CE-888 Watershed Management

Lecture: 1
Introduction to Watershed Management
Difference b/w Catchment area, watershed and Drainage basin
A river drains the water collected from a specific area, which is called its catchment area
The land area that drains runoff (rain or snow) into a lake, river, or a stream is called watershed. It is an
area covered by a system of surface and subsurface water flowing into stream.
An area drained by a river and its tributaries is called a river basin or drainage basin
The area that drains into a lake, river, or stream via streams or ditches, directly over the ground surface or
through the ground surface.
What is a watershed?
Hydrosphere & hydrological cycle gives better concept about watershed.
Hydrosphere in physical geography describes combined mass of waters found on, under and above the
surface of the planet.
Hydrosphere consists waters of land (rivers and other water bodies, groundwater system etc.), oceans &
atmosphere surrounding the land.
Hydrological Cycle is the change in phase of water in the hydrosphere.
Watershed topographically delineated area that is drained by a stream system. An area from which runoff
resulting from precipitation flows past a single point into a stream, river, lake or an ocean.
Watersheds are biophysical systems that define the land surface that drains water and waterborne
sediments, nutrients, and chemical constituents to a point in a stream channel or a river defined by
topographic boundaries.
Watersheds are the surface landscape systems that transform precipitation into water flows to streams and
rivers, most of which reach the oceans.
Watersheds are the systems used to study the hydrologic cycle and they help us understand how human
activities influence components of the hydrologic cycle.
Classification of watersheds based on stability indicators
The main goal of classifying watersheds based on stability indicator is to: -
Identify critical watershed areas and concentrate limited financial and manpower resources onto the most
seriously affected lands first.
Based on their stability watersheds can be classified into:
Fragile
Instable
Moderately stable and
Stable
his classification is based on evaluation of biophysical (rainfall, slope, forest cover and watershed shape)
and socio-economic (population density, proportion of arable land affected by erosion, average farm size
and per capita food crop production) indicators which are easy to obtain and suitable to evaluate the
stability of the watershed.
Classification of watershed?
Watersheds can be classified using any measurable characteristics in the area like:
Size, Shape, Location, Ground water exploitation, Land use.
However, the main classification of watershed is discussed broadly on the basis of size and land use.
Two watersheds of the same size may behave very differently if they do not have similar land and channel
phases.
SIZE:
The main implication of watershed size appears in terms of spatial heterogeneity of hydrological
processes.
The spatial variability of watershed characteristics increases with size; therefore, large watersheds are
most heterogeneous.
As the watershed size increases, storage increases. Based on size, the watersheds are divided into three
classes.

