Surveying

Surveying is the science and art of finding the positions of points on the Earth's surface and
calculating the distances and angles between them. It is essential for civil engineering projects,
land development, and map creation. Surveyors collect precise data using a wide range of
instruments and techniques, including GPS, total stations, and drones. This data is crucial for
producing precise plans, maps, and models that drive construction and land management
initiatives.

Types of surveying
Surveying is categorized into several types based on purpose, method, instruments, and
application:
1. Purpose:
o Geodetic Surveying: Accounts for Earth's curvature, used for large-scale and
high-precision projects.
o Geodetic Surveying: Geodetic surveying uses the Earth's surface as an ellipsoid
of revolution for X and Y dimensions, with Z dimensions referenced to the Earth's
reference ellipsoid. or the mean surface. Traditional surveys were precise, while
modern surveys use satellite positioning like GPS. Geodetic measurements must
be mathematically converted to local coordinate grids and MSL elevations.
o Plane Surveying: Assumes a flat surface, suitable for small-scale projects where
curvature is negligible.
o Plane Surveying: Plane surveying is a surveying method where the earth's
surface is considered a plane for all X and Y dimensions, with Z dimensions
referenced to the mean surface or reference ellipsoid.
The difference between the two general classifications of surveying is plane
surveying is appropriate for small areas with intermediate accuracy, but geodetic
surveying is utilized for big areas that require great precision. Geodetic surveying
takes into consideration the Earth's curvature, whereas plane surveying does not. Both
use comparable basic equipment, but geodetic surveying frequently employs more
modern technology and methodologies in order to attain greater precision.
2. Application:
o Topographic Surveying: Maps physical features and elevations.
 o Cadastral Surveying: Determines property boundaries.

o Engineering Surveying: Supports infrastructure projects.

o Hydrographic Surveying: Maps bodies of water.

o Mining Surveying: Supports mining operations.

o Aerial and Remote Sensing Surveying: Uses aerial or satellite imagery

Measurement of Distance
Surveying involves determining the horizontal distance between two points, which is measured
as the slope distance if the points are at different elevations. A vertical angle of the line joining
the point is also required. Two methods for measuring horizontal distances are direct methods
and indirect methods, depending on the desired accuracy.
 Direct methods: straightforward physical measurements of distance between two points,
eliminating the need for calculations based on other measurements.
 Indirect methods calculate distances using other measurements or data, derived from
known values rather than directly measuring the distance.

Errors in Measurement
No measurement is error-free, and the true value is determined statistically after repeated
measurements, using the mean value for distances.

Main type of error

Systematic errors, such as those caused by temperature, can be accurately determined by
surveyors by removing them from measurements, improving accuracy.
For example: temperature-related effects on steel tape can be accurately determined.

Random errors in surveys are due to surveyor's skill and vigilance, and while skilled surveyors
may minimize them, unskilled or careless errors can cause imprecise results.
For example: Surveyors use multiple measurements and average them to reduce random errors in
true angles, ensuring more accurate results despite potential variations due to hand movements or
environmental changes.
Mistake
Mistakes in surveying can occur, such as transposing figures, miscounting tape lengths, and
measuring to or from the wrong point. Students should be aware of these mistakes and should
discover and eliminate them. Survey measurements are suspect until verified, which can be done
through repeating the measurement or geometric analysis. Immediate repetition of measurements
helps eliminate most mistakes and improves measurement precision.

Accuracy & precision

A measurement's accuracy is determined by comparing its result to the actual value of the
dimension being measured.
Precision refers to maximizing the measuring process to make regular, small modifications in
measurements in order to guarantee accuracy in the targets.
This example illustrates the concepts of accuracy and precision in building measurements.
A 157.22 ft long building wall is measured using fiberglass tape, resulting in a measurement of
157.3 ft. In contrast, a more precise steel tape is used, resulting in a measurement of 157.23 ft.
The more precise method yields more accurate measurements.

Theory of Probability
Probability theory refers to the mathematical study of random processes. It focuses on random
variables, which are mathematical representations of observable things that can occur singly or
randomly throughout time.

MPV
The Most Probable Value (MPV) is the most accurate representation of a measurement or
observation, considering all sources of uncertainty in the available data.
For example:
A surveyor measures land length multiple times, obtaining measurements of 100.2 meters, 100.1
meters, 100.3 meters, 100.0 meters, and 100.2 meters, subject to random errors due to instrument
precision and environmental factors.
In order to find the MPV you need to find the mean of all the measurements.
100.2+ 100.1+ 100.3+100+100.2
MPV= =100.16 meters
5
Therefore, The MPV of 100.16 meters represents the most probable land length, taking into
account random measurements variations.

