FORM THREE HISTORY UPDATED NOTES

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 HISTORY AND GOVERNMENT

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 FORM THREE NOTES

EUROPEAN INVASION AND THE PROCESS OF

COLONIZATION OF AFRICA
Introduction
In the last Quarter of the 19thcentury, Britain, Germany, France, Italy, Belgium and Portugal were in
Africa, competing for colonies to boost their social, economic and political standing.They convened the
Berlin conference of 1884-1885 (convened by Otto Von Bismarck, the Germany Chancellor) where
they shared Africa in Europe without regard to the inhabitants. This is what is termed the invasion of
Africa.By 1914, apart from Liberia and Ethiopia, the rest of Africa had been colonized

The scramble and partition of Africa

Scramble
It refers to the rushing for something.In the African situation, it meant the rush for and struggle by
European powers to acquire various parts of Africa during the 19th century.
Partition
It refers to the sharing of something. In the African situation, it referred to the actual division of Africa
by European powers during the Berlin conference of 1884-1885Methods used by Europeans to acquire
colonies in Africa.

1) Signing of treaties;
a) Treaty signing with African leaders.
~ The British signed the Maasai Agreements (1904 and 1911), Buganda Agreement of 1900 and the
Lewanika-Lochner treaty with Lozi. The royal Niger Company had by 1884, signed 37 treaties
through George Goldie, with African leaders in Niger delta, Yorubaland and Gambia.
~ Carl peters signed treaties on behalf of Germany with the chiefs of Uzigua, Ukami, Usagara and
ungulu.
These treaties facilitated the acquisition of those areas for colonization.
b) Treaties signed amongst European powers. These were known as Partition Agreements. For
example;
~ The Anglo-Germany Agreements of 1886 and 1890 and Heligoland between the British and the
Germans over the sharing of East Africa.
~ The Anglo Italian treaty signed in 1891 between the Italians and the British over possession of
Eritrea and the Somali coast.
~ The treaty between the British and Portugal and France in 1890 on the sharing of
Madagascar (France) Mozambique and Angola (Portugal).

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2) Military conquest/ Use of force. Europeans employed outright war against those societies that
resisted their invasion. E.g
a) The French war against the Mandinka of Samori Toure (1870-1899) and their conquest of western
Sudan from Senegal to Chad specifically in the Tukolor Empire, Segu and Masina by 1898. Tunisia,
morocco and Algeria were acquired forcefully.
b) The British used military force in the Nandi resistance from 1895-1905, the Chimurenga wars
involving the Shona/Ndebele against the British, forced acquisition of Egypt and Sudan
c) The Germans fought the Maji Maji wars from 1905- 1907.
d) The Italians were defeated during their Ethiopian campaign, by Menelik II in the battle of Adowa in 1896.
e) The Portuguese forcefully established their rule over Angola, Guinea Bissau and Mozambique.

3) Use of missionaries as frontrunners. The Europeans used missionaries, carrying a bible in one
hand and a gun in the other, who tried to convince the Africans to support the European goals.
~ Missionaries manipulated local quarrels and took sides in a view to promote European occupation.
For example, in the case of Buganda where we had religious conflicts between Protestants, Muslims,
Catholics and Traditionalists.
~ Sometimes the missionaries went to war against each other and against Africans. E.g the Franza-
Ingeleza war of 1892 that pitted the Protestants (British) against the Catholics (French). Fredrick
Lugard’s intervention on the side of Protestants set stage for the acquisition of Uganda by the British.
~ In Bulozi, Father Francois Coillard convinced Lewanika of the benefits of British protection.
~ In Nyasaland (Malawi) which was depicted as Livingstone’s country, missionaries (read role of
Scottish missionaries) shaped public opinion in favour of imperial control.