Small Watersheds < 250 km2

Medium Watersheds between 250 to 2500 km2

Large Watersheds > 2500 km2

Small watersheds are those, where the overland flow and land phase are dominant. Channel phase is
relatively less conspicuous. The watershed is highly sensitive to high intensity and short-duration
rainfalls.
Being medium in size, the workability of medium watersheds is easy due to accessible approach. Rather
than size, shape of the watershed plays a dominant role. Overland flow and land phase are prominent.
Large watersheds are less sensitive to high-intensity-rainfalls of short duration. The channel networks and
channel phase are well-developed, and, thus, channel storage is dominant.
Land use defines the exploitation (natural and human interactions) characteristics of watersheds which
affect the various hydrological processes within the watershed. The watershed classification based on the
land use can be given as below:
Agricultural, Urban, Mountainous, Forest, Desert, Coastal, Mixed - a combination of two or more of the
above classifications
Agricultural Watershed:
Agricultural watershed is the watershed in which agricultural activities (crop cultivation) is dominant.
It experiences perhaps the most dynamically significant land-use change. This usually leads to increased
infiltration, increased erosion, and/or decreased runoff.
Depression storage is also increased by agricultural operations. When the fields are barren, falling
raindrops tend to compact the soil and infiltration is reduced.
There is lesser development of streams in agricultural watersheds. The small channels formed by erosion
and runoff in the area are obliterated by tillage operations.
Urban Watershed:
These are the watershed areas having maximum manipulation for the convenience of human being. These
are dominated by buildings, roads, streets, pavements, and parking lots. These features reduce the
infiltrating land area and increase imperviousness.
As drainage systems are artificially built, the natural pattern of water flow is substantially altered. For a
given rainfall event, interception and depression storage can be significant but infiltration is considerably
reduced. As a result, there is pronounced increase in runoff and pronounced decrease in soil erosion.
Thus, an urban watershed is more vulnerable to flooding if the drainage system is inadequate.
Mountainous Watershed:
Because of higher altitudes, such watersheds receive considerable snowfall. Due to steep gradient and
relatively less porous soil, infiltration is less and surface runoff is dominantly high for a given rainfall
event.
The areas downstream of the mountains are vulnerable to flooding. Due to snow melt, water yield is
significant even during spring and summer.
Forest Watershed:
These are the watersheds where natural forest cover dominates other land uses. In these watersheds,
interception is significant, and evapotranspiration is a dominant component of the hydrologic cycle.
The ground is usually littered with leaves, stems, branches, wood, etc. Consequently, when it rains, the
water is held by the trees and the ground cover provided greater opportunity to infiltrate.
The subsurface flow becomes dominant and there are times when there is little to no surface runoff.
Because forests resist flow of overland water, the peak discharge is reduced. Complete deforestation could
increase annual water yield by 20 to 40 %.
Desert Watershed:
There is little to virtually no vegetation in desert watersheds. The soil is mostly sandy and little annual
rainfall occurs. Stream development is minimal.
Whenever there is rainfall, most of it is absorbed by the porous soil, some of it evaporates, and the
remaining runs off only to be soaked in during its journey. There is limited groundwater recharge due to
occurrence of less rainfall in these watersheds.
Coastal Watershed
The watersheds in coastal areas may partly be urban and are in dynamic contact with the sea. Their
hydrology is considerably influenced by backwater from wave and tidal action of the sea.
Usually, these watersheds receive high rainfall, mostly of cyclonic type, do not have channel control in
flow, and are vulnerable to severe local flooding.
In these watersheds, the water table is high, and saltwater intrusion threatens the health of coastal
aquifers, which usually are a source of the fresh water supply.
Mixed Watershed:
These are the watersheds, where multiple land use/land cover exists either because of natural settings or
due to a combination of natural and human interaction activities.
In these watersheds, a combination of two or more of the previous classifications occurs and none of the
single characteristics dominate the area
Geomorphology is the scientific study of the Earth's surface features and the processes that shape them.
It focuses on understanding the landforms and the forces, such as water, wind, ice, and tectonic activity,
that result in their formation, modification, and erosion.
Watershed characteristics:
Climatic Characteristics
Rainfall & its movement, Intensity, Duration, Temperature, Wind Velocity, Humidity, Transpiration, and
Evaporation.
Physiographic Characteristics
Geomorphology, Size, Shape, Slope, Orientation, Drainage Density, Elevation, Land use, Vegetation
Cover, Soil, Geology, Hydrology, Hydrogeology, Hydrography
Socio-economics Characteristics
Statistics on people and their health, wants & wishes, Cattle and Farming Practices, People Participation.
Each and every watershed has distinct characteristics of its own. No Two Watersheds are Identical.
Climatic Characteristics and Physiographical Characteristics will be different. All these characteristics
affect the pattern of disposal of stream flow.
Climatic characteristics:
If the climatic condition is dry before the rainfall, loss of runoff is more due to infiltration and
evapotranspiration.
Climatic condition depends on Temperature, Wind Velocity, and Humidity. Transpiration, Evaporation,
and Evapotranspiration depends on Climatic Condition.
The more the intensity of rainfall in the watershed, the more is the peak flow disposal from the area.
If the duration is less, time taken to dispose with lower peak flow is also less
 Climatic characteristics

For the correct design of hydraulic structures like:

Dams, Weirs, Barrage, Reservoirs, Spillways, Retaining walls, Embankment
a peak flow assessment of run-off or flood should be accurately worked out
Physiographic characteristics:
Watershed geomorphology refers to the physical characteristics of the watershed. Basin area, basin length,
basin slope, and basin shape are the physical characteristics of watersheds, significantly affecting the
characteristics of runoff and other hydrologic processes.
Basin Area:
The area of watershed is also known as the drainage area and it is the most important watershed
characteristic for hydrologic analysis. It reflects the volume of water that can be generated from a rainfall.
Once the watershed has been delineated, its area can be determined by approximate map methods,
planimeter or GIS.
Basin area is defined as the area contained within the vertical projection of the drainage divide on a
horizontal plane. Watershed area is comprised of two sub-components; Stream areas and Inter-basin areas.
The inter-basin areas are the surface elements contributing flow directly to streams of order higher than 1.
Stream areas are those areas that would constitute the area draining to a predetermined point in the stream
or outlet. For example, the stream area for first-order streams would be delineated by measuring the
drainage area for each first-order channel.
Stream areas refer to the specific regions that contribute water flow to a designated point in the stream or
outlet. These areas are crucial for understanding how water moves through landscapes, forming drainage
basins also known as catchments or watersheds.
Inter-basin areas refer to regions that contribute flow directly to streams of a higher order than 1. These
areas discharge their runoff into larger streams, while stream areas typically contribute to first-order
streams.

Basin Length:
Conceptually the basin length is the distance traveled by the surface drainage and sometimes more
appropriately labeled as hydrologic length. This length is generally used in computing a time parameter,
which is a measure of the travel time of water through a watershed. The watershed length is therefore
measured along the principal flow path from the watershed outlet to the basin boundary. Since the channel
does not extend up to the basin boundary, it is necessary to extend a line from the end of the channel to
the basin boundary. The measurement follows a path where the greatest volume of water would generally
travel.
Basin Length:
1. The greatest straight-line distance between any two points on the perimeter.
2. The greatest distance between the outlet and any point on the perimeter.
3. The length of the main stream from its source (projected to the perimeter) to the outlet (most
commonly used).
Shape:
Watersheds differ in their shape based on morphometric parameters like geology and structure.
The shape of watershed has a dominant effect on the characteristics of the hydrograph of the watershed
such as peak flow, overland flow, and base of hydrograph (run-off time).

Different geomorphologic indices can be used for the analysis of a watershed if its shape is taken into
consideration. The most frequently used index is the Gravelius's index KG, which is defined as the relation
between the perimeter of the watershed and that of a circle having a surface equal to that of a watershed

Several values of the Gravelius's index for various shapes of watershed can be found in following figure:
Orientation:
The orientation of a watershed influences the melting speed of snow. Watersheds developed especially in
North-South direction have an alternative exposure to sunrays; the melting speed of snow thus being
smaller than in cases of watersheds developed towards East-West.
For a precise determination of the influence of watershed orientation, it is necessary to know the direction
and frequency of the dominant wind.
Size:
The size of watershed is governed by the size of stream or river and the development and management
works taken.
For minor irrigation project, size may be few hundred square kilometers
For Tank or Pond Irrigation, size is just few square kilometers
In Watershed management works in hilly or undulating topography, the size of watershed may be even
much smaller. Measurement of precipitation as well as water retention, drainage from the watershed
is complex for a bigger size of watershed

