C20 UD: Stoichiometry

Stoichiometry: A method for predicting or analyzing the quantities

of reactants and products involved in a chemical
reaction.
Chemists need to be able to identify the products when known
substances react, often using simple diagnostic tests taken in high
school.
 Burning splint test to identify hydrogen gas
 Glowing splint test to identify oxygen
 Limewater to identify carbon dioxide
 Cobalt chloride paper to identify water etc.

However, to identify quantities of substances used or produced in a chemical reaction depends on

more sophisticated technology and scientific knowledge such as balanced chemical reactions,
chemical amounts and their relationship to the reaction ratios.

Section 7.1: Reactions in Aqueous Solutions

Chemical Reaction Equations
Consider the following equation: Cu(s) + 2 AgNO3(aq)  2 Ag(s) + Cu(NO3)2(aq)
This chemical equation tells us very little about the nature of the substances that make it up. e.g.
What do these substances look like?, How much of each should be used?, Is it important that silver
nitrate be aqueous?, What type of equipment do we need to do this reaction? etc.
Also chemical reactions do not explain or describe the following
 Does not indicate anything about the conditions of temperature or pressure necessary to
do a reaction.
 It does not tell the progress (how long a reaction will take) or the process (what actually
happens in a chemical reaction). We are only given what the reaction begins and ends
with.
 The reaction does not communicate anything about the measurable quantities of reactants
in any form that you can use directly.

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 Reaction Assumptions that your study of chemistry has made so far:
 All reaction are spontaneous. Reactions will always occur if reactants are mixed.
 Reactions are fast. Reaction will occur in a short period of time. Controlling the
rate of reaction is very important for science and society.
 Reactions are quantitative. A reaction will continue until one of the reactants is
completely used up.
 Reactions are stoichiometric. A reaction occurs in simple whole number ratios
which do not change even if the reaction is repeated several times under different
conditions.

Chemical Analysis
 Involves knowledge of chemical reactions, an understanding of diverse experimental
designs, and practical skills to apply this knowledge and understanding.
 Closely related to technology, using specialized equipment and techniques to detect and
measure substances with ever increasing accuracy and precision.
 e.g. analysis of blood for drug or alcohol content, in medical labs involves testing of
many fluids and tissues such as urine for the content of sugar etc.

Qualitative versus Quantitative Analysis

Includes
 Qualitative analysis – the identification or confirming the presence of a certain
substance
 Quantitative analysis – determination of the quantity of substance present

Techniques of Qualitative Analysis

Analysis by Color:

1. Solution Color
 some ions when dissolved in water impart a specific color to the solution
 a specific colour indicates the presence of a specific ion and the intensity of the colour is
related to the concentration of that ion
 determined by using the table in text p 265, or p782 or p 11 (data book)
 Aqueous ions may be identified qualitatively by eye or precise equipment is required to
use colour as a quantitative measurement. A spectrophotometer is a device that shines a
light beam through a coloured solution and measures the amount of light absorbed by the
solution. Since the spectrophotometer can be adjusted for a specific colour it can
measure concentration of a particular coloured ion even if the solution is a mixture of
ions of several different colours.

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2. Flame Colour Test
 some ions impart a specific color to a flame

 determined by using the table in data booklet

 a test for the presence of metallic ions, is conducted by dipping a clean platinum or
nichrome wire into a solution and then evaporating the solution in a flame

 Another method is to added the metallic ion compound to a small amount of alcohol in a
watch glass and then burning it to observe flame colour

 To use flame colour for quantitative analysis, an atomic absorption spectrophotometer

analyzes the light absorbed by samples vapourized in a flame. Through the measurement
of the quantity of light absorbed it will determine the concentration of many types of
elements precisely and accurately. It can detect minute concentration in as low as ppb. It
is able to detect wavelength of radiation that is not visible to the eye to measure invisible
radiation given off by various elements.

Questions
1. What is the expected colour of solutions that contain the following?
a. Na+(aq) d. Cr2O72-(aq)
b. Cu2+(aq) e. Cl-(aq)
c. Fe3+(aq) f. Ni2+(aq)
2. What colour is imparted to a flame by the following ions?
a. calcium ion d. K+(aq)
b. a copper (II) e. Li+(aq)
c. Na+(aq) f. Cs+(aq)
3. Flame tests on solids produce the same results as flame tests on solutions. These tests may be
used as additional evidence to support the identification of precipitates. What colour would the
following precipitates give to a flame?

a. CaCO3(s) c. SrSO4(s)
b. PbCl2(s) d. Cu(OH)2(s)

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 4. Artificial logs for home fireplaces are commonly available in supermarkets and hardware stores.
Along with the combustible ingredients, the fire logs often have chemicals deliberately added to
colour the flames. If such a fire log has copper (II)chloride near its core, sodium nitrate in layers
farther out from the centre, and strontium chloride near the surface, describe how the flames will
look over the normal three hour burning period.

3. Qualitative Analysis by Precipitation Reactions

 A precipitate is a solid forming in a double replacement reaction when two solutions are
mixed
 By adding a dissolved substance to an unknown solution scientist can determine the
identity of unknown ions in that solution

This illustration shows the

idea behind using
precipitation reactions for
identifying ions in an
aqueous solution. At each
stage, the colour of the
solution is observed and the
resulting precipitate is
removed. Flame tests can be
The scientist reduces the range Each time excess solution is
used to identify the
of ion possibilities by knowing added such as the ion that is
precipitates.
what ions may precipitate by completely precipitated from
looking at the solubility table solution. It is then removed
by filtration.

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Thought Lab 7.1 Identifying Unknown Aqueous Solutions
A student performed a series of precipitation reactions, flame tests, and observations of solution
colour tests on a solution known to contain two metal ions. The student does not know the identities
of the ions. Use the data collected by the student and the information provided in Table 7.2 and
Table 7.3 to identify the two metal ions present in the aqueous solution.

Procedure
1. Examine the observations in the Table of Evidence and then answer Analysis Questions 1–2.