Probable error
Probable error is the percentage difference between a measured and true value, indicating the
reliability of a measurement by indicating the range within which the true value is expected to lie
with a certain probability.
The probable error (PE) can be expressed as:

Probable Error(PE) = k⋅σ

Where:
k - is constant that varies on the desired confidence level, for normal distribution, this constant is
0.6745 with 50% confidence
σ - is the standard deviation of the measurements.
Example:
A surveyor measures the length of a line multiple times and obtains the following measurements
(in meters): 12.2, 12.4, 12.3, 12.1, and 12.3. Determine the probable error with a 50% confidence
level.
Solutions:
Find the mean:
12.2+ 12.4+12.3+12.1+12.3 61.3
x= = =12.26 meters
5 5

Find the squared difference from the mean:

(12.2−12.26) ² =0.0036
(12.4−12.26) ² =0.0196
(12.3−12.26) ² =0.0016
(12.1−12.26) ² =0.0256
(12.3−12.26) ² =0.0016
Average of this squared difference
12.2+ 12.4+12.3+12.1+12.3
=0.0130
5−1
Standard deviation
σ =√ 0.0130=0.114 meters
calculate for PE
PE= k* σ = 0.6745*0.114 =0.077 meters

Relative error
Relative error measures the accuracy of a measurement or estimate in relation to its size,
expressing the magnitude of the error as a fraction or percentage.
Formula:
If M is the measured value and T is the true value
M −T
RE=
T

Example:
Suppose a surveyor measures the length of a survey line to be 150 meters, but the true length is
known to be 152 meters. Calculate the relative error of the measurement.
Solution:
M −T 15 0−152
RE = = = 0.0132 *100 = 1.32%
T 15 2

Therefore, the measurement's relative error is around 1.32%, indicating an accuracy of about
1.32% of the true value, indicating its relative size.

Pacing
Pacing is a field-based technique used to measure distances by counting the number of steps
taken over a distance, often used in preliminary surveys or when precise instruments are
unavailable.

Pace Factor
The pace factor is the average length of a single pace, calculated by dividing the total distance
measured by the number of paces taken. Paces refer to the number of steps or strides taken while
walking a measured distance.
Measured distance
PF=
Number of Pace

Example:
A surveyor wants to determine their pace factor for measuring distances. They measure a known
distance of 200 meters and count 250 paces while walking this distance
Solution:
Measured distance 200
PF= = =0.8 meters/ pace
Number of paces 250
Using the pace factor:
Estimated distance = Number of paces * Pace factor = 250*0.8 = 200 meters

Tape Corrections
The method of tape corrections is modifying the raw measurements acquired with a tape measure
to account for a variety of factors that impact distance measuring accuracy.
Note: In measured distance when the tape is too long add the correction, when the tape is too
short subtract the correction, when in comes to laying out distance when the tape is too short add
the correction, when the tape is too long subtract the correction.

Types of Corrections
1. Temperature Correction:
is the change in the expansion or contraction of a tape measure as a result of temperature
variations, with higher temperatures producing expansion and lower temperatures causing
contraction.

Formula:
Temperature Correction=Measured Distance×Coefficient of Expansion×(Measured Temp
erature−Standard Temperature)

Example:
 If a tape measurement is 100 meters at 30 degrees Celsius, and the correction coefficient
is 0.000012 per °C, the adjustment is

Solutions:
Correction=100×(0.000012)×(30−20)=0.012 meters
Adjusted measurement: 100−0.012= 99.988 meters

2. Correction due to pull:

refers to the adjustments made to account for the difference between the actual tension
applied to the tape during measurement and the standard tension for which the tape is
calibrated.

Cp = ((P−Po) /A⋅E) ⋅L
Formula:

where:
(Cp) = correction due to pull
(P) = pull applied in the field
(Po) = standard pull
(L) = measured length of the line
(A) = cross-sectional area of the tape
(E) = Young’s modulus of the material of the tape

Example:

3. Correction due to Sag:

 The correction due to sag is crucial in surveying, particularly when measuring horizontal
distances using a tape due to its weight sagging between two points.

Formula:

Cs= w²L³/24P2
where:
(Cs) is the sag correction,
(w) is the weight of the tape per unit length,
(L) is the horizontal distance between the supports,
(P) is the pull or tension applied to the tape

Example:

4. Correction due to slope

The correction due to slope in surveying is necessary when measuring distances on
inclined terrain

Formula:
Cs = h²/2s
 Example:

5. Normal Tension
Normal Tension is a fixed value, typically 10 kg, used to ensure consistent and accurate
length of a tape measure during calibration and measurement.

Formula:
 Example:

6. Reduction to sea level

Reduction to sea level entails reducing elevations to account for air pressure and
temperature changes before converting them to the conventional reference level of mean
sea level.

Formula:
Example:

Reference
1. Ghilani, C. D., & Wolf, P. R. (2021). Elementary surveying: An introduction to
geomatics (15th ed.). Pearson.
2. Garg, P. K. (2015). Surveying and geomatics (3rd ed.). Khanna Publishers.
3. Kavanagh, B. F. (2020). Surveying: With construction applications (7th ed.). Pearson.
4. Barry, F. K., & Kavanagh, B. F. (2018). Surveying: Principles and applications (8th
ed.). Pearson.
5. Reduction to Sea Level Length (youtube.com)
6. Correction Due to Sag | Taping Corrections | Surveying (youtube.com)
7. Correction Due to Pull or Tension | Taping Corrections | Surveying (youtube.com)
8. Normal Tension | Taping Corrections | Measurement of Horizontal Distance |
Fundamentals of Surveying (youtube.com)
9. Correction Due to Slope | Taping Corrections | Surveying (youtube.com)