Fluvial

Geomorphology
Glacier River,
Alaska
 Hydrological cycle
01
Table of contents
Hydrographs
02

River processes
03

Hjulstrom curve + flows

04

River landforms
05

Flooding
06
01 Hydrological cycle
 Introduction
● Water enters and continually cycles around the earth through the
global hydrological cycle

● The cycle of water between the atmosphere, lithosphere, and

biosphere
 Drainage basin
● An open local system, has
inputs, outputs, and transfers
of energy and matter into and
from the system
● Is the area of land drained by
a river and its tributaries
● Also called a river’s
catchment
● Is surrounded by higher land
● Boundary of the drainage
basin is called a watershed
● Any precipitation falling
beyond a watershed enters a
different basin
● Watershed separates
different drainage basins
Drainage Basins/Watershed

● Drainage basin – Geographical area that

contributes water (groundwater and
runoff) to a river (bowl-shaped
depression)
● River in PMB vs. Cape Town – rain in
PMB would not runoff or affect Cape
Towns rivers = Must have a different
drainage basin
● River system (stream network) – flows in
a drainage basin
● All runoff and groundwater is funneled to
the trunk river (main river)
https://river-runner-global.samlearner.com/?lng=-2.4200217896968184&lat=54.67998287324542
Inputs, outputs, stores and transfers
Inputs - water is added to the drainage basin
Outputs – water leaves a drainage system
Stores - water is stationary in a drainage
basin
Transfers – water is moving in a drainage
basin
Inputs Outputs Stores Transfers

• Precipitation • Evaporation • Interception • Through fall

• Transpiration • Ground water store • Stem flow
• Evapotranspiration • Soil water store • Overland flow
• Vegetation store • Infiltration
• Channel store • Through flow
• Percolation
• Ground Water Flow
• Channel Flow
End of Lesson 1

Complete the Drainage Basin System worksheet

Recommended Video to watch:

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=J1w3fuFUljk
 Interception

● Interception refers to water that is caught and

stored by vegetation. There are 3 main
components
1. Interception loss – water that is retained by plant
surfaces and that is later evaporated away or
absorbed by the plant
2. Throughfall – water that either falls through gaps
in the vegetation or that drops from leaves or
twigs
3. Stemflow – water that trickles along with twigs
and branches and finally down the main trunk
● Interception loss varies with different types of
vegetation
So what effect do trees have on the drainage basin system?

● To increase evapotranspiration
● To slow down water reaching the ground
surface by interception, thus reducing the
surface flow
● Stem flow will direct water to a particular part
of the slope and reduce raindrop impact
● To increase the rate of infiltration
● The extraction of water by root systems
 Soil moisture

● Soil moisture is the subsurface water in the

soil and subsurface layers above the water
table, From here water may be: absorbed,
held, or transported upward or downward

● Field capacity refers to the amount of water

held in the soil after excess water drains
away, that is, saturation or near saturation

● Wilting point refers to the range of moisture

content in which permanent wilting of
plants occur
 Surface water
Can be temporary
- Puddle
Can be permanent
- Lakes
- Wetlands
- Swamps
- Peat bogs and marshes

● Channel storage refers to all

water that is stored in rivers,
streams, and other drainage
channels
 Drainage Basin/Watershed

● Small rivers that flow into a trunk river – Tributary

● Tributaries are separated by ‘smaller’ high points –
Interfluves
● The point where the tributary meets the trunk
river/river – Confluence
● Place where a river begins – Source
● River ceases to flow – Mouth
● Tidal section of the river near the mouth – Estuary
● Physical confines of the river, encompasses two
banks and a bed - Channel
● Drainage basins can either be small or massive
depending on the river
End of Lesson 2

Recommended Video to watch:

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=bm0m64q4rSw
 Hydrological cycle
● Water evaporates from water bodies
such as rivers, dams, and seas
● Water vapour rises, cools, and
condenses to form clouds
● Precipitation from the clouds
● Precipitation is intercepted by plants,
seeps into the ground before reaching
surface rivers
● Or it runs off the land surface into
streams and rivers
● Rivers enter lakes or seas
● The hydrological cycle is then repeated
Video on Hydrological Cycle

● https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=al-do-
HGuIk&list=PLANg0rzUOJoS8sWiuBS8wDWQpFMirDyse
 Sources of water flowing in a drainage basin

The main source is precipitation, not all of it is runoff, the

following may occur:
● Interception – Trees and veg intercept rainfall
● Infiltration – Soil uptakes water
● Retention – Water is retained on the surface
● Evaporation - Water vapour back to the atmosphere
● Evapotranspiration – Water is given off by plants and then
evaporates
● Groundwater flow - Water continues into the pores and crack
from the underlying rock flow down to the groundwater
Recap – Name A and B
Recap – Name A and B
Explain how the type of soil can influence the rate of throughflow.
[3]
Hint: P and P
Examples? (clay vs sand}
 Origin of Rivers
● Runoff is a minimal contributor to river
● Important source – groundwater that
seeps out of the ground where the
stream channel intersects the water
table
● Important source – water body is fed
by rainfall and groundwater spill over
and become a source of a river
(Fill your bath, spills over the edge at the
lowest spot and flow to the floor)
● Many rivers start as an outlet from a
major dam
● Important source – Surface Runoff
(Wet areas) water runs like a stream
through the force of gravity, (Sheet
Runoff)
Overland Flow and Drainage Basins
End of Lesson 3
Drainage Basin Processes defined

● Precipitation – any moisture that falls from the atmosphere

● Evaporation – Process of water turning from a liquid into vapour
● Transpiration – Evaporation of moisture from vegetation's stomata
● Evapotranspiration – Combined action of evaporation and transpiration
● River discharge via channel flow – water entering the sea and leaving a
drainage basin, a very small amount of water enters the sea via through
flow and groundwater flow (baseflow)
● Through fall – Precipitation that drips from vegetation to the ground
 Drainage Basin Processes defined

● Stem flow – Precipitation that flows down plant stems to

the ground
● Surface store – Precipitation that flows down plant stems
to the ground
● Overland flow – Movement of water along a ground surface
to a river
● Infiltration – Process whereby water enters soil layer
● Through flow - Groundwater that seeps through the soil and
moves horizontally above an impermeable layer
● Percolation – The vertical transfer / downward movement
of water through the subsoil / into the bedrock
Drainage Basin Processes defined

● Ground water flow – A deeper level of gravitational flow

in downslope directions through rock to feed rivers and
springs
● Channel flow – Water flowing in a river
● Phreatic Zone – Permanently saturated zone within
rocks and sediments. The upper layer of this is known
as the water table
● Vadose Zone – Zone of temporary saturation
Phreatic and Vadose Zone
Type of surface runoff/overland flow

● Hortonian/infiltration excess flow – Soil is not saturated –

water cannot infiltrate (either it is impermeable or rainfall is
too intense) therefore flows over the surface as overland flow

● Saturated overland flow – Soil is full of water so cannot take

anymore so water flows over the surface as overland flow
 Groundwater and baseflow

● Most groundwater is found within a few

hundred metres of the surface but has been
found at depths of up to 4km beneath the
surface

● Baseflow refers to the part of the discharge

of a river that is provided by groundwater
seeping into the bed of a river
● It is relatively constant flow although it
increases slightly following a wet period
More Definitions