4) Treachery and Divide and rule policy

 ~ The Europeans instigated inter-tribal wars causing some Africans to support them against
warring communities. E.g. use of the Wanga against the Luo and the Luhya in Kenya, the
Ndebele/shona against the Lozi in Rhodesia.
 ~ The Italians lied to Menelik II by signing a treaty of friendship but which was published in Italian
version indicating that Ethiopia had agreed becoming an Italian protectorate.
 ~ The Maasai agreement was written in a language that the Lenana never understood.
 Use of company rule. The British and the Germans used chartered companies to acquire and rule
their colonies. For example, the role played by the British South African Company of Cecil Rhodes,
Imperial British East African Company of Sir William Mackinnon and the German East Africa
Company of Carl Peters.
 Luring/enticements. The Europeans gave gifts like cloth, weapons tools, drinks etc to African chiefs
like Lewanika of the Lozi and Mwanga of Buganda thus luring them into collaboration.
 Diplomatic skills. This involved building relations with African leaders, which were later, used to
acquire the areas. The British employed this method in Maasailand and Yorubaland.

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 A blend of diplomacy and force. The British for example initially signed treaties with the Ndebele
(Moffat and Rudd treaties), but they fought them during the Ndebele war of 1897.

FACTORS THAT LED TO THE SCRAMBLE FOR COLONIES IN AFRICA

Economic factors
1. The industrial revolution in Europe.
a) The revolution led to search for markets for European manufactured goods in Africa resulting in
scramble for and partition.
b) The need for raw materials. The machines invented processed goods faster than use of hand. The
Europeans came to Africa in search of raw materials like cotton, palm oil, copper and iron ore.
c) Cheap labour was also readily available in Africa after the abolition of slave trade.
d) There was desire by the entrepreneurs to invest excess capital gained from accumulation of profits
from industrial investment. Africa provided an avenue for investment.
e) Industrial revolution led to improved transport system, which was necessary for effective
colonization.
f) The military hardware manufactured during the revolution enabled Europeans to conquer African
territories.
g) The discovery of medicine enabled the Europeans to survive the African conditions and protect
themselves from diseases such as malaria, yellow fever etc.
h) Those who were rendered unemployed in Europe due to invention of machines had to move to
Africa to assist in harnessing raw materials.
i) Industrial revolution led to intense rivalry in trade, which was projected, into Africa.

2. Speculation about the availability of deep pockets of minerals in Africa. Gold and Bronze had
been items of trade in Africa for centuries. The discovery of Diamond at Kimberly in the
1860s and Gold in the 1870s precipitated their appetite for Africa more.

Political reasons.
1. Unification of Germany after under Otto Von Bismarck after the Franco-Prussianwar of1870-71.
The rise of Germany upset the balance of power in Europe and there was need to rebalance out
through acquisition of colonies in Africa. France for example had to redeem her lost glory
(especially after the loss of mineral rich Alsace and Lorraine provinces) by acquiring eight colonies
in Africa.
2. The rise of Public opinion in Europe. There was growth of public support towards the acquisition
of colonies. With the rise of democracy in European states in the 19thc, it was fatal for any
government to ignore public opinion.
a) For example in 1882, due to public demand, the French assembly was compelled to ratify De
Brazza’s treaty with Chief Makoko thus creating a French colony in Congo.
b) German took over South-West Africa (Namibia), Togo and Cameroon due to what Bismarck
termed as public demand.

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 c) In Britain, the public demanded that Britain must maintain her position as the leading colonizing
power by taking her share in Africa.

3. Militarism. Army officers in Europe favoured colonial expansionist wars to give them greater
opportunities for glory or promotion.
a) For example, in Sudan, it was the military offers, in search of glory, and not the French government
who directed the extent of French colonization.
b) British soldiers like Wolseley Kitchener supported the expansion of the British Empire in Africa.

4. The rise of Nationalism. In Europe, there was the rise of a general feeling of civilians that their
nations should acquire overseas colonies for national prestige. The Germans began feeling they
belonged to a superior race that must be shown by acquiring colonies in Africa.

