GRADE 12

HISTORY UNIT 2
AFRICA AND THE COLONIAL EXPERIENCE (1880S –
1960S)
PART 1
 CONTENTS OF THE UNIT
2.1. The Era of “Legitimate Trade” and Colonial Empires
2.2. African Resistance against Colonial Expansion
2.3. Colonial Administration and the Colonial States
 Learning outcomes
At the end of this unit, you will be able to:
o Analyse the major issues in the history of colonial Africa;
o Appreciate the resistance of African people against colonialism;
o Examine the colonial social, economic and political administration; and
o Identify the strength and weaknesses of African resistance to colonial rule
 INTRODUCTION

 Historical developments in Africa from the 1880s to the 1960s.

o Main emphasis on European colonization.
o The Process of Colonization
o African Resistance against Colonial Expansion
o Colonial Administration
o The Colonial States
 2.1. The Era of “Legitimate Trade” and Colonial Empires
The Birth and Expansion of 'Legitimate Trade'

o Key Transition: Shift from "Illegitimate Trade" (Trans-Atlantic Slave Trade) to

"Legitimate Trade"

o Abolition Impact: Slave trade weakened post-Industrial Revolution; Europeans

sought new African commodities

o New Commodities: Gum, groundnuts, and especially palm oil became central
exports by mid-19th century
Economic Impact of 'Legitimate Trade
o Limited Economic Benefits for West Africa:
o Economic prosperity limited to African rulers and wealthy merchants
o Minimal improvement for the broader African population
o Negative Effects of Imported Goods:
o European cloth weakened local craft industries
o Alcohol and firearms undermined social stability and local industries
 Consequences of Imported Firearms
Military Consequences:
o Imported firearms fuelled intra-African conflicts but couldn’t resist European
powers.
o Weapons were technologically inferior, limiting defence against colonial
invasion.
 European Control over Trade
o European Dominance in Trade:
o Controlled both export and internal trade, maximizing profits

o European merchants as intermediaries led to increased competition among

European powers

o Prelude to the Scramble for Africa:

o Economic competition set the stage for territorial conquests in Africa (1870s-
1880s)
 Infrastructure and Ideology of New Imperialism
o Definition of New Imperialism: Expansion of European control and capitalism in
Africa (1870s - WWI)

o New Players: Germany and Italy joined imperial efforts post-unification

o Economic Crisis: 1870s economic downturn spurred partitioning of African

territories
 The Berlin Conference and Partition of Africa
o Berlin Conference (1884-85): Enabled division of Africa among European powers

o Increased Colonization: Resulted in physical occupation and control of African

territories
 Technological Advancements in Colonization
o Key Developments:

o Steamships, advanced firearms, and malaria medicine facilitated deeper

African colonization

o Impact: Enabled a small, well-armed European force to dominate numerically

superior African forces
 Industrialization and Expansion of New Imperialism
o Role of the Second Industrial Revolution:

o Technological advances drew European interest in new colonies

o Need for raw materials, food imports, and investment capital drove imperial
pursuits

o Military Advancements: Improved naval forces led to a global arms race

 Consolidation of Colonial Rule
o European Control by WWI:

o By 1914, 85% of global territories under colonial rule

o Colonial Sacrifices in WWI: Colonized peoples forced into military confrontations

irrelevant to their interests
 Summary
o Shift from slave trade to “Legitimate Trade” and its limited economic benefits for
Africans

o Technological and economic motivations for European expansion and

colonization

o The legacy of the New Imperialism in Africa and its global impact by WWI

o The era of New Imperialism reshaped Africa’s economy, societies, and borders,
leaving lasting impacts
 The Infrastructure and the Ideology of New Imperialism
Motives for the Partition of Africa

o Industrial Revolution Influence:

o Europe’s technological and economic power led to African exploitation

o Medicine and technology allowed Europeans longer stays in Africa

o Economic Motives:

o Need for markets for European products

o Africa viewed as a resource supplier for European industries

 Strategic and National Rivalries
o Strategic Concerns:

o European powers feared rivals gaining African colonies, disrupting the

balance of power

o National Pride:

o Competition fuelled by national pride and desire for global influence

 The Beginning of the Scramble for Africa
o Slow Acquisition (Early 1880s):

o Initial slow colonization through trade and territorial claims

o Berlin Conference (1884-1885):

o Event transformed the scramble into a rush for territorial control across
Africa
 Britain’s Dominance in African Trade

o Economic Leadership:

o Britain’s industrialization and extensive merchant navy enabled trade

dominance

o Free Trade vs. Protectionism:

o Shift to protectionism as European powers sought African markets for

manufactured goods
 Germany’s Entry into Africa
o Bismarck’s Protectorates (1884):

o Togoland, Cameroon, and Southwest Africa (Namibia) under German

protection

o Bismarck’s diplomatic strategy led to the Berlin Conference

 The Berlin Conference (1884-1885)

o Held in Berlin, initiated by Bismarck; attended by 13 European countries

o Major African countries excluded, including Ethiopia and Liberia

o Objective: Resolve disputes over Congo claims and formalize territorial acquisition
rules
 Outcomes of the Berlin Conference
o Key Agreements:

o King Leopold’s “Congo Free State” recognized as his personal colony

o France recognized in the French-Congo; Germany’s protectorates

confirmed

o Trade and Navigation:

o Free trade along the Congo Basin and navigation rights on the Niger
River
 General Act of Berlin
o Article 36 - Effective Occupation:

o Powers must notify others of claims and occupy territory to maintain

claims

o Consolidation of European Control:

o Rules formalized colonization, encouraging systematic African partition

Africa in 1880 and 1913
End of part 1
Thank you!!
 GRADE 12
HISTORY UNIT 2
AFRICA AND THE COLONIAL EXPERIENCE (1880S –
1960S)
PART 2
 2.2.African Resistance to Colonial Expansion
o African Initiatives and Responses to Colonialism:

o Europeans used treaties and force to colonize Africa.

o Africans resisted through both peaceful and violent means.

o Resistance occurred across nearly all areas of European expansion.

o Ideology of Resistance:

o Aimed to protect African sovereignty and self-rule.

 Samori Toure of Mandinka
o Background:
o Muslim religious leader and military commander (1828–1900).
o Established Wassoulou Empire in parts of Guinea, Sierra Leone, Côte d’Ivoire,
and Burkina Faso.
o Military and Economy:
o Built a disciplined, well-armed army based in Sanankoro.
o Controlled gold-rich Bure, enhancing economic power.
o Imported firearms through Freetown since 1876.
 Resistance Against France:
o Fought French forces beginning in 1882.

o Attempted an alliance with Britain for protection; Britain declined.

o Defeated and captured by the French in 1898; exiled to Gabon, where he died in
1900.
 Summary
o Economic, strategic, and nationalistic motives drove the scramble for Africa

o Berlin Conference formalized colonization with long-term impact on Africa

o The partition of Africa reshaped the continent’s future, impacting societies,

economies, and global power dynamics.
 The Ashanti Resistance
o Empire Origins:
o Emerged in the 17th century, unifying Akan-speaking people in Ghana.
o Centralized by Osei Tutu, with Kumasi as its capital.
o Economic Strength:
o Gold was central to the economy; gold dust used as currency.
o Conflicts with the British:
o From 1823–1896, frequently clashed with British forces.
o British captured Kumasi in 1874; formally annexed Ashanti in 1902 after
repeated uprisings.
 Urabi Pasha’s Rebellion in Egypt

o Background:

o Egyptian army officer, Ahmed Urabi, sought social justice.

o Opposed Anglo-French rule over Egypt under Khedive Tewfik.

o Revolt and British Intervention:

o 1882: British bombarded Alexandria; Urabi was exiled.
o Legacy:
o Seen as Egypt’s first nationalist leader; inspired later movements.
 The Mahdist Movement in Sudan
o Leadership of Muhammad Ahmad:

o Declared himself Mahdi in 1881, leading a religious and anti-colonial revolt.

o Key Victories:

o Defeated colonial forces at Aba and Kordofan; captured Khartoum in 1885.

o British Retaliation:

o In 1898, British and Egyptian forces defeated Mahdist forces at Omdurman,

establishing Anglo-Egyptian control.
 The Maji-Maji Rebellion
Origins and Beliefs:

o Began in 1905 in Tanganyika (now Tanzania), opposing German taxes and forced
labor.

o Unified ethnic groups believed Maji (magic water) would turn bullets to water.

German Response:

o Employed scorched-earth tactics; defeated rebellion by 1907.

o Resulted in famine, destruction of trade, and devastation for local communities.