● Pores – Gaps between soil and gravel that water can fill
● Saturated – Ground where pores are filled and can contain no more
water
● Unsaturated – Ground where there is still space between the pores
● Water table – The border between saturated and unsaturated
ground. The water table may go up or down
● Permeable – Surfaces that allows water to pass through them
● Impermeable – Surfaces that do not allow water to pass through
them
● Aquifers - Rocks that can hold water
● Aquiclude – Rocks that cannot hold water
Even More Definitions

● Porous – Rocks with pore spaces and cracks in it

● Non-porous – Rocks with no pore spaces and cracks in it
● Condenses – When water vapour turns into water droplets. Water
can only condense around condensation nuclei
● Antecedent Moisture – Amount of water in the soil before
additional precipitation
● Topography - The shape of the land
End of Lesson 4
 Why, during a rain event, could there be more overland flow than
infiltration?
● The amount and intensity of rain overcoming
the infiltration capacity of the soil
● The infiltration capacity of the soil is
governed by factors such as the porosity and
permeability of the soil
● Antecedent moisture conditions
● Different land uses (e.g. forestry, arable,
pastoral) and surfaces (e.g. impermeable
surfaces in urban areas)
● Steep gradient
Why, after a rainfall event in a drainage basin, water reaches the river
channel at different times?

● The explanation will be in terms of the speed of the individual

flows within the system.
● Overland flow/surface runoff is the fastest followed by
throughflow and then base flow/groundwater flow.
● Base flow is slower because the water has to infiltrate the soil
and then percolate to the groundwater before it can move to
the river channel.
Underground water

● The permanently saturated zone within

sediments and rocks is known as the
phreatic zone
● The upper layer of this is known as the
water table
● The water table varies seasonally
● In temperate zones, it is higher in winter
following increased levels of rainfall
● The zone that is seasonally wetted and
seasonally dries out is known as the
aeration zone or the vadose zone
 Aquifers

● Aquifers – rocks that contain a significant

amount of water, provide a great reservoir of
water
● Aquifers are permeable rocks (sandstone and
limestone)
● The water in aquifers moves very slowly and act
as a natural regulator in the hydrological cycle
by absorbing rainfall that otherwise would reach
streams rapidly
● Aquifers maintain flow during long dry periods
Aquifers

● Exam question – Using examples, explain how geology can

define if a rock is an effective aquifer? (8 marks)
● Porosity and permeability of the rock under the ground decides
whether it will be an effective aquifer
● High porosity and permeability – Many pores and big gaps
between pores allow water to transfer well in them to make a
good aquifer
● Sandstone is a good example of this
● Low porosity – bad aquifer – water cannot pass through them
● Glacial till is a good example of this
● Some rocks have high porosity but are impermeable – bad
aquifer
 Movement of Water – The Water Table

● Water is infiltrated to the surface and then is

percolated under gravity through pores, joints,
and bedding planes to reach an area of
permanent saturation where all pores, joints,
etc. are full of water
● This may be seasonal or permanent
depending on the nature of the rock and the
level of input
● Water will then flow will the surface
topography under gravity and by the hydraulic
gradient to a point where it will emerge as a
spring or base flow of a river
● It may be abstracted by wells or boreholes
 Groundwater recharge

Groundwater recharge occurs as a

result of:
● Infiltration – or part of the total
precipitation at the ground surface
● Seepage – through the banks or
beds of surface water bodies such
as ditches, rivers, lakes, and
oceans
● Groundwater leakage and inflow –
from adjacent rocks and aquifers
● Artificial recharge – from irrigation
reservoirs
Losses of groundwater

● Evapotranspiration – particularly in
low lying areas where the water
table is close to the ground surface
● Natural discharge – by means of
spring flow and seepage into the
surface water bodies
● Groundwater leakage and outflow –
along aquicludes and into adjacent
aquifers
● Artificial abstraction
 Drainage Pattern
Shapes
● Drainage networks – various
streams within a drainage basin
are spatially organised
1. Dendritic – A tree-like drainage
pattern, stream develops in a random
branching network
2. Rectangular – Joints and fault in
the earth steer streams at right angles
to one another
3. Trellis – Rivers that develop in
ridges, major rivers flow parallel to one
another within the folded mountains
4. Radial- Streams radiate outwards
from a central point (spoke-like
pattern)
End of Lesson 5

● Recommended Video to watch: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=oMMxOsU6mJY

02 Hydrographs
 The Water Balance

● Worked out from inputs and outputs and this

affects how much water is stored in the basin
● In wet seasons precipitation exceeds
evapotranspiration creating water surplus – ground
store fill with water so there’s more surface runoff
and higher discharge – river levels rise
● In drier seasons precipitation is lower than
evapotranspiration, ground stores are depleted as
some water is used and flows into the river channel
but is not replaced by precipitation
● At the end of a dry season there is a deficit of water
in the ground, the ground stores are recharged in
the next wet season
 River Discharge

● How much water is flowing in the river

channel (Q)
● Q = W(width) x D (Depth) x V (Velocity)
● We normally measure river discharge at a
Weir (gauging station)
● Displayed in cubic metres per second
● River discharge normally varies over the
year(winter less rainfall so a reduction in
depth)
● Amount of discharge allows us to compare
any river at any place at any given point in
time = baseflow (based on groundwater
influx)
This webcam footage
shows gentle flowing
water dramatically
turning into a raging
torrent as Storm
Babet battered
northeastern Scotland
 Hydrograph
● If the amount of water increases
such that the river channel is full
of water - bankfull discharge
● Hydrograph – shows the
fluctuations in river discharge
over some time
● Important to note – river
discharge does not increase
immediately during a storm event
● Time lag occurs between max
rainfall and max discharge takes
time for water to flow to reach
this channel
 Definitions Involved in Hydrographs

● Lag time – delay between peak rainfall and

peak discharge (takes times for rainwater
to enter the river)
● Rising limb – Part of the graph up to the
peak discharge (increase as rainwater
flows into the river after rainfall event)
● Falling Limb - Part of the graph after the
peak discharge (less water is flowing into
the river – no more rainfall)
● Hydrograph – Shows river discharge and
rainfall over time
● Base flow – Represents the normal day to
day discharge of the river and is the
consequence of groundwater seeping into
the river channel
 Definitions Involved in Hydrographs

● Storm flow – Water that reaches the

river via overland flow and through
flow
● Bankfull discharge – Maximum
discharge that a particular river
channel is capable of carrying
without flooding
● Peak discharge – The point on a
flood hydrograph when river
discharge is at its greatest
● Peak rainfall – Point on a flood
hydrograph where rainfall is at its
greatest
 River regime
● A river regime is the annual
variation in the discharge of a river
● Stream discharge occurs as a result
of overland runoff and groundwater
springs and lakes.
● The character or regime of the
resulting river is influenced by
several variable factors
- The amount and nature of
precipitation
- The local rocks, especially porosity
and permeability
- The shape and morphology of the
drainage basin, its area, and slope
- The amount and type of vegetation
cover and soil cover
● On an annual basis the most
important factor determining
stream regime is climate
End of lesson 6

Recommended Video to watch: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Jlq5NQMV0b8