Table of Evidence: Testing a Solution of Unknown Metal Ions

Test Observation
1 solution colour Solution is colourless.
2 effect of adding NaOH(aq) to White precipitate is produced. Mixture is filtered and
solution remaining solution (filtrate) is colourless.
3 flame test on precipitate from Test 2 Flame colour is red.

Analysis
1. List all the possible ions that satisfy test 2. List all the possible ions that satisfy test 3.

2. Combining both lists, what can the unknown ion(s) be?

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Selective Precipitation
 Is used when a scientist has to identify or confirm the identity of ions in a solution
by selecting another ion solution that cause only one ion to precipitate at a time.
 This is done by using the solubility table

e.g.#1 What solution could you choose in each case to distinguish between each of the pairs of
solutions given by using precipitation?
a. Sr(NO3)2(aq) and Mg(NO3)2(aq)

eg. #2. A solution may contain SO42-(aq) and Cl-(aq) ions. Provide a procedure that will
determine the presence of either ion.

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Questions
1. You are given two unlabeled solutions: AgNO3(aq) and Ca(NO3)2(aq)
a. Which ion, when added to each unlabeled solution would produce a precipitate with the
calcium and silver ions?

b. Which ion, when added to each unlabeled solution, would differentiate the solution
containing silver ions from the solution containing calcium ions?

c. What test, other than checking for precipitates, might identify the solutions?

2. An ion solution forms a precipitate when NaI(aq) is added to it. The precipitate produces a
blue-white colour when heated in a flame
a. Suggest the formula of the ion and its low solubility salt.

b. Write a net ionic equation to represent the reaction.

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Section 7.2 – Stoichiometry and Quantitative Analysis

Mole Ratios
 Ratios between the molar amount of any two elements, ions or compounds in a chemical
reaction.

e.g. Given the following reaction

C3H8(g) + 5 O2(g)  3 CO2(g) + 4 H2O(g)

The ratio of C3H8(g) : CO2(g) is 1 mole C3H8(g) : 3 moles CO2(g)

The ratio of O2(g) : CO2(g) is 5 moles O2(g) : 3 moles CO2(g)

Mole ratios can be used to predict the amount of a compound if the amount of another compound is
known.
e.g. If 0.55 moles of C3H8(g) reacted in the above reaction how many moles of the following
would be produced.

a. CO2(g)

b. O2(g)

c. H2O(g)

e.g. If 1.25 moles of water had been produced in the above reaction, how many mole of the
following would be involved in the reaction.

a. CO2(g)

b. O2(g)

c. C3H8(g)

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Stoichiometric Calculations
Stoichiometry is a method of predicting the quantity of a reactant or product in a chemical reaction
based on the quantity of another reactant or product in the same reaction

Gravimetric stoichiometry: The method of predicting or analyzing the masses of reactants and/or
products involved in a chemical reaction.

Most chemical technologies require quantitative predictions of raw materials and products.
 This can be empirical determined by trial and error OR
 Predictions can be made based on a balanced chemical reaction and stoichiometry of the
reaction.

Gravimetric Stoichiometry Calculations

Procedure for doing gravimetric stoichiometry calculations

Step 1: Write a balanced chemical reaction with states. Underneath the reaction, write down all the
information given in the problem under the chemical formula that the information pertains
to. Include the symbol m under the substance that the mass is required.
Step 2: Convert the mass to moles of the substance in which the mass is given (Given substance)
Step 3: Calculate, using a mole ratio from the balance equation, the moles of unknown substance
that is asked for. (Required substance)
Step 4: Calculate the mass of the substance (Required substance) which was asked for by
converting the moles given(step 3) to mass.

Note: The last step must be in the correct number of significant digits.

Examples
The following questions involve calculation of the amount of one reactant or product from an
amount of another reactant or product in a balanced equation. The step in the process where the
conversion from one substance to the other occurs is called the stoichiometric step, and it must be
done in units of moles.
1. Ethane (C2H6(g)) reacts with oxygen in a hydrocarbon combustion reaction.
a. Write the balanced equation for the combustion.

b. How many moles of oxygen are required to react with 10.8 mol of ethane?

c. How many grams of carbon dioxide would form if 0.550 mol of oxygen reacted?

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 d. How many grams of ethane need to burn to cause 10.6 g of water vapour to form?

2. Xenon can be made to react with fluorine gas at about 400 oC. The product that forms is xenon
tetrafluoride(g).
a. Write a balanced equation for the reaction of Xe(g) with F2(g).

b. How many moles of xenon would react with 3.54  10-1 mol of fluorine?

c. How many grams of xenon tetrafluoride will form if 4.35 g of fluorine react?

d. How many grams of xenon react with 15.7 g of fluorine?

3. Determine the mass of precipitate formed if 33.0 grams of lead (II) nitrate reacts with excess
sodium chloride solution. (ans: 27.7 g)

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4. Determine the mass of aluminum produced if 0.424 moles of zinc reacts with aluminum sulfate
solution. (ans: 7.63 g)

Questions
1. Why is a balance chemical reaction necessary when doing a stoichiometry calculation?