Strategic reasons
1. Construction of the Suez Canal. (The Egyptian question).
~ The construction of the Suez Canal, opened in 1869, promoted a link between Europe and Asia/
shortened the routes to Far East. It also promoted international trade. It also made Egypt gain some
strategic importance to Europeans.
~ The inability of Khedive Ishmael (1863-1879) to pay for the cost of the construction of the canal (due
to his extravagancy) led to British full occupation of Egypt in 1882, being a major shareholder in the
Anglo-Suez Company that owned the canal.
~ The dismayed French planned diversions of the Nile waters, and make Egypt a desert, after
occupying territories to the south of Egypt.
~ It was against the backdrop that Britain claimed Uganda (source of the Nile) in 1894, Kenya (the
gateway to Uganda) in 1895 and Sudan (where the Nile passes) in 1898.

2. French activities in West Africa and the Congo

The activities of France in Congo and West Africa, after loss of Egypt, through their Italian agent
Savorgnan de Brazza in connection to acquisition of colonies alarmed other powers. This encouraged
powers like Germany to join in the scramble and acquire Togo, Cameroon, Namibia and Tanganyika.

3. The personal activities of King Leopold II of Belgium.

~ He endeavored to create a personal empire. In 1876, Leopold convened the Brussels
Geographical Conference where he formed a business company, the International
African Association comprising explorers and traders with a mission to civilize Africa, abolish slave
trade and establish free trade.
~ As a result of the activities of his agent, Henry Morton Stanley who created the Congo Free State,
Leopold had established a personal empire in 1884 .

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~ It was the activities of king Leopold leading to intense rivalry amongst European nations over Congo
that led to the convening of the Berlin Conference in 1884.

Social reasons
1. The work of Christian missionaries
~ They created an atmosphere of friendship with Africans by giving those gifts like cloths and beer,
introducing economic activities like farming, carpentry, clerical work, among Africans, that were
important virtues in the process of colonization.
~ Where they were in danger, they pressurized their home governments to protect them.
~ The missionaries had direct contact with the people of the interior of Africa and they were front-
runners who paved way for the colonialists through their works.
~ They preached peace, love and hard work and hence calmed down the emotions of Africans towards
the Europeans.
~ Some of them wrote exaggerated reports about Africa to convince Europeans to take interest in
Africa.

2. The growth of European population. The growth of European population –steadily to about 420
million in the 19th century led to the quest for new outlets to resettle the population.E.g– Britain
settled some of her people in Australia, New Zealand, USA, Canada and South Africa. German,
Portugal and Dutch also had to find places in Africa to settle some of their people.

3. Anti-slave trade campaigns- Humanitarian factor.

The humanitarians in Europe like William Wilberforce and Granville Sharp, and the missionaries who
led the crusade against slave trade advocated for colonization of Africa in order to stop it and introduce
Legitimate Trade.When slave trade was abolished, many European nations used it as an excuse to
remain in some parts of Africa, control the region, enforce the anti-slavery treaties, and promote
legitimate trade.

The pull factors

a) Existence of Vast natural resources in Africa. There were pockets of minerals in various parts of
Africa and ivory awaiting exploitation. This attracted the Europeans.
b) Well developed trade/trade routes in the interior. Imperialists used these routes as transport routes to
penetrate the interior.
c) Existence of Navigable Rivers. For example, rivers like Congo and Niger made transportation easy
d) Existence of weak Decentralized local communities. Most African communities were decentralized
with no military structures therefore offering little resistance to European invasion.
e) Frequent wars / inter community wars. These wars weakened African communities and were left ill
prepared for any resistance. Some readily collaborated with the Europeans.

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THE PROCESS OF PARTITION
The fore –runners to the process of partitioning Africa were the early explorers, missionaries and
traders. Their activities were succeeded by the making of treaties and agreements in various parts of
Africa between trading companies and the locals. . For example, the Buganda Agreement, the
Heligoland Treaty and the Berlin act of 1884-1885.In places where the Europeans employed
diplomacy, they won the support of many Africans who collaborated with the intruders.