 Flooding

● Discharge is so high that it spills above the

river bank - Flood Stage
● Most rivers are bordered by low lying
terrain – Floodplain
● Dangerous to build in a floodplain, when it
floods to these areas cause damage to
property
● Some floods are rare – hydrologists call it
a 30yr, 50yr, and 100yr event
● It means they will only get an event in every
30 yrs, 50yrs, 100 yrs
Flood storm hydrographs
● Starting and finishing level shows the
base flow of a river
● Base flow is the water that reaches the
channel through slow flow and through
the permeable rock below the water table
● As stormwater enters the drainage basin
the discharge rate increases (rising limb)
● The highest flow is shown as the peak
discharge
● The fall in discharge back to base level is
shown in the falling limb
● Lag time is the delay between the max
rainfall amount and the peak discharge
● Shape of the hydrograph varies in each
river basin and each storm event
 Factors affecting storm hydrographs
● Larger drainer basins – catches more precipitation =
larger peak discharge (smaller basins shorter lag
time)
● Steep sided drainage basins – Shorter lag times
because the water flows more quickly downhill
● Circular basins – have ‘flashy’ hydrographs because
all points on the watershed are roughly the same
distance from the point of measurement = lots of
water reaching the measuring point at the same time
● Basins with lots of streams – drain quickly, shorter
lag times
● Antecedent moisture = infiltration is low = runoff
increases = runoff faster than throughflow or
baseflow = water enters basin faster
Factors affecting storm hydrographs
● Rock type – Impermeable rock types = low
infiltration = increase surface runoff
● Soil type – Sandy soils = high infiltration, clay
soils = low infiltration = surface runoff
● Vegetation – Intercepts precipitation = slows
movement. More veg more water is lost before
it reaches the river channel
● Precipitation – Higher intensity rainfall –
greater peak discharge
● Type of precipitation – snow takes time to
melt
● Temperature - high temp = high
evapotranspiration = less water reaching river
channel
● Hot dry and cold freezing conditions = hard
ground = high surface runoff
Factors affecting storm hydrographs

● Urban areas – concrete surfaces = no

infiltration = greater runoff
● Man made drainage systems – water
flows down drains into the river- before it
can evaporate or infiltrate
● Deforestation – less interception – rain
reaches ground faster = ground
saturated = increased surface runoff
Which line, W or X, is for a large drainage basin?
Which line, Y or Z, is for a forested drainage basin?
Identify the storm hydrograph for the drainage basin after
urbanisation.
End of Lesson 7

● Recommended video to watch:

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=kupNKbde2gA&list=PLANg0rzUOJoS8sWiuBS8wDWQpFMi
rDyse&index=2
Drainage Density

● Density of natural drainage channels in a given area

● Drainage density = total length of all rivers/area of a drainage basin
● Drainage density allow us to determine the runoff potential of an area
Stream/River Ordering

● Arrange streams by assigning a hierarchy based upon their size

● Function of how many tributaries are in an area
● River Order changes whenever two rivers of the same order join
at their confluence.
● Smallest tributaries = 1st order, at the confluence = 2nd order,
when 2nd order rivers meet at the confluence = 3rd order rivers,
so forth
● 1st order river meets a 2nd order river = does not change
● Only changes when the same order meet
● Positive relationship between increased river order and river
size
End of Lesson 8
03
River processes
 River Channel Processes and Landforms

● Rivers – Source to mouth

● The path the river follows from
source to mouth – rivers course
● When we study rivers – we
divide them into 3 main courses
– upper, middle, and lower
● Each part has distinctive
features which form and the
characteristics of the river and
its surrounding valley change
downstream
 Upper Course
● Near the source of the river, V-shaped valley
with a steep gradient and river channels are
narrow
● Water occupies most of all if not all, of the
valley floor
● The load is large because it has not had
enough time to be eroded
● Most of the load is found at the bottom of
the river - bedload
● Friction between the water and the bedload
and can slow down the velocity of a river
● Common features include waterfalls, rapids,
and potholes
Middle Course

● River channel – wider and deeper

● The river has been joined by other
tributaries at confluences and has
added more water to the channel
● Lateral erosion (side to side)
becomes more important and the
river begins to bend or meander
across its floodplain
● Bedload size decreases and there is
more chance of deposition
Lower Course

● Very broad and deep the near of the mouth of the river
● Bedload is transported in either suspension or solution
● Deposition is an important process
● River is generally quick because there is no friction with the bed,
banks, and load
 River Channel Processes

● As a river flow along it

undertakes 3 main processes
which together help shape the
river channel and the
surrounding valley
- Erosion
- Transportation
- Deposition
● At any one time the dominant
process operating within the
river depends on the amount of
energy available
End of Lesson 9
 Processes of Erosion

● Hydraulic Action – Force of the water knocks

particles off the sides (banks) and bed of a river
● Abrasion/Corrasian - Sand and stone carried by
the river rub on the bank and dislodge other
particles
● Attrition - Boulders and large stones collide with
one another they break into smaller pieces
● Corrosion/Solution – Acids in the river dissolve
rock that makes up the bed and the bank
● Cavitation?
 Erosion

● Rivers erode because they have energy -

Depends on 3 factors
1. Weight of the water – Greater the mass
the more energy it has thanks to the
influence of gravity on its movement
2. Height of the river above its base level –
Gives it a source of potential energy –
higher the source of the river – more
gravitational potential energy it has
3. The steepness of the channel – controls
the speed of the river – determines how
much kinetic energy it has
 Global sediment yield

● It is possible to convert a value of mean

annual sediment and solute load to an
estimate of the rate of land surface lowering
by fluvial denudation
● This gives a combined sediment and solute
load of 250 tonnes/km² per year
● Annual rate of lowering of 0.1mm per year
● This is variable worldwide and is influenced
by factors including climate, relief, geology,
vegetation cover, and land use
 Transportation of a rivers load
● Material that has been eroded by the river and
then carried by the water
● Stream/river capacity – Is the maximum load
that a river can carry
● It is influenced by 1. The speed of the river 2.
The volume of the river 3. The size of the
particles that it is carrying
● A fast river and has great volume has a great
stream capacity
● River load is put into different particle size
categories
● The competence describes the max particle
size that a river is capable of transporting at a
given point
Saltation

Traction

Suspension

Solution
 Deposition

● River loses energy – deposition occurs –

river no longer has the strength to carry the
material it is transporting
● Could happen in an estuary where the river
meets the sea and slows down, depositing
its load and creating a delta
● 5 main factors leading to deposition
1. Low rainfall reducing precipitation
2. River enters a dam or sea – reduces velocity
3. Water becomes shallower
4. Increase in load
5. River outflows its bank, depositing material
on a flood plain
Deposition
● May result in the formation of features such as slip off slopes,
levees, alluvial fans, meanders, braided streams, and the
floodplain
● It is the largest material that will be dropped first as it
requires the most energy to be transported
● Eroded material carried in suspension and solution will be
dropped last
Deposition - recap

● Drop in velocity or discharge leads to deposition

● Depends on particle size concerning velocity
● Coarser particles are deposited first
● Shape of particles might influence deposition
 End of Lesson 10

● Recommended videos to watch:

1 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=KaclArVkQdU – Erosion
2 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=mQilqigj6y0 – Transport and Deposition
04
Hjulstrom curve + flows
 Hjulstrom Curve
● The critical erosion velocity is the lowest
velocity at which grains of a given size can
be moved.
● The relationship between these variables
is shown by the Hjulstrom curve
● River capacity – the largest amount of
debris a river can carry
● Competence – Diameter of the largest
particle that can be carried
● For example sand can be moved easier
than silt or clay, as fine-grained particles
tend to be more cohesive
 Hjulstrom curve
● There are three important features of
Hjulstrom curves
1. The smallest and largest particles require
high velocities to lift them. For example,
particles between 0.1mm and 1mm require
velocities of around 100 mm/s to be
entrained, compared with values of over
500 mm/s to lift clay (0.01 mm) and gravel
(over 2 mm). Clay resists entrainment due
to its cohesion, gravel due to its weight
2. Higher velocities are required for
entrainment than for transport
3. When velocity falls below a certain level
(settling or fall velocity), those particles are
deposited
 Transportation - deposition
● Most of the time – larger particles need higher velocity to be picked
up
● The exception to this rule is clay and silt – even though the particles
are very small, particles stick together making them hard to pick up
● Higher velocities are needed for picking up (entrainment) than just
for transporting
● When velocity falls below a certain level (settling velocity), particles
are deposited
The Hjulstrom Curve

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=g3uftZ9ySpI
End of Lesson 11
Lets practice some exam questions
 Laminar Flow

● Water flows in layers

● Horizontal movement of water – water moves at
uniform velocity with one layer of water sliding over
the next without mixing, cannot support solid
particles in suspension
● Water that is in contact with the bed and the banks
move slowly due to friction the greater speeds
occur in the middle of the river
● Lower layers of water protect the river channel
● More common in groundwater, glaciers, and lower
course of a river
● Shallow channels, smooth straight channels, low
velocity
Turbulent Flow
● Upward motion in the flow that allows the lifting and
support of fine particles which will contribute to
depositional landforms further down the river.
● The flow is a series of erratic eddies, both vertical and
horizontal in direction (all directions)
● River bed is uneven and steep
● Water continually changes level and flows with
bubbling action
● More erosion than laminar flow, sand particles are lifted
by the water
● For turbulent flow you need - High velocity, cavitation's
in which pockets of air explode under high pressure,
complex channel shapes such as meandering
● In a river channel created by rocks and protuberances.
 Helicoidal Flow
● A corkscrew movement in a meander, is responsible for
moving material from the outside of one meander bend
and depositing it on the inside of the next bend
● This is associated with the presence of alternating pools
and riffles In the channel bed, and where the river is
carrying large amounts of material
The Thalweg
● The line of fastest flow in a river and is usually an exaggerated variation of the
stream channel shape that crosses to the outside of each meander at the point of
inflection
● Because erosion is greatest where the streamflow is fastest
● Thalweg is also the deepest channel in the river
● It is found in the top middle of a straight channel because this is where the water is
deepest and is where there is the least friction
 Meandering and Braided Rivers

● If a river is transporting mostly suspended

sediment – single deep channel that gradually
curves from side to side – Meandering River
● Meandering rivers often contain muddy looking
water (contains abundant silt and clay)
● If a river carries bed load – Braided River pattern
● Braided rivers – interconnected, wide, shallow
(braids in someone's hair) occurs when the river is
forced to split into several channels separated by
islands/eyots
● Rivers with high sediment loads that encounter a
sudden reduction in flow generally have a braided
channel
End of Lesson 12

Useful video to watch: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=nAjP4Z0Qkxo

Helicoidal flow is

● The cross channel flow of water at

meander bends
● Across the surface from the inner bend and
descending at the outer bend
● Returning to the inner bend at depth
● Thus it is a spiral movement in relation to
depth and width

● Do not remember it as a simple corkscrew

movement down the centre of the channel.
 Fluvial Processes and Landform

● Landforms that are created by fluvial

processes – fluvial landforms
● Running water is the biggest driver of
geomorphological change on Earth
● All landforms on Earth created by erosion
or deposition
● Erosion greater – Steeper slopes, less
vegetation, heavy rainfall
● Deposition – Sediment that is transported
after being eroded from somewhere else
● Deposition – Occurs when water loses the
power to carry sediment and drops it
 Channel types

● Sinuosity is the length of a

stream channel expressed as a
ratio of the valley length
● A low sinuosity has a value of 1
(straight) whereas a high
sinuosity is above 4.4
● The main groupings are
straight channels and
meandering channels
● Straight channels are rare
● Braiding occurs when the
channel is divided by islands or
bars
05 River landforms
Braided channels
● Braided channels are formed by
various factors for example
- A steep channel gradient
- A large proportion of coarse material
- Small erodible bank material
- High variable discharge
● Braiding tends to occur when
streams do not have the capacity to
transport their load in a single
channel
● It occurs when river discharge is
variable and banks are easily
erodible
 Braided channels
● Braiding begins with a mid-channel bar
that grows downstream
● As the discharge decreases following
a flood, the coarse bedload is first to
be deposited
● This forms the basis of bars that grow
downstream and as the flood is
reduced, finer sediment is deposited
● The upstream end becomes stabilised
with vegetation
● The island localises and narrows the
channel in an attempt to increase the
velocity to a point where it can
transport its load
● Frequently, subdivision sets in
Recap on braided rivers

● Include a large number of

relatively shallow, often
fluctuating channels
● With vegetated islands
(eyots) and unvegetated
ephemeral sand bars.
● Explanation will be in terms
of a high sediment load with
highly variable discharges
(e.g. seasonal flow/glacial
meltwater).
● Mention of highly erodible
banks
Erosional & Depositional Landforms
● Classify landforms as either erosional or depositional in nature
● Erosional – sediment, soil, and rock are stripped away by some
geomorphic process
● Depositional – Sediments accumulate after being dropped
● Mountain slopes being shaped by the erosional process of water
Stream Gradation

● Rivers do not vigorously erode, but they shape the landscape over some time
● The Umgeni river probably looked very different thousands of years ago
● Rivers evolve predictably, allowing them to just carry sediment that they
receive from hill slopes and the tributary channels
 Aggradation and Degradation

● Aggradation – Accumulation of sediment within a

river
Think of vegetation being removed near a river, more
sediment would enter the river, no protection from
vegetation, sediment would be deposited on the channel
bottom (river cannot carry it) this elevates the channel
bed
● Aggradation leads to higher flow velocity allows the
river to carry increased sediment load
● Degradation – Lowering of a river channel by river
erosion
Now if the vegetation was re-established, erosion would
slow down, the river require less energy to carry a smaller
sediment load, the river would start to erode until the river
was able to carry a smaller sediment load
A Journey Down the River Severn

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1TwaEjAei4M
End of Lesson 13
 Riffles and Pools

● Riffles: Areas of shallow water, due to deposition of coarse

material, faster flowing!!!

● Pools: Areas of deeper water between riffle, slow-flowing

Formation of riffles and pools!!