2. Powdered zinc metal reacts violently with sulfur (S8) when heated to produce zinc sulfide. Predict the
mass of sulfur required to react with 25 g of zinc. (ans: 12 g)

3. Bauxite ore contains aluminum oxide, which is decomposed using electricity to produce aluminum metal.
What mass of aluminum metal can be produced from 125 g of aluminum oxide? (ans: 66.2 g)

4. Determine the mass of oxygen required to completely burn 10.0 g of propane. (ans: 36.3 g)

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5. Calculate the mass of lead(II) chloride precipitate produced when 2.57 g of sodium chloride in solution
reacts in a double replacement reaction with excess aqueous lead (II) nitrate. (ans: 6.11 g)

6. Predict the mass of hydrogen gas produced when 2.73 g of aluminum reacts in a single replacement
reaction with excess sulfuric acid. (ans: 0.307 g)

7. What mass of copper(II) hydroxide precipitate is produced by the reaction in solution of 2.67 g of
potassium hydroxide with excess aqueous copper(II) nitrate? (ans: 2.32 g)

8. How many grams of propane will burn in oxygen to produce 74.3 g of carbon dioxide? (ans: 24.8 g)

9. How many grams of silver nitrate will react with 195 grams of potassium sulfate? (ans: 380 g)

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10. Determine the mass of calcium carbonate that will react with 1.26 moles of sodium hydroxide. (ans: 63.1 g)

11. The compound cisplatin, Pt(NH3)2Cl2(s), is commonly administered in combination with other
chemotherapy drugs to treat cancers of the reproductive tracts, head, neck, bladder, esophagus, and lung.
Cisplatin is prepared from potassium tetrachloroplatinate, K2PtCl4(aq), by reaction with ammonia, NH3(aq)
according to the following reaction

K2PtCl4(aq) + 2NH3(aq)  2 KCl(aq) + Pt(NH3)2Cl2(s)

What mass of cispatin would result from the reaction of 55.8 g of K 2PtCl4(s) in an aqueous solution?
(ans:40.3 g)

12. Calculate the mass of liquid metal element produced by the decomposition of a 23.3 g mass of
mercury(II) sulfide. (ans: 20.1 g)

13. If 51.0 grams of aluminum chloride reacts with sodium hydroxide, what mass of precipitate will be
produced? (ans: 29.8 g)

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14. How many grams of bismuth metal will completely react with 150 grams of silver nitrate? (ans: 61.5 g)

15. Determine the mass of calcium produced when 38.6 grams of iron completely reacts with excess calcium
nitrate. (ans: 41.6 g)

Applications of Stoichiometry
Lab exercise 7A – Testing the Stoichiometric Method.

Purpose: The purpose of this investigation is to test the Stoichiometric method. In your
evaluation, include a percent error calculation.

Problem: What mass of lead is produced by the reaction of 2.13 g of zinc with an excess of
lead (II) nitrate solution in solution.
Design: A known mass of zinc is placed in a beaker with an excess of lead (II) nitrate solution.
The lead produced in the reaction is separated by filtration and dried. The mass of lead
is determined.
Prediction: (Determine a possible answer to the question before going into the lab from the problem and design)

Evidence: In the beaker, crystals of shiny black solid were produced, and all of the zinc
disappeared.
mass of filter paper = 0.92 g
mass of dried filter paper plus lead = 7.60 g
Analysis: (answer the problem using your evidence)

Evaluation: (Evaluate the lab investigation. Are you confident with the procedure and the results you obtained? If
possible include a percent difference calculation)

| experimental value  predicted value |

% difference  x 100
predicted value

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 Percent Yield Calculations
 can be also used to evaluate the overall experiment
actual yield
 percent yield  x 100
predicted yield

 experimental uncertainties which may affect the percent yield of an experiment

 all measurements made in the experiment procedure
 the purity of the grade of chemical used
 washing a precipitate, may lose fine particles through the filter paper
Calculate the percent yield and percent difference:

Solution Stoichiometry
Most common form of stoichiometry practiced due the predominant use of solutions in the lab.
The four basic steps of stoichiometry calculation is still used where you are given information of a
reactant or product and you use this information to determine the quantity of another reactant or
product. However to find moles, concentration or volume of other reactant or products, we use
concentration, volume or masses of a given reactant or product.

Example
1. Silver nitrate and sodium chromate solutions react as follows:
2AgNO3(aq) + Na2CrO4(aq) → Ag2CrO4(s) + 2NaNO3(aq)
a. How many moles of silver chromate form when 0.200 mol of silver nitrate react?

b. How many moles of sodium nitrate form when 500 mL of 0.300 mol/L sodium chromate
react with silver nitrate?

c. How many grams of precipitate will form if 200 mL of 0.500 mol/L silver nitrate react with
sodium chromate? (ans: 16.6 g)

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2. a. Write the balanced equation for the reaction of sulfuric acid with a solution of sodium
hydroxide.

b. What volume of 0.320 mol/L sulfuric acid reacts with 47.3 mL of 0.224 mol/L sodium
hydroxide? (ans: 16.6 mL)

c. If 50.0 mL of 0.540 mol/L sodium hydroxide reacts with 85.6 mL of sulfuric acid, calculate
the concentration of the sulfuric acid. (ans: 0.158 mol/L)

3. a. A student adds 5.77 g of zinc to 100 mL of HCl(aq) . Write the reaction which occurs.

b. How many moles of HCl(aq) react with the zinc?

c. What would the concentration of zinc chloride be in the 100 mL solution when all the zinc
had reacted? (ans: 0.882 mol/L)

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CHEMISTRY - SOLUTION STOICHIOMETRY
Solve the following problems. Show all work and steps. Give all answers to the correct number of significant digits.
1. Determine the volume of 2.40 mol/L copper(II) sulfate solution that will react with excess aluminum
metal to produce 2.65 g of copper metal. (ans: 17.4 mL)

2. How much 0.258 mol/L ammonium sulfide solution is required to completely react with 250 mL of 1.24
mol/L aluminum chloride solution? (ans:1.80 L)

3 Determine the concentration of 50.0 mL of sulfuric acid required to completely neutralize 95.0 mL
of 0.285 mol/L of potassium hydroxide. (ans: 0.271 mol/L)

4. How many moles of 0.500 mol/L calcium iodide solution will react with 25.0 mL of 0.150 mol/L
aluminum nitrate? (ans: 5.63 mmol)

5. What concentration of 500 mL sulfuric acid is needed to completely react with 300 mL of 0.115 mol/L
iron(III)carbonate? (ans: 0.207 mol/L)

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6. 420 mL of 0.220 mol/L sodium iodide reacts with 600 mL of aluminum sulfide. What concentration
of aluminum sulfide solution is needed? (ans: 0.0257 mol/L)