The Europeans sometimes blended diplomacy with wars of conquest or use of force especially against
the resisting communities.The partitioning boundaries were drawn along physical features like rivers,
mountains, etc.The Berlin conference On 15thNovember 1884, Britain, Germany, France, Belgium, the
USA, Portugal and Italy convened in Berlin to lay down the rules for the partition and eliminate
conflicts amongst European nations. Africans, whose continent was being shared, were not represented
in the conference

The Berlin Conference of 1884-85, partitioned Africa into different spheres of influence without
recourse to war.

Terms of the Berlin act of 1884-1885.

a) That all signatories must declare their sphere of influence an area under each nation’s occupation
b) That once an area is declared a sphere of influence, effective occupation must be
established in the area through establishment of firm colonial infrastructures to be followed by
colonial administration.
c) That any state, laying claim to any part of Africa must inform other interested parties in order to
avoid future rivalry.
d) That any power acquiring territory in Africa must undertake to stamp out slave trade in favour of
legitimate trade and safeguard African interests.
e) That if a European power claims a certain part of the African coast, the land in the interior next to
the coast became hers.
f) That the Congo River and the Niger River basins were to be left free for any interested power to
navigate.
g) The European powers vowed to protect and safeguard European interests in Africa irrespective of
their nationality.

Impacts of the Partition

Political effects
a) Introduction of European administration minimized intertribal wars and civil strife.
b) It led to development of strong African leadership and beginning of state formation.
c) Colonial government structures inherited by most independent African states have continued to be
models of governments in African countries.

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d) Rise of African nationalism to fight colonialism led to the development of African political
awareness.
e) The Europeans gained fame, prestige and national glory by having colonial possessions.
f) Negatively, it led to collapse of African traditional political systems and leadership.
g) Use of divide and rule promoted ethnic disunity that continues to trouble Africa many years after
independence.
h) Boundary creation split apart many African communities. For example, the Somali are found both
in Kenya and in Somalia, the Maasai in Kenya and Tanzania and the Ewe in Ghana and Togo.
i) In some cases some communities whose cultures were incompatible found themselves bunched
together.

Social impacts
a) Through the protection offered to missionaries, it stimulated the spread of Christianity to various
parts of Africa.
b) It led to development of urban centres. Some towns grew as centres of administration e.g. Nairobi
and Machakos. Others grew as railway terminus e.g. Kisumu.
c) African welfare was boosted. Some African benefited from western education and health facilities
introduced by the Europeans.
d) European languages were introduced in Africa.
e) Negatively, it created landlessness as European settlers appropriated African land.
f) The Africans adopted some negative aspects of western culture.
g) Many Africans lost their lives through resistance.

Economic effects
a) There was construction of roads, railway and other forms of infrastructure, which helped to open up
the interior.
b) Imperialization helped to widen market for African produce especially with the
establishment of local industries.
c) Africans were exposed to European manufactured goods/ increase in essential
commodities.
d) Partition speeded up the economic growth of European nations.
e) Negatively, forced labour and exploitation of African resources left many parts of Africa
impoverished and underdeveloped.
f) Africans were exposed to heavy taxation and denial to participate in economic activities like
farming, trade etc.

AFRICAN REACTION TO EUROPEAN COLONIZATION.

RESISTANCE
Some communities were keen on defending their age-old and ancient political, social and economic
institutions and viewed the arrival of the Whiteman with suspicion. Their leaders did not want to lose

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their power, wealth and sources of prestige. Others were militarily prepared for the Europeans. E.g the
Mandinka, Nandi, Ndebele and Ethiopia.
Some resisters were centralized states enjoying immense unity making it easy to mobilize people for a
war.

The Maji Maji Rebellion (1905- 1907).

The Maji Maji Uprising in Tanganyika was the most significant African challenge to German colonial
rule in its African colonies. The Uprising lasted two years c over 10,000 square miles. Tanzania had
been acquired largely by Dr. Karl Peters, who signed treaties with the Chiefs of Usagara, Ungula,
Uzigua and Ukami, in 1885. The Rebellion involved the Zaramo, Matumbi, Bena, Ngindo, Pogoro,
Bunga, Ngoni, Luguru, Wamwera and Ndendeule

Causes of the maji maji rebellion.