● In a straight river channel pools and riffles will develop as water twists
and turns around obstructions such as large boulders.
● This results in areas of slower and faster water movement.
● Pools are areas of deep water and greater erosion (energy build-up due
to less friction).
● Riffles are areas of shallow water created by the deposition of coarse
sediment.
● Once pools and riffles have developed, the river flows from side to side
in a winding course.
● A corkscrew-like flow of water called Helicoidal Flow moves material
from the outside of one meander bend and deposits it on the inside of
the next bend.
 This leads to the formation of a river cliff and slip off slope

● Water moving faster has more energy to erode. This occurs on the outside
of the bend and forms a river cliff.
● The river erodes the outside bends through hydraulic action, abrasion, and
corrosion.
● Water moves slowly on the inside of the bend and the river deposits some
load, forming a gently sloping slip-off slope).
● Continuous erosion on the outer bank and deposition on the inner bank
forms a meander in the river, which will migrate downstream and change
shape over time
 V-Shaped valleys

● Are found in the upper valley of the river because

this is where the river has the greatest
gravitational potential energy = greatest potential
to erode vertically
● Is a result of both erosion by the river and
weathering
● Deep river valleys with steep sides that look like
the letter V when a cross-section of them is taken
● Erodes during periods of high discharge
● Where rivers discharge is high it’s able to
transport its large bedload by traction eroding the
river bed and valley by corrosion, deepening it
 V-Shaped valleys

● As the channel and valley deepen the

sides of the valley are exposed and
become susceptible to weathering
● Valley sides also undergo mass
movement resulting in large volumes of
material falling into the river channel
● This adds to its erosive power and causes
the valley sides to take up a V shape
● The steepness of the valley sides and if it
looks like a V are dependant on the
climate, veg, and rock structure, amongst
others
Steepness of the Valley Sides Depend on

● Climate – Valleys are

steeper where rainfall
creates a mass
movement
● Rock structure –
Resistant, impermeable
rock such as limestone
produces vertical sides
● Vegetation – Helps to
bind the soils and keeps
hill slope more stable
 Formation of a V-Shaped Valley
1. Vertical erosion in the river channel
resulting in the formation of the
steep-sided valley
2. Overtime valley sides are weakened
by weathering processes and
vertical erosion continues at the
base of the valley
3. Gradually mass movement of
materials occur down the valley
sides, gradually creating the
distinctive V-shape
4. The material is gradually
transported away by the river when
there is enough energy to do so
 Interlocking Spur
● Spurs are ridges of more resistant rock around which a river is forced to wind as it
passes downstream in the upper course
● Interlocking spurs from where the river is forced to swing from side to side around
more resistant ridges
End of Lesson 14
 Waterfalls
● Develop when a change of rock type takes place
along the course of the river resulting in
differential erosion
● When the rock type of the rivers channel changes
from resistant rock to a less resistant rock (e.g.
granite to limestone)
● River erodes the less resistant rock faster
producing a sudden drop in the gradient of the
river with the resistant rock being higher up than
the less resistant rock
● As the river flows over the resistant rock, falls
onto the less resistant rock eroding it and creating
a greater height difference between the two rock
types producing a waterfall
Waterfalls
● When waterfalls over the waterfall it
creates a plunge pool at its base and the
splashback from the falling water
undercuts the resistant rock

● The unsupported rock is known as a cap

rock and it eventually collapses into the
plunge pool causing the waterfall to
retreat upstream

● Over thousands of years, the repeated

collapse of the caprock and retreat of
the waterfall produces a gorge of
recession
This is Angel Falls, the highest
uninterrupted waterfall in the
world
 Potholes and Rapids
● If the riverbed is uneven, pebbles can become
trapped

● Swirling current causes the pebbles to rotate

and erode circular holes in the river bed -
Potholes

● Relatively steep alternating bands of hard and

soft rock crossing the course of a river form
uneven turbulent water called rapids
Floodplain
● Floodplain is either side of the river channel which
flood if the banks burst land is normally large and flat
● Wide floodplain in the lower course that is covered in
sand, silt, and clay (alluvium)
● When the river does flood, the largest particles are
deposited first, building up to higher with each flood,
finer material is spread out in layers over the rest of
the floodplain
● Width of the floodplain is determined by the sinuosity
of the river and how much meander migration takes
place
● At the edge of the terrace is a line of relatively steep
slopes known as river bluffs
● River bluffs are essentially erosional features marking
the limits of the floodplain as the river meanders back
and forth
How are river bluffs formed

● Cut out from the erosion of a migrating meander downstream

● Alongside the deposition of material when the river floods.
● Marks the outer edge of the river floodplain.
● Lateral erosion.
End of Lesson 15
 Levees

● Are natural embankments produced when a river

floods
● When a river floods it deposits its load over the
floodplain due to a dramatic drop in the river
velocity and increase in friction
● Largest and heaviest load is dropped first,
closest to the riverbank often on the very edge
forming raised mounds
● Finer material is deposited further away
● Repeated floods cause the mounds to form and
create levees
● Levees aren’t permanent structures as they can
be burst through bankfull discharge
Delta

● Form when rivers carry lots of

sediment
● As it reaches the sea/large dam, the
velocity of the river slows down, it
deposits it
● Sediment drops and blocks the water
flow
● The river dries up into separate
channels – distributaries
● Deposition continues – Delta forms
and it builds upwards and outwards
 Three Types of Delta

● Arcuate – Rounded convex outer margins

e.g. Nile River
● Cuspate – Material is brought down by a
river and is spread out evenly on either
side of its channel due to waves hitting it
head-on, spreading the deposited
sediment out
● Birds foot – They extend reasonably far
into a body of water and form when the
river’s current is stronger than the sea’s
waves. Uncommon because generally,
waves are stronger than river currents
 Arcuate

This shape of delta

is made where
deposition occurs
into a fan shape ,
found in areas
where long shore
drift occurs to trim
the edges of the
landform
Cuspate

This shape of delta is made

where deposition occurs into
a point like a tooth. It occurs
as two opposing currents hit
the deposits from either side
Bird’s foot

This shape of delta is

made where the river
brings down a lot of
fine silt which can be
carried for a very long
distance into the sea
which makes it long
and thin.
River Landforms of Erosion and Deposition
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=JqFhmZc5Wis
End of Lesson 16

● Useful video to watch: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jJjUeU0GHXw

Meandering River

● Migrate horizontally, numerous arcs and

curving bends develop in the valley
● Both erosion and deposition occur
simultaneously
● This causes river meanders to migrate
back and forth across the valley over time
● As a river flows around a bend, centrifugal
force forces the flow to the outside of the
curve
● Thus the channel is deepest and flow is
highest at this part of the river
● Due to the force of the outside meander
erosion is aggressive
The reason that meandering streams change shape is because

● Small disturbances in the riverbed create areas

where the river speed is high and begins to take
away more and more sediment on one side.
● On the other side, the speed of the river water
gets slower, and on this side of the river,
sediments are deposited over time.
 Meandering River Formation
● Meandering channels are produced when the thalweg follows a sinuous
path through the pool and riffles to cause erosion on the outer bank.
● This imparts a secondary flow called helical (helicoidal) flow which is a
spiral flow elevating the water on the outside of the meander with a
return current at the inside of the meander
River Cliff