7 Determine the volume of 0.476 mol/L copper(I)sulfate that will completely react with 0.316 moles of
tin(IV)chloride. (ans: 1.33 L)

8. 250 mL of 0.120 mol/L ammonium phosphate solution completely reacts with 0.095 mol/L of potassium
sulfate. Determine the volume of the potassium sulfate used. (ans: 0.47 L)

9. Determine the concentration of 45.0 mL of acetic acid that will react with 35.0 mL of 1.45 mol/L of
barium hydroxide. (ans: 2.26 mol/L)

10. Ammonium sulfate fertilizer is manufactured by having sulfuric acid react with ammonia. In a laboratory
study of this process, 50.0 mL of sulfuric acid reacts with 24.4 mL of 2.20 mol/L ammonia solution to
produce the ammonium sulfate solution. From this evidence, calculate the amount concentration of
sulfuric acid at this stage of the process. (ans: 0.537 mol/L)

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11 A chemistry teacher wants 75.0 mL of 0.200 mol/L iron (III) chloride solution to react completely with
an excess quantity of 0.250 mol/L sodium carbonate solution. What is the minimum volume of sodium
carbonate needed? (ans: 90.0 mL)

12. The cells lining your stomach secrete hydrochloric acid, with a typical concentration of 0.030 mol/L
HCl(aq). Antacid tablets are used to relieve the pain of heartburn, caused by excess stomach acid
irritating the lining of the esophagus just above your stomach. One brand X tablet contains 500 mg of
CaCO3(s) and 110 mg of Mg(OH)2(s).
a. Calculate the volume of stomach acid neutralized by the CaCO3(s) in one brand X tablet according
to the following equation:
2HCl(aq) + CaCO3(s)  CaCl2(aq) + CO2(g) + H2O(l) (ans: 0.33 L)

b. Calculate the volume of stomach acid neutralized by the Mg(OH)2(s) in one Brand X tablet according
to the following reaction:
2HCl(aq) + Mg(OH)2(s)  MgCl2(aq) + 2H2O(l) (ans: 0.13 L)

c. What is the total volume of stomach acid neutralized by one Brand X tablet?

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Lab Exercise 7.C – Testing Solution Stoichiometry

You have already tested the stoichiometric method for gravimetric and gas stoichiometry, but the testing of a
scientific concept is never finished. Scientists keep looking for new experimental designs and new ways of
testing a scientific concept.

Purpose: The purpose of this exercise is to test the stoichiometric method of using solutions.

Problem: What mass of precipitate is produced by the reaction of 20.0 mL of 0.210 mol/L sodium sulfide
with an excess quantity of aluminum nitrate solution?

Design: The two solutions provided react with each other, and the resulting precipitate is separated by
filtration and dried. The mass of the dried precipitate is determined.

Prediction:

Evidence: A yellow precipitate resembling aluminum sulfide was formed.

mass of filter paper = 0.97 g
mass of dried filter paper + precipitate = 1.17 g
A few additional drops of the sodium sulfide solution added to the filtrate produced a precipitate.
Hint: What compound do you expect to be present in the filtrate solution?
Analysis:

Evaluation: Along with the evaluation, include a calculation of the percent yield and percent difference.

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 Chapter 8 – Applications of Stoichiometry
Chemical analysis
 Involves knowledge of chemical reactions, an understanding of diverse experimental
designs, and practical skills to apply this knowledge and understanding.
 Closely related to technology, using specialized equipment and techniques to detect and
measure substances with ever increasing accuracy and precision.
 E.g. analysis of blood for drug or alcohol content, in medical labs involves testing of
many fluids and tissues such as urine for the content of sugar etc.

Limiting and Excess Reactants

o If reactants react together such that when the reaction is complete, there is no trace of the
reactants, then they are said to be present in stoichiometric amounts.
o This practice is rare, generally there is one of the reactants (generally the least expensive
one) that is left over after the reaction is completed.
o The limiting reactant or limiting reagent is the reactant that is completely consumed in
the reaction.
o The excess reactant or excess reagent is the reactant that is left over after the reaction is
completed.
o The extent that a reaction goes depends on the limiting reagent.
 The limiting reagent is not necessarily the reactant of lower amount; it is the
reactant that form the fewest moles of product.

S’more Chemistry

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For questions 3 – 4a, b USE DIMENSIONAL ANALYSIS
3. If I have 20 graham crackers, how many marshmallows and chocolate pieces will I
need to make S’mores? How many S’mores can I make?

4a. You decide to make a large batch of S’mores. You have 85 chocolate pieces. How
much of each other ingredient do you need? How many S’mores can you make?
Round to the nearest whole number!

4b. While getting out the ingredients for the above batch you find you have only 30
graham crackers. How does this effect the number of S’mores you can make?

5. How many S/mores can you make from these combinations?

2 Gc + 1 M + 4 Cp = ________ Sm
4 Gc + 2 M + 8 Cp = ________ Sm
10 Gc + 5 M + 20 Cp = ________ Sm

6. Continue to figure the possible number of S’mores. Use the spaces to the left of the
equation to tell how much of each ingredient will be left over.
___________________ 2 Gc + 1 M + 5 Cp = ________ Sm
Which reactant limits the number of smores you can make?
Which reactant(s) were present in excess?
___________________ 3 Gc + 1 M + 4 Cp = ________ Sm
Which reactant limits the number of smores you can make?
Which reactant(s) were present in excess?
___________________ 5 Gc + 2 M + 9 Cp = ________ Sm
Which reactant limits the number of smores you can make?
Which reactant(s) were present in excess?

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7. If you had 17 graham crackers, 7 marshmallows, and 20 chocolate pieces,
what would the theoretical yield be? Which reactants are in excess and which are all
used up and thus limiting reactants.

Theoretical Yield:

Excess Reactants:

Limiting Reactants:

Is the ingredient with the smallest amount always the limiting reagent? Show how this is not always
necessarily the case; provide an example.