1. When Germany established its control over Tanganyika by 1898, it imposed a violent regime in
order to control the population. Kings who resisted German occupation were killed. Africans resented
the cruel, brutal, harsh and ruthless rule of the Germans.
2. Africans resented the Creation of new system of administration using Akidas and Jumbeswho
terrorized the people and misused their positions.
3. The African population was also subjected to high taxation by the Germany East Africa Company to
raise revenue for administration. The Matumbi on their part felt that the Germans should instead
have paid the Africans for using their land.
4. The Africans resented a system of forced labour, whereby they were required to grow cotton and
build roads for their European occupiers. The Africans were treated inhumanely while at work by
the Akidas.
5. The Germans had no respect for African culture in that they misbehaved with Ngindo women.
Crimes like rape, fornication and adultery, committed by the Germans were punishable by death
among the Ngindo.
6. Christian missionaries discredited traditional belief and practices e.g. condemning sacred places as
places of witchcraft. This greatly offended the Africans.
7. Germans had alienated land from Africans as a way of making the railway pay for the cost of its
construction. The arrival of German settlers in U sambara area in 1898, Meru in 1905 and
Kilimanjaro area in 1907 led to massive loss of African land.
8. Africans were forced to grow cotton in the communal cotton growing scheme, where they got very
little payments. In 1902, Peters also ordered villages to grow cotton as a cash crop (for export) with
each village, charged with producing a quota of cotton. This policy annoyed Africans who could no
longer effectively work on their on farms to produce food.
9. The Ngoni were seeking revenge for the Boma Massacre of 1897 during which their soldiers were
killed in large numbers.
10. The role of Kinjeketile Ngwale in instilling confidence in the Africans to unite and rise up against
the Germans

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11. The 1905, a drought that threatened the region making Africans incur heavy losses on a crop that
was not even edible, combined with opposition to the government's agricultural and labor policies,
became the immediate cause of the rebellion against the Germans in July, 1905.

Course of the maji maji war.

The oppressive regime bred discontent among the Africans, and resentment reached a fever pitch in
1905 when drought hit the region. A Ngarambe prophet, Kinjikitile Ngwale emerged, who claimed to
know the secret to a sacred liquid which could repel German bullets called "Maji Maji," which means
"sacred water." Ngwale claimed to be possessed by a snake spirit called Hongo.Thus, armed with
arrows, spears, and doused with Maji Maji water, the first warriors of the rebellion began what would
become known as the Maji Maji Rebellion. The rebellion was led by Kinjeketile Ngwale, Abdalla
Mpanda and Ngamea.

On July 31, 1905, Matumbi tribesmen marched on to Samanga and destroyed the cotton crop as well as
a trading post. Kinjikitile was arrested and hanged for treason. However, Kinjekitile’s ideas were
spread widely through a whispering campaign called Njwiywia or Jujila by the Matumbi. Matumbi
warriors uprooted cotton from an Akida’s farm at Nandete to provoke the chiefs to fight. On August
14, 1905, Ngindo tribesmen attacked a small party of missionaries on a safari; all five, including
Bishop Spiss (the Roman Catholic Bishop of Dar es Salaam) were speared to death. The Ngindo drove
their hated Akidas from their area.

They boycotted cotton picking.By August 1905, Germans were restricted to four military stations i.e.
Wahenga, Kilosa, Iringa and Songea. The apex of the rebellion came at Mahenge in August 1905
where several thousand Maji Maji warriors attacked but failed to overrun a German stronghold. On
October 21, 1905 the Germans retaliated with an attack on the camp of the unsuspecting Ngoni people
who had joined the rebellion killing hundreds of men, women, and children. This attack marked the
beginning of a brutal counteroffensive that left an estimated 75,000 Maji Maji warriors dead by 1907.

