Chapter (3)

Theorems
3.1 Introduction

This chapter introduces the important circuit theories. These theories are important for analyzing
DC circuits in simple manner. The relations between the voltage and current in the electric circuits are
obtained via the proposed theories.

This chapter uses some useful and helpful examples. Also the chapter ends with number of
problems to assess the understanding of the students.

3.2 Superposition theory

Superposition theorem is based on the concept of linearity between the response and
excitation of an electrical circuit. It states that the response in a particular branch of a linear circuit
when multiple independent sources are acting at the same time is equivalent to the sum of the
responses due to each independent source acting at a time.

In this method, we will consider only one independent source at a time. So, we have to
eliminate the remaining independent sources from the circuit. We can eliminate the voltage sources
by shorting their two terminals and similarly, the current sources by opening their two terminals.

Therefore, we need to find the response in a particular branch ‘n’ times if there are ‘n’
independent sources. The response in a particular branch could be either current flowing through
that branch or voltage across that branch.

Procedure of Superposition Theorem

Follow these steps in order to find the response in a particular branch using superposition
theorem.

Step 1 − Find the response in a particular branch by considering one independent source and
eliminating the remaining independent sources present in the network.

Step 2 − Repeat Step 1 for all independent sources present in the network.

Step 3 − Add all the responses in order to get the overall response in a particular branch when
all independent sources are present in the network.

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 Example

Find the current flowing through 20 Ω resistor of the following circuit using superposition
theorem.

Step 1 − Let us find the current flowing through 20 Ω resistor by considering only 20 V voltage
source. In this case, we can eliminate the 4 A current source by making open circuit of it. The
modified circuit diagram is shown in the following figure.

There is only one principal node except Ground in the above circuit. So, we can use nodal
analysis method. The node voltage V1 is labelled in the following figure. Here, V1 is the voltage from
node 1 with respect to ground.

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 The nodal equation at node 1 is

(V1−20)/5+V1/10+V1/(10+20)=0

(6V1−120+3V1+V1)/30=0

10V1=120

V1=12V

The current flowing through 20 Ω resistor can be found by doing the following simplification.

I1=V1/(10+20)

Substitute the value of V1 in the above equation.

I1=12/(10+20)=12/30=0.4A

Therefore, the current flowing through 20 Ω resistor is 0.4 A, when only 20 V voltage source is
considered.

Step 2 − Let us find the current flowing through 20 Ω resistor by considering only 4 A current
source. In this case, we can eliminate the 20 V voltage source by making short-circuit of it. The
modified circuit diagram is shown in the following figure.

In the above circuit, there are three resistors to the left of terminals A & B. We can replace these
resistors with a single equivalent resistor. Here, 5 Ω & 10 Ω resistors are connected in parallel and
the entire combination is in series with 10 Ω resistor.

The equivalent resistance to the left of terminals A & B will be

RAB=40/3Ω

The simplified circuit diagram is shown in the following figure.

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 We can find the current flowing through 20 Ω resistor, by using current division principle.

I2=1.6A

Therefore, the current flowing through 20 Ω resistor is 1.6 A, when only 4 A current source is
considered.

Step 3 − We will get the current flowing through 20 Ω resistor of the given circuit by doing
the addition of two currents that we got in step 1 and step 2. Mathematically, it can be written as

I=I1+I2

Substitute, the values of I1 and I2 in the above equation.

I=0.4+1.6=2A

Therefore, the current flowing through 20 Ω resistor of given circuit is 2 A.

Note − We can’t apply superposition theorem directly in order to find the amount
of power delivered to any resistor that is present in a linear circuit, just by doing the addition of
powers delivered to that resistor due to each independent source. Rather, we can calculate either
total current flowing through or voltage across that resistor by using superposition theorem and from
that, we can calculate the amount of power delivered to that resistor using I2RI2R or V2RV2R.

3.3 Thevein's theory

Thevenin’s Theorem states that it is possible to simplify any linear circuit, no matter how
complex, to an equivalent circuit with just a single voltage source and series resistance connected
to a load.

Thevenin’s Theorem is especially useful in analyzing power systems and other circuits where
one particular resistor in the circuit (called the “load” resistor) is subject to change, and re-

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calculation of the circuit is necessary with each trial value of load resistance, to determine the
voltage across it and current through it. Let’s take another look at our example circuit:

Let’s suppose that we decide to designate R2 as the “load” resistor in this circuit. We already
have four methods of analysis at our disposal (Branch Current, Mesh Current, Millman’s Theorem,
and Superposition Theorem) to use in determining the voltage across R 2 and current through R2,
but each of these methods are time-consuming. Imagine repeating any of these methods over and
over again to find what would happen if the load resistance changed (changing load resistance
is very common in power systems, as multiple loads get switched on and off as needed. the total
resistance of their parallel connections changing depending on how many are connected at a time).
This could potentially involve a lot of work!