Limiting Reagent Problems

Once the limiting reagent is consumed in a reaction, no more product can be formed. To determine
the limiting reagent determine the amount or product that would be formed if each reactant is used
up. This will require two stoichiometric calculations. The limiting reagent is identified as the
reagent that produces the least amount of product.

Examples
1. Consider the reaction: 2 H2(g) + O2(g)  2 H2O(l)
Identify the limiting reagent in each of the reaction mixtures given below:
a. 0.50 mol H2 and 0.75 mol O2

b. 1.0 g H2 and 0.25 mol O2

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 c. 3.0 grams H2 and 20 grams O2

2. 15.0 grams of aluminum sulfide and 10.00 grams of water react until the limiting reagent is used
up. Here is an unbalanced equation for the reaction.
Al2S3(s) + HOH(l)  Al(OH)3(s) + H2S(aq)

a. Which is the limiting reagent?

b. What is the maximum mass of H2S which can be formed from these reagents? (ans: 9.46 g)

Determining Limiting Reagent Solve the following Problems. Show all work and steps
1. Extraction of zinc from zinc oxide takes place as follows:
ZnO(s) + C(s) → Zn(s) + CO(g)
In an industrial setting, 17.2 mol of zinc oxide are reacted with 43.2 mol of carbon in the form
of charcoal. Identify the limiting reactant. Determine the mass of Zinc produced. (ans: 1.13 x 103 g)

2. If 1.00 kg of glucose (5.55 mol) is reacted with 34.0 mol oxygen during the process of cellular
respiration, which reactant is limiting? Why does your answer seem logical?

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3. Acrylic, a common synthetic fibre, is formed from acrylonitrile. Acrylonitrile is formed in the
following reaction:
4C3H6(g) + 6NO(g) → 4C3H3N(g) + 6H2O(g) + N2(g)

What is the limiting reactant when 126 g of C3H6(g) reacts with 175 g of NO?

4. Manganese(III) fluoride is formed in the following reaction:

2MnI2(s) + 13F2(g) → 2MnF3(s) + 4IF5(ℓ)
1.24 g of manganese(II) iodide reacts with 25.0 g of fluorine gas. What mass of
manganese(III) fluoride is expected? (ans: 0.450 g)

5. When 10.0 g of iron(III) sulfate reacts with an equal amount of sodium hydroxide, what mass of
iron(III) hydroxide is produced? (ans:5.35 g)

6. When 50.0 mL of 0.100 mol/L silver nitrate reacts with 25.0 mL of 0.150 mol/L sodium
chromate, which reactant is limiting? What mass of precipitate is formed? (ans: 0.829 g)
AgNO3(aq) + Na2CrO4(aq) → Ag2CrO4(s) + NaNO3(aq)

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7. A quantity of sodium sulfide with a mass of 8.76 g is added to 350 mL of 0.250
mol/L lead(II) nitrate solution. Which reactant is limiting? What is the mass of
precipitate expected? (ans: 20.9 g)More Excess Problems (To find amount of limiting
reagent left) Examples
1. 20.0 grams of aluminum sulfide and 15.00 grams of water react until the limiting reagent is used
up. Here is the balanced equation for the reaction.

Al2S3(s) + 6 HOH(l)  2 Al(OH)3(s) + 3 H2S(aq)

a. What is the maximum mass of H2S which can be formed from these reagents?
b. How much excess reagent remains after the reaction is complete?

Finding how much excess reagent is left:

Let’s go back to our smores example:
If you had 17 graham crackers, 7 marshmallows, and 20 chocolate pieces,
what would the theoretical yield be? Which reactants are in excess and which are all
used up and thus limiting reactants.

Theoretical Yield:

Excess Reactants:

Limiting Reactants:

How do we figure out how much excess reagent is leftover?

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Solve the following Problems. Show all work and steps
8. If 15.0 gram of zinc powder is stirred into an aqueous solution of copper (II) nitrate that contains
50.0 grams of solute, does the zinc react completely. How much copper solid is produced?
What is the mass of excess reagent left over?

9. When a mixture of silver metal and sulfur are heated, silver sulfide is formed:
16 Ag(s) + S8(s)  8 Ag2S(s)
a. What mass of Ag2S(s) is produced from a mixture of 2.0 g Ag(s) and 2.0 g S 8(s)
b. What mass of which reactant is left unreacted?

10. A 13.7 g sample of propane gas (C3H8(g)) along with 54.7 g oxygen gas was put into a container
and ignited. Determine the mass of carbon dioxide produced. Determine the mass of excess
reagent remaining.

27
11. A student mixed 25.0 mL of 0.320 mol/L aqueous copper(II) sulfate, CuSO 4(aq), with 29.7 mL of
0.270 mol/L aqueous strontium nitrate, Sr(NO3)2(aq).
a) Write the balanced reaction equation for this precipitation reaction.

b) The precipitate that was collected by filtration through paper and dried in an oven was a
white, powdery solid. What colour was the filtrate after the reaction mixture was filtered?
Explain your answer.

c) Calculate the mass of precipitate that can be expected from this reaction? (ans: 1.47 g)

d) The student collected 1.432 g of precipitate. Calculate the percentage yield of precipitate. (ans:
97.4%)

8.2 Expected and Experimental Yield

The expected quantity or maximum quantity possible in a chemical reaction is called the predicted
yield.
 Assumes that the limiting reagent is completely consumed
 Analogous to the maximum possible marks you can make on an exam or assignment

The actual or experimental yield is the amount that is produced in the laboratory when the
experiment is done.
 Analogous to the actual raw mark you get on an exam
 Should always be less than the predicted yield for a variety of reasons
 Factors that affect experimental yield include:
o Reaction may be very slow and not enough time was allowed for completion
o Transfer and collection method may result in some loss of product
o Purity of reactants may be less than 100%
o Reaction does not proceed to completion

28
Calculating the Percentage Yield of a Reaction Remember
 Actual yield is found
actual yield experimentally, and
% yield = x 100  Predicted yield is found
predicted yield
stoichiometrically

1. N2(g) + 3H2(g) → 2 NH3(g)

1
When 7.5 × 10 g of nitrogen gas reacts with sufficient hydrogen gas, the theoretical yield of
ammonia is 9.10g. If 1.72 g of ammonia is obtained by experiment, what is the percentage yield
of the reaction? (ans: 18.9%)

2. 20.0 g of bromic acid, HBrO3, is reacted with excess HBr.