Forces from Iringa under Captain Migmann assisted in the recapture of Kabata by Major
Johannes.Reinforcement arrived from Germany and in 1907 warriors were defeated by Governor Graf
Von Gotzen. The Germans employed the scorched earth policy which destroyed all property on sight.
The Africans lost faith in the magic water. Some surrendered while others fled to Mozambique.

Consequences of the maji maji uprising

a) There was massive loss of lives. In its wake, the Maji-Maji rebellion left 15 Europeans and 389
African soldiers and between 75,000 and 100,000 insurgents dead.
b) There was massive destruction of property, as villages and crops were burnt when Germans applied
the scorched earth policy.

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c) Southern Tanganyika experienced severe famine as farms and granaries were destroyed. This
disrupted economic activities such as agriculture and trade.
d) Thousands of families were displaced during the war. This was because of the fear that gripped the
land, forcing people to flee in different direction.
e) The war undermined the German economy in Tanganyika, as numerous economic activities came to
a standstill.
f) There was loss of leadership in African communities which created disorganization and demoralized
the African people. Most captured leaders were hanged or imprisoned. A total of 47 Ngoni chiefs
were hanged.
g) Africans resigned to colonial authority. The revolt broke the spirit of the people to resist and the
colony remained calm, realizing they did not have better weapons to fight with.
h) The uprising undermined the Africans’ confidence in their traditional religion. The magic water
failed to protect them against the German bullets.
i) The uprising laid the foundation to Tanganyika’s Nationalism. The uprising would become an
inspiration for later 20th Century freedom fighters who called for similar interethnic unity as they
struggled against European colonial rule.
j) Although the Maji Maji Uprising was ultimately unsuccessful, it forced Kaiser Wilhelm's
government in Berlin to institute reforms in their Tanganyika administration as they realized the
potential cost of their brutality.

Reforms introduced by the German administration after the maji maji uprising.
a) Corporal punishment was abolished by the German administration. Those settlers who mistreated
their workers were punished.
b) Forced labour for settler farms was abolished.
c) Communal cotton growing was stopped and Africans were to plant their own cotton and get profit
from it.
d) Better educational and medical services for the Africans were introduced.
e) Africans were involved in administration of the region as Akidas and Jumbes.
f) Newspapers that incited settlers against Africans were censured.
g) Kiswahili became an official language.
h) A colonial department of the German government was set up in 1907 to investigate and monitor the
affairs of the German East Africa.
i) The new governor rejected extra taxation of Africans.
j) Colonial administration in Tanganyika was now tailored to suit the Africans.

Role of religion in the Maji Maji rebellion.

a) It gave people courage, loyalty and confidence to fight the Germans.
b) It gave spiritual strength to fight a superior force.

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c) Through religion, suspicions among communities were wiped out.
d) Religion stood above tribal loyalty/all followed it regardless of tribe.
e) Religious cults like bolero/kolelo promised people the destruction of the white man.
f) It provided the ideology, which guided the war efforts.
g) It sustained the morale of the warriors.
h) It provided a common plan of action based on mass action
i) It provided leadership during the war e.g. the prophetic leaders.
j) It was used, to address the so many African grievances emanating from the harsh German rule.

The Mandinka Resistance.