● Water flows fastest on the outer bend of the river

when the channel is deeper and there is less
friction
● This is due to water being flung towards the outer
bend as it flows around the meander
● This causes greater erosion which deepens the
channel
● In turn the reduction in friction and increase in
energy results in greater erosion
● This lateral erosion results in undercutting of the
river bank and the formation of a steep-sided river
cliff
Slip off Slope
● The inner bend water is slow flowing due to it being a low
energy zone
● Deposition occurs resulting in a shallower channel
● Increased friction further reduces the velocity, encouraging
further deposition
● Over small-time a beach of material builds up on the inner
bend this is called a slip-off slope
End of Lesson 17
Oxbow lakes

● The surface leading away from the river is undercut, causing sediment
to collapse into the river, forming a Cutbank (steep bank)
● Deposition occurs on the inside of the bend because the channel is
shallow velocity
● Evidence that rivers are actively meandering comes in the form of
oxbow lakes
● Oxbow lake – water-filled former meander bend that was detached
from the main river
 Oxbow lakes

● Develops when the river erodes the cutback as water

migrates downstream, as the erosion is occurring so
is deposition at the same place/time.
● Combined impact of these pressures causes the neck
between meander loops to become narrower.
● Ultimately a meander loop becomes to be entirely cut
through when the river floods.
● This cutting continually adjusts the gradient and will
result in a temporary lake
● With time oxbow lake will fill with sediment from
floods from the main river
● Evidence of an oxbow lake in the form is an oxbow
scar
 Oxbow
lake
formation
 Alluvial Fans

● Alluvium is the material in a river

● Alluvium is dropped by the river
● Due to it losing momentum as it enters a wide, flat valley
known as a piedmont after leaving a narrow mountain
channel
● This happens as water velocity, gradient and speed
reduce as the water enters a wide unconfined channel
● So it deposited at the junction
● This is the terrestrial equivalent of a delta
The River Severn from Source to Mouth

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_M48ANM3hAQ
End of Lesson 18

Useful Video to watch: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=m3Y4-9hYzCI

06
Flooding
Influence of Human Activity on the Hydrological Cycle

● Precipitation – Cloud seeding –

introduce silver iodide, solid carbon
dioxide (dry ice), or ammonium
nitrate into the air to encourage water
droplets to form
● Cloud condensing nuclei
● Mixed success – Australia and USA it
has increased precipitation by 10-
30%
● Urban areas precipitation can be
increased by 10% due to extra
pollutants in the air
 Influence of Human Activity on the Hydrological Cycle

● Humans do not generally have a

massive influence on evaporation and
evapotranspiration, but there are
several causes
● Dams – Construction of large dams –
increase in evaporation, we can reduce
evaporation by using chemical sprays
or covering it in plastic
● Urbanisation – Lack of vegetation –
lack of evapotranspiration also higher
temperature and increased surface
storage
 Reducing evaporation

● Lake Nasser behind the Aswan

Dam loses up to a third of its
water due to evaporation.
● Water loss can be reduced by
using chemical sprays on the
water
● Also, by building sand-fill dams
and by covering the dams with
some form of plastic
Impact of urbanisation

Urbanising influence Potential hydrological response

Removal of trees and vegetation Decreased evapotranspiration and interception; increased stream
sedimentation

Initial construction of houses, streets and Decreased infiltration and lowered groundwater table, increased storm flows
culverts and decreased base flows during dry periods

Complete development of residential, Decreased porosity, reducing time of runoff concentration, thereby increasing
commercial and industrial areas peak discharges and compressing the time distribution of the flow; greatly
increased volume of runoff and flood damage potential

Construction of storm drains and channel Local relief from flooding, concentration of floodwater may aggravate flood
improvements problems downstream
 Interception

● Is determined by vegetation, density,

and type
● For example, cereals intercept less than
broad leaves
● Row crops, leave a lot of soil bare
Deforestation leads to:
- Reduction in evapotranspiration
- An increase in surface runoff
- A decline of surface storage
- A decline in lag time
● What about the impact of
afforestation?
 Influence of Human Activity on the Hydrological Cycle

● If a rivers drainage basin has been heavily

urbanised a river becomes more prone to
flooding, increase in impermeable surfaces
meaning an increase in runoff
● Urbanisation – deforestation – reduces
infiltration – increases surface runoff into a river
● To stop roads flooding, we build storm drains
that collects rainwater and channel it into a river
● Although the road may not be flooded a river
maybe as the rainwater enters the river much
faster than it normally would
 Infiltration
● Urbanisation = low infiltration and increases the overland flow 
● Forests = very high infiltration ☺ (trees channel water down with
their roots and stems)
● Grazing = a reduction in infiltration due to compacting the soil 
● Ploughing = an increase in infiltration (loosens the soil)
Abstraction
● Over-abstraction may lead to
the drying up of rivers, falling
water tables, and saltwater
intrusions in coastal areas
(Mediterranean coastlines)
● Irrigation and industries rely
heavily on abstraction (Milan
aquifer has had a 25m
decrease in the last 80 years)
● Centre pivot irrigation
schemes use water at a rapid
rate (faster than recharge
rate)
Changing hydrology of the Aral Sea
● The Aral sea began shrinking in the 1960s when Soviet irrigation schemes
took water from the Syr Darya and the Amu Darya rivers
● This greatly reduced the amount of water reaching the Aral Sea
● By 1994, the shoreline had fallen by 16m the surface area had declined by
50% and the volume had reduced by 75%.
● The salinity levels had increased by 300% (this killed the fish industry)
● Salt from the dry seabed reduced soil fertility and increased dust storms
ruining the cotton production
● Drinking water now had pesticides and fertilisers in it and the air had been
affected by salt and dust
● This has led to stomach infections and a high infant mortality rate
End of Lesson 19
● Useful videos to watch:
1. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v
=tmOY-UVcM_g - Precipitation
2. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v
=By5emnuSs0o - Groundwater
Floods

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4PXj7bOD7IY
Recap

● How do humans impact the hydrological cycle?

- What do we do that increases evaporation?

- What do we do that reduces transpiration, interception and reduces
infiltration
- What do we do that encourages condensation?
- What do we do that increases runoff?
- How else do we speed up water getting to rivers?
- What role do different land uses have on the hydrological cycle?
Floods

● Are one of the most common of all environmental hazards

● This is because many people live in fertile river valleys and
low-lying coastal areas
● Rivers are an important resource – but also a hazard
● Most urban areas can handle a small common flood but
cannot handle a high magnitude event that happens every 100
years
● A 100-year flood event is a flood that happens only on average
every 100 years
● The nature and scale of flooding varies greatly
● In UK and Aus only 2% live In areas of any danger
● In US 10% live in areas of danger
 Who is the most in danger of floods?

● In Bangladesh 110 million live on the floodplain of the

Ganges and Brahmaputra river – floods cover 20-30% of
the delta. Heavy floods half the country can be covered in
floods
● Small basins = flash floods (common in the arid area)
● Areas below unsafe dams. In the USA there are about 30
000 large dams with 2000 communities below them
● Low-lying shorelines such as the Great Lakes

● Who is in greater danger – HICs or LICs?