Thevenin Equivalent Circuit

Thevenin’s Theorem makes this easy by temporarily removing the load resistance from the
original circuit and reducing what’s left to an equivalent circuit composed of a single voltage source
and series resistance. The load resistance can then be re-connected to this “Thevenin equivalent
circuit” and calculations carried out as if the whole network were nothing but a simple series circuit:

after Thevenin conversion . . .

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 The “Thevenin Equivalent Circuit” is the electrical equivalent of B 1, R1, R3, and B2 as seen from
the two points where our load resistor (R2) connects.

The Thevenin equivalent circuit, if correctly derived, will behave exactly the same as the original
circuit formed by B1, R1, R3, and B2. In other words, the load resistor (R2) voltage and current
should be exactly the same for the same value of load resistance in the two circuits. The load
resistor R2 cannot “tell the difference” between the original network of B 1, R1, R3, and B2, and the
Thevenin equivalent circuit of EThevenin, and RThevenin, provided that the values for EThevenin and
RThevenin have been calculated correctly.

The advantage in performing the “Thevenin conversion” to the simpler circuit, of course, is that
it makes load voltage and load current so much easier to solve than in the original network.
Calculating the equivalent Thevenin source voltage and series resistance is actually quite easy.
First, the chosen load resistor is removed from the original circuit, replaced with a break (open
circuit):

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 Determine Thevenin Voltage

Next, the voltage between the two points where the load resistor used to be attached is
determined. Use whatever analysis methods are at your disposal to do this. In this case, the
original circuit with the load resistor removed is nothing more than a simple series circuit with
opposing batteries, and so we can determine the voltage across the open load terminals by
applying the rules of series circuits, Ohm’s Law, and Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law:

The voltage between the two load connection points can be figured from one of the battery’s
voltages and one of the resistor’s voltage drops and comes out to 11.2 volts. This is our “Thevenin
voltage” (EThevenin) in the equivalent circuit:

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 Determine Thevenin Series Resistance

To find the Thevenin series resistance for our equivalent circuit, we need to take the original
circuit (with the load resistor still removed), remove the power sources (in the same style as we did
with the Superposition Theorem: voltage sources replaced with wires and current sources replaced
with breaks), and figure the resistance from one load terminal to the other:

With the removal of the two batteries, the total resistance measured at this location is equal to
R1 and R3 in parallel: 0.8 Ω. This is our “Thevenin resistance” (RThevenin) for the equivalent circuit:

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 Determine The Voltage Across The Load Resistor

With the load resistor (2 Ω) attached between the connection points, we can determine the
voltage across it and current through it as though the whole network were nothing more than a
simple series circuit:

Notice that the voltage and current figures for R2 (8 volts, 4 amps) are identical to those found
using other methods of analysis. Also notice that the voltage and current figures for the Thevenin
series resistance and the Thevenin source (total) do not apply to any component in the original,
complex circuit. Thevenin’s Theorem is only useful for determining what happens to
a single resistor in a network: the load.

The advantage, of course, is that you can quickly determine what would happen to that single
resistor if it were of a value other than 2 Ω without having to go through a lot of analysis again. Just
plug in that other value for the load resistor into the Thevenin equivalent circuit and a little bit of
series circuit calculation will give you the result.

3.4 Norton's theory

Norton’s Theorem states that it is possible to simplify any linear circuit, no matter how complex,
to an equivalent circuit with just a single current source and parallel resistance connected to a load.
Just as with Thevenin’s Theorem, the qualification of “linear” is identical to that found in
the Superposition Theorem: all underlying equations must be linear (no exponents or roots).

Simplifying Linear Circuits

Contrasting our original example circuit against the Norton equivalent: it looks something like
this:

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 . . . after Norton conversion . . .

Remember that a current source is a component whose job is to provide a constant amount of
current, outputting as much or as little voltage necessary to maintain that constant current.

Thevenin’s Theorem vs. Norton’s Theorem

As with Thevenin’s Theorem, everything in the original circuit except the load resistance has
been reduced to an equivalent circuit that is simpler to analyze. Also similar to Thevenin’s Theorem
are the steps used in Norton’s Theorem to calculate the Norton source current (I Norton) and Norton
resistance (RNorton).