HBrO3(aq) + 5HBr(aq) → 3H2O(ℓ) + 3Br2(aq)

a. What is the predicted yield of Br2 for this reaction? (ans: 74.4 g)

b. If 47.3 g of Br2 is produced, what is the percentage yield of Br2? (ans: 63.6%)

3. In order to produce a lead(II) chromate precipitate, lead(II) chloride reacts with sodium chromate
in solution. A 12.5 g mass of lead(II) chloride is mixed into solution, and is allowed to react
with excess sodium chromate.
a. What is the predicted yield of lead(II) chromate? (ans:14.5g)

b. Calculate the percentage yield if 13.8 g of lead(II) chromate is produced experimentally.

(ans: 95.2%)

29
4. When calcium carbonate reacts with hydrogen chloride, the products are calcium chloride,
carbon dioxide and water. If this reaction occurs with 81.5% yield, what mass of carbon dioxide
will be collected if 15.7 g of calcium carbonate is added to sufficient hydrogen chloride?
(ans: 5.62 g)

5. Calculate the percentage yield for the following reaction if 60 g of SO 2(g) is produced using 50 g
of S8(s). (ans: 60%)
S8(s) + 8O2(g)  8 SO2(g)

6. The reaction of toluene, C7H8(l), with potassium permanganate, KMnO4(aq), proceeds with
significantly less than 100% yield under most conditions:

C7H8(l) + 2KMnO4(aq) → KC7H5O2(aq) + 2MnO2(s) + KOH(aq) + 2H2O(l)

a) If 8.60 g toluene reacts with excess potassium permanganate, what is the predicted yield, in
grams, of potassium benzoate, KC7H5O2(aq)? (ans: 15.0 g)

b) If the percentage yield is 70.0%, what mass of potassium benzoate would you expect to be
produced? (ans: 10.5 g)

c) What mass of toluene is needed to produce 13.4 g of potassium benzoate if the percentage
yield is 60.0%? (ans: 12.9 g)

30
7. When a 1 g to 5 g sample of the pale-green mineral malachite, Cu2(CO3)ꞏ(OH)2(s), is heated
vigorously over a Bunsen flame for about 20 minutes, it is transformed into black copper(II)
oxide:
Cu2(CO3)ꞏ(OH)2(s) → 2CuO(s) + CO2(g) + H2O(g)

a) Calculate the predicted yield of CuO(s) from vigorous heating of 4.00 g of malachite.
(ans: 2.88g)

b) If 2.80 g of CuO(s) remains after the CO2(g) and H2O(g) have been burned off, what is the
percentage yield of the solid product? (ans: 97.2%)

8.3 Acid-Base Titration

Titration
 is the process of carefully measuring and controlling the addition of a solution called the
titrant.

31
  A titration analysis of an unknown amount concentration requires that the chemical reaction
be
o spontaneous,
o fast,
o quantitative, and
o stoichiometric
 The amount concentration of one reactant (primary standard) used must be accurately known.
The solution of the known amount concentration may be used as either the titrant or the
sample; it does not make a difference.

burette – a graduated glass burette clamp – a metal

tube with a tap at one end; apparatus that mounts on
used to measure the the retort stand to hold the
volume of liquid during a burette in place
titration

retort stand – a narrow rod

titrant – solution that is supported vertically on a
being added and having flat, rectangular base;
its volume measured used to hold the burette
during a titration upright above the
Erlenmeyer flask

tap (or stopcock) – a valve

that opens and closes to
Erlenmeyer flask – a control the flow of titrant
cone-shaped glass out of the burette
container with a narrow
neck and a flat, circular
base; contains the solution
to be titrated

A titration setup
Additional titration terms that must be known
1. sample

2. equivalence point

32
 3. endpoint

4. standard solution

5. primary standard
 A chemical that can be obtained at a high purity, with a mass that can be measured to a high
accuracy and precision
 Some chemicals cannot be obtained at a high purity or their mass and concentration will
change as they may be highly attracted to water

6. standardizing
 The process of determining the concentration of a solution by reacting it with another
solution that has been prepared from a primary standard.
 A stoichiometric calculation can be made to determine the unknown concentration

7. acid-base indicator

1. How to perform a titration.

a) endpoint – recognizing the endpoint of the titration

2. How to organize the information from a titration and what to do with it?
a) organizing your information from a titration – titration table
(Title for titration table) A titration analysis
involves several trials,
Volume of required to react with mL of mol/l using different pipetted
(solution in buret) (solution in flask) samples of the unknown
solution to improve the
Trial 1 2 3 4 etc reliability of your
Final buret reading (mL) calculated answer.
Initial buret reading (mL)
Volume of (aq) used (mL)

33
Example #1
Titration of 0.100 mol/L hydrochloric acid solution (solution that was prepared by) with
unknown sodium hydroxide (i.e. the concentration of the hydrochloric acid is not known)

Problem: Determine the concentration of an unknown sodium hydroxide solution by titration of

standard hydrochloric acid with unknown sodium hydroxide.

Design: 10.0 mL samples of 0.100 mol/L hydrochloric acid were pipetted into a 125 mL
Erlenmeyer flask and then titrated with the sodium hydroxide solution until it reached an
endpoint using phenolphthalein indicator.

Evidence:
A titration analysis involves several trials, using different pipetted samples of the solution
to improve the reliability of your calculated answer. You and your lab partner must get a
minimum of three (or four) consistent results (+/- 0.20 mL) of volume used (i.e. final buret
reading – initial buret reading).

