations and evidence for secularisation in

terms of belief, practice and organisations.

Bruce, Wilson, Weber

Global context of debate including fundamentalism and the

growth of religion.

Berger, Davie, Norris and Inglehart

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Global development (4.2.6)

Global development is an optional topic at A-level and is assessed on Paper 2 (7192/2).

Specification Content

Development, underdevelopment and global inequality Different perspectives on the nature, extent and causes of
development, underdevelopment and global inequality,
including modernisation, dependency, Marxist, neo-liberal,
environmentalist and post-development perspectives.

Rostow, Frank, Escobar

Competing definitions and measurements of development,

underdevelopment and global inequality.

Rostow, Frank, Collier

Globalisation and its influence on the cultural, political and Sociological debates about the nature, extent, causes and
economic relationships between societies significance of these different aspects of globalisation.

Wallerstein, Cohen and Kennedy, Held and McGrew

The role of transnational corporations (TNCs), non- Sociological debates about the role and effectiveness of these
governmental organisations (NGOs) and international agencies organisations in the development process. Debates about
in local and global strategies for development strategies.

Hoogvelt, Moyo, Ellwood

TNCs.

Klein, Sklair, Froebel

Local and national NGOs.

Chambers, Edwards and Hulme, Bebbington et al

International agencies such as the World Bank, IMF, EU, UN,

WTO and their associate organisations.

Foster, Stiglitz, Buira

Development in relation to aid and trade, industrialisation, Sociological debates about the role of aid, trade,
urbanisation, the environment, and war and conflict industrialisation and urbanisation in the development process.

Hayter, Sachs, Cohen and Kennedy

The relationship between development and the environment,

including debates about sustainable development,
environmental change and green growth.

Kingsbury, Ellwood, Brundtland Commission

Debates about the nature and causes of wars and conflict, and
the effects of war and conflict on development.

Kaldor, Duffield, Collier

Employment, education, health, demographic change and The changing nature of employment as a result of
gender as aspects of development development.
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Leonard, Elson and Pearson, Rostow

The role of education in development, including different

education systems.

Lerner, Sen, UNESCO Education for All Global Monitoring

Report 2010

Health care systems and the nature of health and illness in

developing countries.

Cohen and Kennedy, WHO 2006 report, MacDonald

Trends, causes and significance for development of

demographic change, including global population growth.

Malthus, Boserup, Adamson

The significance of gender in relation to development.

Leonard, Pearson, Van der Gaag

The media (4.2.7)

The media is an optional topic at A-level and is assessed on Paper 2 (7192/2).

Specification Content

The new media and their significance for an understanding of Competing views on the nature and significance of digital
the role of the media in contemporary society media in contemporary society.

Boyle, Curran and Seaton, Cornford and Robbins

The growth and diversity of new media; control and use of new
media.

Boyle, Cornford and Robbins, Keen

The relationship between ownership and control of the media Sociological views, including Marxist and postmodernist
pluralist, on the ownership and control of the media.

The Frankfurt school, Whale, Levene, Baudrillard

The pattern of ownership.

Curran, GUMG, Bagdikian

The extent to which owners, as opposed to other groups,

control the content.

GUMG, Curran, Miliband

The media, globalisation and popular culture Definitions of culture and the nature, causes and significance
of global culture and global media on contemporary society.

Strinati, Ritzer, Lechner and Boli

The effects of globalisation on popular culture and the role of

the media, including debates about cultural imperialism.

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Flew, Fenton, Storey

The processes of selection and presentation of the content of Sociological views on the social construction of news, including
the news practical, technological, (including the new media),
organisational and ideological factors.

Jones, Galtung and Ruge, Davies

The influence of audience, advertisers, the new media, media

professionals and government on the content of news.

The Leveson Enquiry, GUMG, Jewkes

Media representations of age, social class, ethnicity, gender, The nature, causes, trends and significance of these
sexuality and disability representations.

Wayne, Newman, Van Djik, Wolf, Batchelor et al, Barnes

Changes in the representations of different groups.

Connell, Hall, McRobbie

The relationship between the media, their content and Different theories concerning the effects of the media on their
presentation, and audiences audience.

Morley, Klapper, Blumer and McQuail, GUMG

Methodological issues of researching media effects, including

violent content.

Gauntlett, GUMG, Morrison, Bandura et al

Stratification and differentiation (4.2.8)

Stratification and differentiation is an optional topic at A-level and is assessed on Paper 2 (7192/2).

Specification Content

Stratification and differentiation by social class, gender, Functionalist theories of stratification, eg meritocracy and role
ethnicity and age allocation.

Durkheim, Davis & Moore, Parsons

Marxist theories of stratification, eg relationship to the means

of production, alienation, the role of state apparatuses and
class consciousness.

Marx, Engels, Wright

Weberian theories of stratification, eg life chances and the

interplay of class, status and party/power.

Weber

Feminist theories of stratification, eg patriarchy and different

branches of feminism.

Millett, Walby, Firestone, Oakley, Mirza

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Postmodernist theories of stratification, eg consumerism as

differentiation and subjective aspects of differentiation.

Pakulski & Waters, Grusky, Strinati

Dimensions of inequality: class, status and power; differences Explanations of and changes to differences in life chances by
in life-chances by social class, gender, ethnicity, age and social class, eg the upper class, wealth, income, the middle
disability class, the working class, the underclass and differences in
health, education and work chances.