 Flooding
● Most common cause of the flooding is
prolonged rainfall (water becomes saturated
and runoff increases faster than usual)
(Monsoon winds)
● Brief periods of heavy rainfall can lead to flash
floods as infiltration cannot keep up with rainfall
so runoff is faster than usual
● Precipitation that falls as snow remains on the
ground until it melts, large volumes of
meltwater enter the river causing it to flood
● Erupting volcanoes can cause large flash
floods, when glaciers are melted they
significantly increase water
Factors that intensify floods

● Topography
● Vegetation
● Soil type
● Rock type
● Characteristics of the drainage basin
● Velocity
● Urbanisation – impermeable surfaces and
smooth surfaces
● Deforestation
1992-1993 Mississippi flood – remember an MEDC

Physical causes of the flood

• Heavy rainfall dumped between 400-750% above the monthly average
precipitation in early-mid 1993 in the Upper Midwest USA contributed to
water levels in the river being record-breakingly high.
• This followed extremely heavy snowfall during the previous winter, which
when melting, added to the rainfall run off entering the river systems.
• A jet stream of cold air moved south whilst warm air from the south moved
north, where they met, thunderstorms occured, and a high-pressure system
developed blocking these thunderstorms from dissipating properly. They
therefore continued through May, June and July.
1992-1993 Mississippi flood

Human causes of the flood

● Development of many urban areas along the river, reduced infiltration and
increased the risk of damage done to buildings.
● Channelisation of the river in places like St Louis exaggerated problems
further downstream.
● Many of the levees along the river were poorly built, and were breached
easily, especially away from major settlements.
● One man, James Scott was imprisoned for life for causing a catastrophe, for
his role in flooding of Quincy, Illinois after he removed sandbags from a
levee which broke later that day, flooding 57 square kilometers of farmland
 Yangtze 1998 Flood, China
Background
• 3rd longest river in the world – 6380km
• Floods annually, 1998 was the worst
• Valley is home to 400 million people
Physical Causes
• Each year, monsoon rains and
Himalayan snow melt combine to
produce higher river levels.
• El Nino effect in 1998 made rain last an
extra month. Trade winds weaken from
S. America to China, less warm water
pushed westward, less cold water
upwelling eastward, causing cool water
to warm. This changes wind,
temperatures and rainfall.
 Yangtze 1998 Flood, China
Human Causes
• Reduced floodplain – rapid urban population
growth
• 1960 deforestation in the headwaters reduced
interception, infiltration and transpiration.
Surface run-off increased.
• Overgrazing of deforested land, soil erosion led
to more sediment in river - less room for water.
• Channel straightening sped up channel flow.
Reduced lag time and increased flood peak
• Hard-engineering efforts constrained river.
Provided more capacity, but more severe flood
effects
• Global warming
 Yangtze 1998 Flood, China

Effects
• 240 million affected, 4000
drowned, 15 million homeless
• 1000s farm animals killed; huge
crop areas lost
• Areas purposefully flooded to
protect Wuhan
• Productivity halted as factories
flooded
• Thick layers of sticky clay had to
be removed to make fields
fertile again
• Economy damage
• Increased landslides on slopes
adjacent to river.
 Yangtze 1998 Flood, China
Solutions
3 Gorges Dam
• Ideal site downstream of Chongqing, as valley is narrow but reservoir big.
• 660km long and 1km wide reservoir. Completed in 2009, wall is 2.3 km long, 200m high.
$38bn to build, 18,000 mW HEP station
 Effects of Flooding

● Social Effects
o Death (especially in low economically
developed countries)

o Sewage pipes are often broken, raw

sewage leaks into or flood water
(waterborne diseases)

o Famine can follow floods as it can

destroy farmers crop
 Effects of Flooding

● Economic Effects
o Property damage – large chunks of debris =
wrecking ball

o Damage to infrastructure such as power lines,

roads, water pipes, etc

o Economic benefit – river plain floods and

deposits sediment across the floodplain –
improves fertility and the agricultural yield
 Effects of Flooding

● Environmental Effects
o Floodwater can be
contaminated with sewage,
pollute rivers

o Floodwater from farmland runs

off to the river

o Vegetation may be destroyed,

along with the natural habitats
and animal species
1992-1993 Mississippi flood

Social/political impacts of the flood

• Death toll - 50

• 72,000 homes flooded

• 62,000 families evacuated

• National Weather Service forced to improve their river forecasting systems,

by upgrading their computer software and collecting more river data to bring
more accurate forecast models in future.
1992-1993 Mississippi flood

Economic impacts of the flood

• Some locations along the river were flooded for between 100 and 200 days.
• As a major freight artery in the USA, the river could not be used for freight whilst
it was flooded, at a loss of an estimated $2 million per day.
• $2.6 billion in crop losses.
• Insurance payouts for property losses alone stood at an estimated $12 billion.
• Over 1000 levees failed and had to be rebuilt and strengthened.
• Two whole towns: Valmeyer and Rhineland were completely destroyed and
relocated to higher ground.
1992-1993 Mississippi flood

Environmental impacts of the flood

• Stagnant floodwater increased the risk of water-bourne diseases.

• 700 privately built agricultural levees were destroyed.

• 15 million acres of farmland flooded overall.

• Billions of pounds of eroded materials deposited as flood waters receded.

A cool word you should be using

“Amelioration”
the act of making something better; improvement.
Reducing Impacts of Floods
1. Prediction
● Use satellites to predict rainfall, we can map
and model flood risk
● In Bangladesh authorities have about 72 hours
to warn the locals about the possibility of
floods (can save a lot of life)
● Many things can be done to improve floods
warnings including
- Improved rainfall and snowpack estimates
- Better gauging of rivers
- Better information about population and
infrastructure
- Better sharing of information between
agencies (public, forecaster, relief agencies)
- Technology should be shared among all
agencies
 Reducing Impacts of Floods

2. Preparing people for floods

● Disaster aid and insurance, removing
settlements from floodplains, educating people
on what to do in a flood
3. Prevention and mitigation of floods
● Hard engineering- Defence schemes to halt
rivers natural processes
● Soft engineering – Uses the natural
environment surrounding the river to work with
the rivers natural processes
 Hard engineering
● Dams, levees, wing dykes, and straightened channels
1. Flood embankment levees – raised banks to stop
flooding (over 45000km of the Mississippi River have
levees)
2. Channel enlargement – Larger channel larger
discharge (increase carrying capacity of the river)
3. Flood relief channel – create extra channels to take
water away from the main channel
4. Dams and reservoirs– controls the rivers discharge
(store excess rainwater) (66 billion m³ will be needed
in Bangladesh to make any difference!!)
5. Straightened channels – Stop that pesky centrifugal
force
 Flood proofing and
land use zoning
● There are adjustments to
buildings to help reduce
losses
- Blocking up entrances
- Sealing doors and windows
- Removal of damageable
goods to higher levels
- Using sandbags
Land-use zoning
● Use floodplains for animal
grazing? Move them away
when the river levels rise
● Relocate people living on
the floodplains
 Soft/Hard Engineering to Prevent Floods

1. Afforestation – planting trees,

more interception
2. Reseeding vegetation – more
plants and grass more
evapotranspiration
3. Terracing of slopes – Reduce the
steepness of slope – reduce flow
speed
4. Construction of water holding
areas on the floodplain – so
water does not reach the river
 1992-1993 Mississippi flood
Responses
In response to the flood of 1993, various strategies were put in place to reduce the severity of the effects
of any future flood of similar size. Note that many were expensive strategies that could be afforded by
one of the world's richest nations:

• Afforestation in many areas in an attempt to reduce surface run-off by increasing infiltration, most
promenantly in the Tennessee Valley.