Titration of 10.0 mL of 0.100 mol/L hydrochloric acid solution with unknown concentration of
sodium hydroxide
Trial 1 Trial 2 Trial 3 Trial 4
Final buret reading 14.50 mL 13.92 mL 28.73 mL 42.68mL
Initial buret reading 0.00 mL 0.00 mL 14.78 mL 28.70 mL
Volume of NaOH(aq) used
Initial colour in flask colourless colourless colourless colourless
Endpoint colour in flask dark pink light pink light pink light pink
ONLY consistent results are used in determining the average volume used
Average volume of NaOH(aq) used:

Analysis:
Using stoichiometry calculate the concentration
of the NaOH(aq) solution that was being used.

34
Example #2
Determine the concentration of hydrochloric acid in a commercial solution that is used to treat
concrete prior to painting.
A 1.59 g mass of sodium carbonate Na2CO3(s) was dissolved to make 100.0 mL of solution.
Samples (10.00 mL) of this standard solution were then taken and titrated with HCl(aq) solution.
The titration evidence collected is shown in the table below. Methyl orange indicator as used.

Titration of 10.00 mL of Na2CO3(aq) with diluted HCl(aq)

Trial 1 2 3 4
Final buret reading (mL) 13.3 26.0 38.8 13.4
Initial buret reading (mL) 0.2 13.3 26.0 0.6
Volume of HCl(aq) added (mL)
Indicator colour red orange orange orange

Summary – Titration Analysis

 Titration is the technique of carefully controlling the addition of a measured variable volume of
solution (the titrant) from a burette into a fixed volume of a sample solution until the reaction is
complete.
 The concentration of one reactant must be accurately known
 The equivalence point is the point at which the exact theoretical (stoichiometric) reacting amount
of titrant has been added to the sample.
 The endpoint is the point during the titration at which the sudden change of an observable
property indicates that the reaction is complete.
 Several trial must be completed. When at least three trials result in values that are all within a
range of 0.20 mL, those values are averaged. The average value is used for the stoichiometry
calculation.

35
When reading a buret you must read the position of the meniscus at eye level as shown.

The difference between any 2

consecutive readings from a buret, the
initial and final volumes respectively,
is called a titre.
This is the volume of titrant being
added to the sample.
The scale runs, and is read, down the
buret.
A white reader card (meniscus finder)
reduces background glare and makes
it easier to read the volume of the
titrant by providing contrast.
What is the volume here?

Read the volumes from the following pictured buret

Volume is mL Volume is mL

36
Titration Problems
1. The following data was collected during the standardization of hydrochloric acid with sodium carbonate :

Volumes of HCl(aq) added to 10.0 mL samples of 0.100 mol/L Na2CO3(aq)

T r i al # 1 2 3 4
F i n al B u r e t t e V o l u m e (m L) 13.0 0 24.5 0 36.1 0 47. 6 5
In i t i a l B u r e t t e V o l ume (m L) 0 .00 13.00 24.50 36.1 0
E n d p o i nt c o l o ur Deep pink L i ght Li ght Li gh t
( P h e n o l p h t h al e i n ) pink pink pink

Calculate the concentration of the acid solution.

2. A student performs a series of titrations in order to determine the concentration of a KOH(aq)

solution. The titrant used is a 0.50 mol/L solution of oxalic acid. The following is a table
summarizing the student’s experimental data for the 3 trials that were performed:
What is the concentration of KOH(aq)? (ans: 0.519 mol/L)

HOOCCOOH(aq) + 2KOH(aq)  K2OOCCOO(aq) + 2HOH(l)

Trial # 1 2 3
Final burette volume 5.35 5.42 6.58
(mL)
Initial burette volume 0.15 0.20 1.43
(mL)
Volume of KOH(aq) 10.0 10.0 10.0
(mL)

37
3. The following data was collected during the titration analysis of NaOH(aq) samples with 0.173 mol/L
HCl(aq):

Volumes of 0.173 mol/L HCl(aq) added to 10.0 mL samples of NaOH(aq)

T r i al # 1 2 3 4
F i n al B u r e t t e V o l u m e (m L) 14.0 0 24.2 0 34.4 0 44. 5 5
In i t i a l B u r e t t e V o l ume (m L) 1 .00 14.00 24.20 34.4 0
E n d p o i nt c o l o u r (M e thy l Deep red L i ght red L i ght red L i gh t red
o ra nge)

Calculate the concentration of the sodium hydroxide solution.

4. The data below records the volumes of 0.176 mol/L NaOH(aq) added to 10.0 mL samples of sulfuric
acid:

Volumes of 0.176 mol/L NaOH(aq) added to 10.0 mL samples of H2SO4(aq)

T r i al # 1 2 3 4
F i n al B u r e t t e V o l u m e (m L) 14.4 0 26.4 0 38.4 5 12.9 5
In i t i a l B u r e t t e V o l ume (m L) 0 .00 14.40 26.40 1.00
E n d p o i nt c o l o ur Deep pink L i ght Li ght Li gh t
( P h e n o l p h t h al e i n ) pink pink pink

Calculate the concentration of the acid.

38
5. The following data was collected during the titration of 10.0 mL samples of diluted household vinegar
(acetic acid) with 0.176 mol/L aqueous sodium hydroxide:

Volumes of 0.176 mol/L NaOH(aq) added to 25.0 mL samples of CH3COOH(aq)

T r i al # 1 2 3 4
F i n al B u r e t t e V o l u m e (m L) 12.5 0 24.3 3 36.2 2 48. 0 8
In i t i a l B u r e t t e V o l ume (m L) 0 .00 12.50 24.33 36.2 2
E n d p o i nt c o l o ur Deep pink L i ght Li ght Li gh t
( P h e n o l p h t h al e i n ) pink pink pink

Calculate the concentration of the diluted vinegar solution.

If the vinegar solution was diluted by a factor of 10 what is the concentration of vinegar in the undiluted,
store bought, sample?