Basin Slope:
Watershed/basin slope affects the momentum of runoff. It reflects the rate of change of elevation with
respect to distance along the principal flow path. It is usually calculated as the elevation difference
between the endpoints of the main flow path divided by the length.
Basin slope has a profound effect on the velocity of overland flow, watershed erosion potential, and local
wind systems. Basin slope S is defined as
S = h/L
where h = fall in meters, and L = horizontal distance (length) over which the fall occurs
Characteristic altitudes for watershed:
The extreme altitudes of the watershed, such as minimum and maximum, are obtained as a starting step
for topographic maps. The maximum altitude is the elevation of the highest point of the watershed, while
the minimum altitude is the elevation of the lowest point, this being generally the outlet section of the
watershed. These values determine the altimetry amplitude of a watershed and help to calculate the slope.
The average altitude of a watershed can be deduced directly from reading the topographical map. The
average altitude of a watershed is often used in the evaluation of certain hydro-meteorological parameters
and can be calculated with different formulas.
Drainage:
The Stream Order, Drainage Pattern, and Drainage Density have a profound influence on watershed as to
runoff, infiltration, land management etc.
It determines the flow characteristics and erosional behavior.
If drainage density is more, peak runoff is more.
Physiography:
Type of land, its altitude and physical disposition immensely speak about a watershed as to the climate
and planning the activities in greening.
Hilly tract could be useful mainly for Forestry and Plains of populated areas could be utilized for Crops
Hydrography:
The hydrographic network is defined as the sum of all the watercourses, natural or artificial, permanent or
temporary, which contribute to the runoff. The characteristics of a hydrographic network of a watershed
are influenced by four main factors: geology, climate, relief and environment. The hydrographic network
is one of the most important characteristics of a watershed.
The classification of the watercourses was introduced by Strahler (1957). The order of the watercourses
reflects the degree of ramification of the hydrographic network from upstream to downstream and it is
based on the following principles: [Musy, 2001]
all watercourses without tributaries are of 1st order;
the watercourse formed by the confluence of two watercourses of different order is going to keep the
highest order of the two;
the watercourse formed by the confluence of two watercourses of same order is going to have an order
higher with one than the other two.
Land Use:
The land in watershed is used for numerous purposes such as
dwelling houses, cultivation , livestock ,water harvesting ,roads and railways
Land use affects the run-off rates
Vegetation Cover:
Vegetation cover retard the flow and increases the infiltration and interception, thereby reducing the peak
flow.
Vegetation cover protects the soil erosion.
Detailed information on vegetation helps in choosing type, mode and manner of greening the watershed
Soil:
The soil such as sand absorbs a larger part of run-off water, so the rate
of flow is less. Clay soil produces more flow as its absorption is less.
Soil parameters such as depth, nature, moisture and fertility determines crops.
Geology:
Rocks and their structure control formation of a watershed itself because their nature determines size,
shape, physiography, drainage, and groundwater conditions.
Geological conditions affects the run-off of watershed. If there are some cracks in rocks joining surface
water and groundwater, a part of water flows quickly underground.
Lakes, Storages, Swamp hold a part of excess rainfall
Hydrology:
The availability, quality and distribution of surface water is basic to the final goal of growing greenery in
a watershed.
Hydrological parameters such as intensity and duration of rainfall help in quantification of water available
in watershed.
If rainfall continues for longer period with low intensity, evaporation and percolation increases but run-off
is less. Further it may cause landslide in sloping hillside areas.
Hydrogeology:
The groundwater demand for irrigation, farm plantation, drinking water , domestic use and industrial use
is more as it is relatively less polluted and pure. The information about aquifer such as nature, thickness
and characteristics should be known for better planning of watersheds.
Socio-economic characteristics :
A survey of people living in the watershed should be made regarding their:
needs and wants, economic conditions, health & hygiene, cattle, farming practices and participation in
watershed management. Demographic profile [characteristics used to categorize a group of people based
on specific criteria, such as age, gender, income level, education, ethnicity (population group or subgroup
made up of people who share a common cultural background or descent), marital status, and
employment], sociological stratification (society’s categorization of its people into rankings based on
factors like wealth, income, education, family background, and power), attitude and behavior of
community will affect the watershed management to a great extent.
Benchmark Survey:
Benchmark Survey of a watershed is the survey of basic resources. It is essential for a master plan and
future evaluation and monitoring of the watershed.
The basic points considered in Benchmark Survey are as follows:
• Physiography (Name, Elevation, Boundaries, etc.)
• Climate (Temperature, Wind, Humidity etc.)
• Soil (Type, Depth, Permeability etc.)
• Hydrological Survey (Rainfall, Infiltration, Evaporation, Evapotranspiration)
• Topographical Survey (Size, Slope, Shape etc.)
• Land Use and Vegetation Survey
• Socio-economic Survey