Samori Toure (c. 1830-1900)
One of the great kings and fighters of African freedom was the great Samori Toure. Born about 1830 in
Sanankaro, SE of Kankan in present-day Guinea, Samori Toure chose the path of confrontation, using
warfare and diplomacy, to deal with the French colonial incursion. His father was a Dyula trader,
leading Toure to follow his family’s occupation. In the 1850s, he enrolled in the military forces at
Madina (present-day Mali) to liberate his mother, captured during a slave raid by king Sori Birama of
Bisandugu. Displaying extraordinary military skill and prowess, he and his mother were subsequently
released in 1858. Coupled with his experience as a Dyula trader, he built his army. Samori employed
the triple thrust of persuasion, threat and war, in the same way as Sundiata did in Mali, to organized
Malinké chiefdoms and expand the Mandinka state. Between 1852 and 1882, Samori Toure had
created the Mandinka Empire with the capital at Bisandugu, in present day Gambia.Samori’s army was
powerful, disciplined, professional, and trained in modern day warfare. They were equipped with
European guns. The army was divided into two flanks, the infantry or sofa, with 30,000 to 35,000 men,
and the cavalry or sere of 3,000 men. There was a third wing of 500 men forming specially trained
bodyguards. In 1881, Samori extended the empire to the east as far as Sikasso (in Mali) to the west, up
to the Futa Djallon Empire. Meanwhile, the French were extending eastwards from Futa Djalon while
the Mandinka were extending westwards towards Kenyeran trading centre, Next to the rich Bure Gold
fields.In 1882, at the height of the Mandinka empire, the Frenc h accused Samori Touré of refusing to
withdraw from an important market center, Kenyeran (his army had blockaded the market). They thus
started war on him.
His bid to obtain assistance from the British to deal with the French failed as the later were not willing
to enter into conflict with the French. From 1882 to 1885, Samori fought the French and had to sign
infamous Bisandugu treaty on 28th march 1886 and then 1887.

Significance of the Bisandugu treaties (1886-1887)

a) To Toure, these were acts of delay the real confrontation that with the French that would come at an
opportune time.
b) He hoped that by this treaty, he would reach out at the British for a friendship treaty to enable him
secure trade routes from the north under Tieba of Sikasso.

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c) The French on their part hoped to use the treaty to enable them to arrange the conquest of the
Tukolor Empire.
d) The treaties put the Mandinka under brief French protection.
In 1888, he took up arms again when the French reneged on the treaty by attempting to foster
rebellion within his empire.
In 1890, he reorganized the army and concluded a treaty with the British in Sierra Leone, where he
obtained modern weapons. He now stressed defense and employed guerilla tactics.

The Franco- Mandinka war (1891-1898)

Causes of the Franco-Mandinka war (1891-1898)
a) Samori wanted to safeguard the independence and religion of his empire. Being a staunch Muslim,
he could not tolerate non-Muslims on his land.
b) He was not ready willing to lose the rich Bure Mines to the French whether through diplomacy or
warfare.
c) His empire was at that time enjoying military and economic superiority. The French incursion was
merely a threat to his territorial expansion that was to be fought at all costs.
d) His participation in trade had enabled him to acquire modern arms thus enabling him to build an
equipped and well trained army which did not fear the encounter French. He even had facilities for
arms repair.
e) His scheme to play off the British against the French, between 1882 and 1889, had failed. This upset
him and therefore left him only with the fighting option.
f) The activities of the French of selling arms to his enemies such as Tieba of Sikasso were viewed by
Samori as an act to weaken the Mandinka dominance.

Course of the franco-mandinka war.

Samori waged a seven –year war against France whose army was led by Major Archinard. In 1891,
with his improved weaponry and reorganized army, he defeated the French. In 1892, French forces
overran the major centers of the Mandinka Empire, leaving death and destruction in their wake.

In 1894, the French assembled all their troops in western Sudan (Senegal, Mali, Niger, etc…) to fight
Samori.Between 1893 and 1898, Samori’s army retreated eastward, toward the Bandama and Como,
resorted to the scorched earth tactic, destroying every piece of land he evacuated. He moved his capital
east from Bisandugu to Dabakala, thus creating a second empire in 1893. This enabled him to delay the
French. He formed a second empire, and moved his capital to Kong, in upper Cote d’Ivoire.

Disadvantages of Samori’s second empire

a) He was cut off from Freetown where he used to buy firearms.
b) He was at war with the communities, which he had attacked in his expansionist wars.
c) His southern frontier was open to French attacks from the Ivory Coast.

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d) At his new empire, Samore was cut off from his gold mines at Bure thus; he had no wealth to keep
his army running.
e) The occupation of the Asante Empire by the British in 1896 meant that enemies from all corners
surrounded Samori Toure.
In 1898, Samori, forced to fight a total war against innumerable odds like famine and desertion that
weakened his forces, was captured on September 29, 1898, in his camp in Gué (lé) mou at the town of
Sikasso in present-day Côte d’Ivoire and exiled to Ndjolé, Gabon, where he died of pneumonia on June
2, 1900.