Westergaard & Resler, Weber, Marx, Lockwood

Explanations of and changes to differences in life chances by

gender, eg the expressive role, gender socialisation, the
reserve army of labour and differences in health, education and
work chances.

Barron & Norris, Swain, Sharpe

Explanations of and changes to differences in life chances by

ethnicity, eg prejudice, discrimination, institutional racism and
differences in health, education and work chances.

Rex & Tomlinson, Miles, Modood

Explanations of and changes to differences in life chances by

age, eg the impact of an ageing population, the elderly, the
young and differences in health, education and work chances.

Aries, Postman, Parsons

Explanations of and changes to differences in life chances by

disability, eg social exclusion, poverty and differences in health,
education and work chances.

Finkelstein, Shakespeare, Oliver

The problems of defining and measuring social class; Sociological approaches to the measurement of social class,
occupation, gender and social class eg neo-Marxist.

Wright, Runciman

The use of occupation, education and social status in

measuring social class.

Registrar General’s Scale, National Statistics Socio-

Economic Classification

The problems of defining and measuring social class, eg

objective and subjective views of class and occupation, gender
and social class.

Giddens, Arber, Gale & Gilbert, Southerton

Changes in structures of inequality, including globalisation and Changes in structures of inequality and the implications of
the transnational capitalist class, and the implications of these these changes.
changes
Goldthorpe et al, Savage et al, Pakulski & Waters

Changes to the class structure of the UK.

Marshall et al, Murray, Giddens, Westergaard & Resler

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The impact of the global economy and the movement of

capital, migration and immigration and its impact on
stratification.

Roberts, Savage

The nature, extent and significance of patterns of social The nature, extent and significance of patterns of social
mobility mobility.

Dorling et al, Goldthorpe

Types of social mobility.

Goldthorpe, Payne

Patterns, changes and impacts of social mobility in the UK.

Goldthorpe, Payne, Glass, Sutton Trust

Measurement and studies of social mobility, problems of

measuring social mobility and patterns and impacts of social
mobility in the UK.

Goldthorpe, Heath & Britten, Stanworth, Saunders, Platt

Crime and deviance (4.3.1)

Crime and deviance is a compulsory topic at A-level and is assessed on Paper 3 of the A-level (7192/3).

Specification Content

Crime, deviance, social order and social control Functionalist explanations of crime, deviance, social order and
social control, eg positive functions of crime, adaptations to
strain, types of subculture, differential association.

Durkheim, Merton, A.K.Cohen, Cloward and Ohlin

Marxist and neo-Marxist explanations of crime, deviance,

social order and social control, eg criminogenic capitalism, law
making and critical criminology.

Marx, Chambliss, Snider, Taylor, Walton & Young

Labelling theory of crime, deviance, social order and social

control, eg the social construction of crime, the effects of
labelling and deviance amplification.

Becker, Cicourel, Lemert, S.Cohen, Braithwaite

Right realist explanations of crime, deviance, social order and

social control, eg the causes of crime and solutions to crime.

Wilson, Murray, Wilson & Kelling, Felson

Left realist explanations of crime, deviance, social order and

social control, eg relative deprivation, subcultures and
marginalisation.

Young, Lea & Young

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The social distribution of crime and deviance by ethnicity, The social distribution of crime and deviance by ethnicity,
gender and social class, including recent patterns and trends in including recent patterns and trends and different explanations
crime for these, eg ethnicity and criminality, racism and the criminal
justice system and victimisation.

Bowling and Phillips, Gilroy, Hall

The social distribution of crime and deviance by gender,

including recent patterns and trends and different explanations
for these, eg feminism, the chivalry thesis, sex role theory,
social control and liberation thesis.

Pollak, Heidensohn, Carlen

The social distribution of crime and deviance by social class,

including recent patterns and trends and different explanations
for these, eg selective law enforcement and white-collar crime.

Marx, Lea & Young, Pearce, Merton, Miller

Globalisation and crime in contemporary society; the media Globalisation and crime in contemporary society, eg
and crime; green crime; human rights and state crimes transnational organised crime, global criminal organisations,
global capitalism and crimes of the powerful.

Castells, Held, Taylor, Hobbs & Dunningham, Glenny

The media and crime, eg media representations of crime, the

media as a cause of crime and moral panics.

S.Cohen, Young, Jewkes, McRobbie & Thornton

Green crime, eg types of green crime and green criminology.

South, Beck, White

Human rights and state crimes, eg war, genocide and torture,

and human rights abuses.

McLaughlin, H & J Schwendinger

Crime control, surveillance, prevention and punishment, Crime control, surveillance, prevention and punishment, eg
victims, and the role of the criminal justice system and other crime prevention strategies, and sociological perspectives on
agencies punishment.

Durkheim, Rusche & Kirchheimer, Felson, Chaiken, Wilson

& Kelling

Patterns of victimisation and explanations for these, eg

positivist and critical victimology.

Christie, Miers, Mawby & Walklate, Tombs & Whyte

The role of the criminal justice system and other agencies, eg

the role of police, courts and prisons.

Foucault, Garland, S.Cohen

Specifications
that use this
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resource:
AS and A-level Sociology
7191; 7192 (https://www.a
qa.org.uk/subjects/sociolo
gy/as-and-a-level/sociolog
y-7191-7192)

Document URL
https://www.aqa.org.uk/resources/sociology/as-and-a-level/sociology/teach/teaching-guide

Last updated 29 Aug 2018

© AQA

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