 Ethiopia’s Victory at the Battle of Adwa

o Leader: Emperor Menelik II led Ethiopia.

o Battle of Adwa (1896):

o Successfully defeated Italian forces, preserving Ethiopian independence.

o Ethiopia remained the only African nation recognized as independent

during the colonial era.
End of part 2
Thank you!!
 GRADE 12
HISTORY UNIT 2
AFRICA AND THE COLONIAL EXPERIENCE (1880S –
1960S)
PART 3
 2.3.Colonial Administration and the Colonial States

British Colonial Policy - Indirect Rule

o Concept of Indirect Rule: Developed by Frederick Lugard, author of The Dual

Mandate in British Tropical Africa (1922)

o Purpose: Cheapest way to administer vast regions with minimal European

personnel

o Implementation Variability: Policy varied across British

colonies in Africa
o Divide and Rule Strategy:

o Based on “tribal” distinctions in dialects, dress, and customs

o Emphasized differences to prevent African unity against colonial rule

 French Colonial Policy - Assimilation and Direct Rule
o Assimilation Policy: Aimed to make colonized people French citizens by teaching
language, law, and rights

o Senegal as a Model:

o French citizenship granted in 1848; voting rights and local government based on
communes
 French Colonial Policy - Assimilation and Direct Rule
o Role of Albert Sarraut: Advocated unity between France and its colonies

o Differences from British Policy:

o French applied "Direct Rule" more stringently

o Less respect for African traditional rulers, more state-controlled education in

French
 Belgian, Portuguese, and German Colonial Policies
o Belgian Rule:

o “Colonial Trinity” in Congo, Rwanda, Burundi: Collaboration among state,

church, and companies

o Portuguese Rule:

o Mainly oppressive with limited assimilation; no clear administrative policy

o German Rule:

o Nationalistic “Direct Rule” in Tanganyika, resource-focused exploitation

 Political Economy of Colonial Agriculture
o Economic Motivation: European demand for raw materials and markets
o Cash Crop Production:
o Chiefs directed to establish export plantations (e.g., palm oil, peanuts, cocoa)
o Notable crops by region:
o Groundnuts in Côte d'Ivoire, Angola, and Uganda
o Cocoa in Nigeria and Senegal
o Cotton, mandated in some French colonies (CAR, Burkina Faso, Mali)
o British-initiated irrigation schemes for cotton in Southern Sudan
 Impact on African Agriculture
o Dependency on Imports: Cheap rice from Indo-China undercut local production

o Declining Food Production:

o Increased cash crops led to neglected food crops, soil exhaustion

o Severe famine in Niger (1931) as a result of colonial taxation and depressed

incomes
 Colonial Mining Sector
o Mineral Rights and Exploitation: Controlled by colonial authorities, leased to
European firms
o Major Mining Regions:
o Gold in Asante, tin in Jos plateau (Nigeria)
o Central Africa (Katanga, Northern Rhodesia) known for copper
o Southern Rhodesia: Coal, gold, copper, and asbestos industries
o Labor and Resource Extraction:
o Extensive use of African labor, often low-skilled for mining projects
 Summary
o Colonial policies shaped by economic motives, with distinct British and French
methods affecting African governance and resources

o Result: African societies transformed by cash crop demands, mining economies, and
limited agency of local leaders

o Legacy: Long-lasting impact on African economies and social structures

 Unit Summary
The End of the Transatlantic Slave Trade
Suppression of the Transatlantic Slave Trade
o Long Process:
o Took about half a century
o British Initiatives:
o First to take measures against the “illegitimate trade”
o Motivated by the Industrial Revolution
End of part 3
Thank you!!
 GRADE 12
HISTORY UNIT 2
UNIT SUMMARY
PART 4
 Unit Summary

o Economic Factors:
o Recognition of potential raw material production in Africa
o Africa as a market for European manufactured goods
 European Scramble for Africa
o Timeline: Began in the 1870s, peaked in the late 1880s and 1890s
o Territorial Race: European powers competed for African territories
o Berlin Conference (1884-85):
o Aimed to create international agreement on territorial claims
o Involved multiple European representatives
o Agreement to notify others about territorial acquisitions
 African Resistance to European Colonization

o Struggles Against Invaders:

o Samori Toure: Led resistance in Mandinka against French
o Urabi Pasha: Resistance in Egypt
o Mahdist Movement: Opposed British in Sudan
o Maji-Maji Rebellion: Resistance in Tanganyika
 Colonial Administration Models
o British Colonial Policy:

o Indirect Rule: Formulated by Frederick Lugard

o French Colonial Policy:

o Direct Rule: Established by Albert Sarraut (Minister of Colonies, 1920-24, 1932-

33)
 Summary
Colonial Dynamics:

o The end of the slave trade influenced European strategies in Africa

o Varied colonial administration methods reflected differing European

attitudes
Legacy of Resistance:
o African struggles against colonization highlight resilience and determination
Thank you!!!