6. The following data was collected during the titration of 10.0 mL samples of 0.200 mol/L nitric acid with
aqueous barium hydroxide solution:

Volumes of Ba(OH)2(aq) added to 10.0 mL samples of 0.200 mol/L HNO3(aq)

T r i al # 1 2 3 4
F i n al B u r e t t e V o l u m e (m L) 16.5 27.9 39.5 32.4
In i t i a l B u r e t t e V o l ume (m L) 4 .6 16.5 27.9 20.9
E n d p o i nt c o l o ur Deep pink L i ght Li ght Li gh t
( P h e n o l p h t h al e i n ) pink pink pink

Calculate the concentration of the barium hydroxide solution.

39
7. The following data was collected during the titration of 10.0 mL samples of citric acid,
C3H5O(COOH)3(aq), with a 0.100 mol/L sodium hydroxide solution:

Volumes of 0.100 mol/L NaOH(aq) added to 10.0 mL samples of C3H5O(COOH)3(aq)

T r i al # 1 2 3 4
F i n al B u r e t t e V o l u m e (m L) 16.4 28.9 41.5 12.7
In i t i a l B u r e t t e V o l ume (m L) 0 .0 16.4 28.9 0.0
E n d p o i nt c o l o ur Deep pink L i ght Li ght Li gh t
( P h e n o l p h t h al e i n ) pink pink pink

The citric acid reacts as follows

3 NaOH(aq) + C3H5O(COOH)3(aq)  Na3C3H5O(COO)3(aq) + 3 H2O(l)

Calculate the concentration of the citric acid solution.

Section 8.5 – Acid-Base Titration Curves and Indicators

Acid –Base Reactions
 predominate titration analysis
o acid and bases are very common
o large number of reactions cause a change in pH
o many substances are available to act as indicators for acid-base titrations
 as you approach the equivalence point, a visible endpoint is seen as the indicator changes
colour permanently

40
How is the pH affected as titrant is added?
1. A titration is performed and the following pH curve is generated.
(a) Select an indicator that would be
appropriate to use in this titration.

(b) What is the endpoint in this titration,

given the indicator selected in part (a)?

(c) What is the equivalence point in this

titration?

(d) What colour change would occur?

2. A titration is performed and the following pH curve is generated.

(a) Select an indicator that would be
appropriate to use in this titration.

(b) What is the endpoint in this titration,

given the indicator selected in part (a)?

(c) What is the equivalence point in this

titration?

(d) What colour change would occur?

41
 Shape of pH Curves -Clues to look for:
1. Determine which substance in the titrant

a. acid titrant - begin with base only

- high pH initially
-equivalence pt pH = 7

b. base titrant - begin with acid only

- low pH initially
-equivalence pt pH = 7

As you can see as titrant is added, the shape of the graph is NOT linear but more S-shaped

Example base titrant

 initially the graph is relatively horizontal when there is an excess of acid in the solution
 as the reaction approaches neutralization there is a steep rise as the reaction goes from excess
acid – to neutralization - excess base
 the graph levels out as more base is already added to as excess base solution
 the endpoint on a pH curve is the pH at the midpoint of the sudden rise

Difference between endpoint and equivalence point:

Choosing an Appropriate Indicator

An indicator is chosen as to highlight the point where the reaction reaches neutralization (on the pH
curves above it would be the region containing the endpoint)

42
CHAPTER 8 BLM 8.3.2
OVERHEAD Titration Step-By-Step

1. A sample to be analyzed is measured in a

graduated or volumetric pipette and delivered to
an Erlenmeyer flask.
2. A few drops of the appropriate indicator are
added to the sample being analyzed.
3. After taking an initial reading of the volume of
titrant in the burette, the titrant is added, slowly, to the sample in the
Erlenmeyer flask, while the sample is swirled.

4. The endpoint of the titration occurs when the indicator colour changes
dramatically. With a well-chosen indicator, the difference in the
volumes of titrant required to reach the endpoint and the equivalence
point should differ only by one drop of titrant (approximately
0.05 mL)

43
Interpreting Titration Curves

Titrations
 do not stop when you have reached the equivalence point
 continue until a large excess has been added
 For the titration curve for NaOH(aq) added to HCl(aq) as shown above
o initially pH is low as there is only HCl(aq) present
o as NaOH(aq) is added the pH stays low as the NaOH(aq) reacts with the HCl(aq).
Before the equivalence point, the HCl(aq) is in excess which is reflected by a low pH
o as more HCl(aq) is added and the titration approaches the equivalence point the small
excess of acid becomes a small excess of base. This is reflected on the pH curve with
an abrupt rise in pH
o the equivalence point is found on the midpoint of this sudden rise which makes it
easy to detect.
o More NaOH(aq) is added showing a leveling out of the pH curve

1.a.Write a net-ionic equation for the above reaction

44
 b. List the products formed in the net-ionic equation along with any unreacted spectator species.

c. What do you expect the pH to be at the equivalence point whenever a strong monoprotic acid
reacts with a strong monoprotic base?

d. What indicator(s) would be appropriate to high light the endpoint in the above titration?

The approximate endpoint can be predicted without a pH curve (i.e. is the endpoint pH above, below or
equal to 7) only after a net ionic equation is written and a list of unreacted species along with the product
of the net-ionic equation are looked to see if they are acidic, basic or neutral. If any of these substances
are:
 neutral; the pH at the equivalence point will be 7
 acidic; the pH at the equivalence point will be < 7
 basic; the pH at the equivalence point will be >7

As you can see in the titration curve above, if the wrong choice of indicator is made, the
equivalence point will not be properly identified.

Summary: Acid-Base Indicators, Endpoints, and Equivalence Points

 An indicator for an acid-base titration analysis must be chosen to have an endpoint (change of
colour) at nearly the same pH as the equivalence point pH of the reaction solution.
 The pH of the solution at the equivalence point for a strong monoprotic acid-strong monoprotic
base reaction will be 7.
 The pH of the solution at the equivalence point for any other acid-base reaction must be
determined experimentally, by plotting a titration curve.
45