Identify The Load Resistance

As before, the first step is to identify the load resistance and remove it from the original circuit:

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 Find The Norton Current

Then, to find the Norton current (for the current source in the Norton equivalent circuit), place a
direct wire (short) connection between the load points and determine the resultant current. Note
that this step is exactly opposite the respective step in Thevenin’s Theorem, where we replaced the
load resistor with a break (open circuit):

With zero voltage dropped between the load resistor connection points, the current through R 1 is
strictly a function of B1‘s voltage and R1‘s resistance: 7 amps (I=E/R). Likewise, the current through
R3 is now strictly a function of B2‘s voltage and R3‘s resistance: 7 amps (I=E/R). The total current
through the short between the load connection points is the sum of these two currents: 7 amps + 7
amps = 14 amps. This figure of 14 amps becomes the Norton source current (I Norton) in our equivalent
circuit:

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 Find Norton Resistance

Remember, the arrow notation for current source points in the direction of conventional current
flow. To calculate the Norton resistance (RNorton), we do the exact same thing as we did for
calculating Thevenin resistance (RThevenin): take the original circuit (with the load resistor still
removed), remove the power sources (in the same style as we did with the Superposition Theorem:
voltage sources replaced with wires and current sources replaced with breaks), and figure total
resistance from one load connection point to the other:

Now our Norton equivalent circuit looks like this:

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 Determine The Voltage Across The Load Resistor

If we re-connect our original load resistance of 2 Ω, we can analyze the Norton circuit as a
simple parallel arrangement:

As with the Thevenin equivalent circuit, the only useful information from this analysis is the
voltage and current values for R2; the rest of the information is irrelevant to the original circuit.
However, the same advantages seen with Thevenin’s Theorem apply to Norton’s as well: if we wish
to analyze load resistor voltage and current over several different values of load resistance, we can
use the Norton equivalent circuit, again and again, applying nothing more complex than simple
parallel circuit analysis to determine what’s happening with each trial load.

3.5 Maximum power theory

The Maximum Power Transfer Theorem is not so much a means of analysis as it is an aid to
system design. Simply stated, the maximum amount of power will be dissipated by a load
resistance when that load resistance is equal to the Thevenin/Norton resistance of the network

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supplying the power. If the load resistance is lower or higher than the Thevenin/Norton resistance
of the source network, its dissipated power will be less than the maximum.

This is essentially what is aimed for in radio transmitter design, where the antenna or
transmission line “impedance” is matched to final power amplifier “impedance” for maximum radio
frequency power output. Impedance, the overall opposition to AC and DC current, is very similar to
resistance and must be equal between source and load for the greatest amount of power to be
transferred to the load. A load impedance that is too high will result in low power output. A load
impedance that is too low will not only result in low power output but possibly overheating of the
amplifier due to the power dissipated in its internal (Thevenin or Norton) impedance.

Maximum Power Transfer Example

Taking our Thevenin equivalent example circuit, the Maximum Power Transfer Theorem tells
us that the load resistance resulting in greatest power dissipation is equal in value to the Thevenin
resistance (in this case, 0.8 Ω):

With this value of load resistance, the dissipated power will be 39.2 watts:

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 If we were to try a lower value for the load resistance (0.5 Ω instead of 0.8 Ω, for example), our
power dissipated by the load resistance would decrease:

Power dissipation increased for both the Thevenin resistance and the total circuit, but it
decreased for the load resistor. Likewise, if we increase the load resistance (1.1 Ω instead of 0.8 Ω,
for example), power dissipation will also be less than it was at 0.8 Ω exactly:

If you were designing a circuit for maximum power dissipation at the load resistance, this
theorem would be very useful. Having reduced a network down to a Thevenin voltage and
resistance (or Norton current and resistance), you simply set the load resistance equal to that
Thevenin or Norton equivalent (or vice versa) to ensure maximum power dissipation at the load.
Practical applications of this might include radio transmitter final amplifier stage design (seeking to
maximize the power delivered to the antenna or transmission line), a grid-tied inverter loading a
solar array, or electric vehicle design (seeking to maximize the power delivered to drive motor).

Maximum Power Doesn’t Mean Maximum Efficiency

The Maximum Power Transfer Theorem does not: Maximum power transfer does not
coincide with maximum efficiency. Application of The Maximum Power Transfer theorem to AC
power distribution will not result in maximum or even high efficiency. The goal of high efficiency is

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more important for AC power distribution, which dictates a relatively low generator impedance
compared to the load impedance.

Similar to AC power distribution, high fidelity audio amplifiers are designed for a relatively low
output impedance and a relatively high speaker load impedance. As a ratio, “output impedance”:
“load impedance” is known as damping factor, typically in the range of 100 to 1000.

Maximum power transfer does not coincide with the goal of the lowest noise. For example, the
low-level radio frequency amplifier between the antenna and a radio receiver is often designed for
lowest possible noise. This often requires a mismatch of the amplifier input impedance to the
antenna as compared with that dictated by the maximum power transfer theorem.

3.9 Problems

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