• Many levees were replaced with concrete buttresses to reduce erosion and strengthen them.

• The Federal Emergency Management authority published flood risk assessments and encouraged
those settlements at risk to relocate.

• Diversionary spillways were built to hold excess water during floods and then release it at a later date
when flood waters recede.

• 6 new reservoirs on the Missouri river and 19 on the Tennessee River to hold excess flood water.
End of Lesson 20

Useful videos to watch: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Tl77L6e2fMg - Flooding

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=I7MBsk551E8 – Flood forecasting

Advantages of Dams

● Flood and drought control

● Irrigation
● Hydro-electricity
● Recreation and tourism
Disadvantages of Dams
● Water losses through evaporation
● Low flow in rivers
● Salinisation, eutrophication and siltation
● Displacement of population
● Seismic stress
● Loss of nutrients
● Spread of diseases such as bilharzia
The Mississippi River

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=fwAwkWg0byY
 Costs and benefits of the
Kissimmee River
restoration scheme
● The 165km Kissimmee river, once
meandered through central
Florida.
● Its floodplain, reaching up to 5km
wide – the frequent floods cause a
significant impact on people
● Between 1962 and 1971 –
engineering changes were made
to deepen, straighten and widen
the river, which was transformed
90km, 10m deep drainage canal
● The river was channelised to
provide an outlet canal for draining
floodwaters from the developing
upper Kissimmee lake basin and
to provide flood protection for land
adjacent to the river.
 Costs and benefits of the Kissimmee River restoration scheme

Impacts of channelisation
The channelisation of the Kissimmee River had several unintended impacts
● The loss of 2000 to 14 000 hectares of wetlands
● A 90% reduction in wading bird and waterfowl usage
● A continuous long-term decline in game fish populations

● The result was a massive river restoration project, where 100km² of the river and associated
wetlands were restored - this benefitted the fish and bird species
● For this to happen it led to dechannelisation – backfilling the flood-control channel and
reestablishing the natural flow of the river
 Costs and benefits of the
Kissimmee River
restoration scheme
Costs of restoration
- It cost an estimated $400
million
- Lead to an increase in
evaporation
Benefits of restoration
- Higher water levels – support
a natural ecosystem again
- Wetlands that were re-
established - decreased
nutrient loads
- Some of the waterbirds
increased by over 300%
- More dissolved oxygen =
more fish
- More revenue – hunting,
fishing, and ecotourism
Flooding in Bangladesh

● Bangladesh is a small, flat, and low lying country

● 60% is less than 6m above sea level
● Tides affect 1/3 of the land area
● The country has a high frequency of floods and cyclones
● Bangladesh has a high population density, low HDI, and a majority of people dependant on
agriculture
● An area of 150 000km² is shared by 123 million people
● Flooding is viewed very differently by rural people and politicians – rural people see it as a
necessity – while politicians see it as a danger to the economy

https://earthcasestudies.wordpress.com
Causes of flooding in Bangladesh
There are many causes of flooding in Bangladesh.
- Heavy monsoon rains, orographic effects
- Snow and glacier melt
- Deforestation
- Topography
- High river discharge
- Soil saturation
- High tides
- Siltation
- Impermeable surfaces
 1998 floods in
Bangladesh
● The longest lasting and
most devastating floods in
100 years
● Normal circulatory patterns
were intensified
● Capital Dhaka was the most
affected
● Over 50% of the country
were affected, by up to 3m
of water for up to 67 days
● The flooding on the 7th was
probably the worst in the
20th century
Major impacts of the 1998 floods

Number of people affected 30 million

Number of deaths 780-1500
Number of facing malnutrition 25 million
Rice production loss 2.2 million tons
Damage to cultivated area 1.6 million ha
Loss of livestock sector $500 million
Roads damaged 15 000km
Embankments damaged 4500km
Bridges/culverts damaged >20 000
Villages damaged 30 000
Houses damaged 550 000 – 900 000
Coping with flooding in Bangladesh

● Many houses, and also many roads, are built on

raised platforms above the levels of the
average flood
● Houses are made out of bamboo – can be
dismantled
● Rural people cultivate different varieties of rice
– likes the small floods
● Levees – protect against minor floods but not
big ones
● Currently 10 000km of levees and many
shelters
● Flood Forecasting Warning Centre – 5 days
forecasts during the monsoon season
KZN Floods 2022
● Heavy rainfall caused several landslides and flooding across KwaZulu-Natal Province,
resulting in an increased humanitarian impact
● Heavy rainfall began in earnest around 8 April and persisted for days.
● During the period of 8–12 April, most of KwaZulu-Natal saw more than 50 mm of rain,
with coastal areas recording more than 200 mm . In a 24-hour period spanning 11–12
April, Virginia Airport recorded 304 mm (of precipitation. Areas along the coast of
KwaZulu-Natal recorded 450 millimetres of precipitation
● 443 dead, 63 missing, more than 13 000 households affected
● Estimated cost for road infrastructure damage - R5.6 billion.
● 551 schools were affected by the floods and around 98 schools would need mobile
classrooms when reopening
● The government is hoping to put together at least R1 billion to help rebuild infrastructure
for the people of KwaZulu-Natal
● The South African army deployed 10 000 troops to help the nation's east coast recover
from storms
Isipingo beach
Stanger Spar
Durban Toyota
End of Lesson 21
 Droughts

● Extended period of dry weather leading to

conditions of extreme dryness
● A period of at least 15 days with less than 0.2mm
of rainfall
● Natural causes of droughts and caused by
several factors:
1. Global atmospheric circulation
2. Areas distance from the sea can limit water
carried by the wind
3. Rain shadow effects – Air passes over mountains
and rain is released, but the air has therefore lost
all its moisture as it reaches the far side of the
mountains
 Human causes of droughts
● Deforestation – Reduced veg cover = lower transpiration
● Enhanced greenhouse effect
● Over use of water – industry and agriculture
 Impacts of droughts

● Economic impacts
- Agricultural and fishing losses
- Losses in recreation, transportation, and
energy sectors
● Environmental impacts
- Damage to plant and animal species
- Soil erosion and degradation to landscape
quality
● Social impacts
- Public safety, health, the conflict between
water users
- Dehydration
 Reducing the impact of droughts
● Proper management practices – resistance crops
prevent desertification
● Use proper irrigation techniques – Help save water
● Cloud seeding
End of Lesson 22
Exam Question

● Describe how river floods occur. To what extent can the

occurrence of floods be predicted and their effects limited?
(15)
 Hard Engineering Techniques

● Dams – Controls river discharge prevent

flooding

● Levees – Prevents the river from flooding over

● Channel straightening –Cut through a meander

and straighten the channel this slows down the
river

● Wing Dyke – Similar to groynes on a beach they

trap sediment through the river channel
Soft Engineering Techniques

● Afforestation – Wetland and river restoration – intercepting increases,

erosion reduces
Case Studies

The Living Ganges - https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=S14DgQjpylA

End of section!