Factors that aided Samori Toure in offering a protracted resistance to the Europeans
a) He had established military workshops with a trained cadre of artisans whom he used to repair and
manufacture his own weapons. This guaranteed regular supply of weapons during the resistance.
b) He himself was a courageous fighter, a greater organizer and a military tactician and he personally
commanded his army on the battlefield.
c) His adoption of the Scorched Earth Policy as he mobilized the entire population to retreat left the
French to starve and delay their advance.
d) The success witnessed in trade enabled him to acquire guns and horses from the north, which were
important in the resistance.
e) Through trade and subsequent tribute collection, he obtained adequate wealth, which he used to
maintain a large army.
f) He had a large strong and well-organized army of 35,000 men, which was a formidable force for the
French.
g) He used diplomacy in dealing with the French to buy time to reorganize and strengthen his army,
and to negotiate with the British in Sierra Leone to guarantee regular supply of guns.
h) French soldiers were ignorant of the strange land they were fighting in and were faced with further
problem of tropical disease.
i) Some of his soldiers had served in the French colonial army and were thus familiar with the
French tactics.
j) He used Mandinka nationalism and Islam to unify the army. Many of Samori’s soldiers
believed that they were fighting a Jihad (holy war) and therefore fought with determination.

Why samori was finally defeated.

a) Since his army and community were constantly on the move, they could not engage in any gainful
economic activity to replenish their supplies.
b) The abandoning of the rich Bure Gold reserves as Samori retreated meant he had lost an important
source of revenue that was initially used to sustain the army.
c) When he moved to his second empire, He was cut off from Freetown where he used to buy firearms.
d) Samori failed to get any support from other African societies due to lack of unity. Ahmed Seku of
Tukolor and Tieba of Sikasso chose to rather assist the French than support Samori.

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e) His second empire was open to attack from all sides by either the British or the French, making it
difficult to defend.
f) The French had superior weapons and better means to re-equip their stores. They were also
determined to defeat samori to set up an overseas colonial empire.
g) The use of the scorched earth policy was resented by the civilians since it left them with nothing
after destruction. It thus starred up local resistance.
h) Even within his own empire, there was no total unity. The non-Mandinka communities and non-
Muslims in the empire who had felt mistreated during his reign supported the French.
i) The refusal by the British to assist Samori dented his hopes of getting a European ally against the French.
j) Samori’s retreat to Liberia was blocked and his capital besieged. He had to surrender to the French.

The Ndebele Resistance

Background
The Ndebele were descendants of Nguni conquerors from South Africa (fleeing from the mfecane
wars) who occupied what is now Matabeleland. Mzilikazi (Ndebele King) opened the door for the
London Missionary Society led by Robert Moffat, who settled in Matabeleland in 1859. They assisted
him in repairing his guns, inoculating cattle, writing and interpreting letters and providing medical care
to the sick. Hehowever had little interest in Foreigners and even had those whose who accepted
missionary influence killed. Mzilikazi died in 1868 and his son Lobengula took over.Lobengula was
the Ndebele king at the outbreak of the Anglo-Ndebele war of 1893.

He went to great lengths to appease the increasingly aggressive British imperialists from the South,
Portuguese invasion from Angola and Mozambique and Germans from the south west. He used his
diplomatic skills to buy time before engaging in war with the British. He even tried to pit one European
nation against the other (the Boers and the British). He in 1870 had granted a mining concession to
Thomas Baines of Durban Gold Mining Co. in order to diffuse white intervention. In 1888, Lobengula
signed the Moffat treat y which stated that he was not to sign any other treaty with other European
groups without British permission. Rhodes sent his partner and agent Charles Rudd to compel
Lobengula to acquiesce to the Rudd (mining) Concession- a verbal agreement between Lobengula and
BSA Co granting the company a mining monopoly in Matabeleland. In return, he was to get a gunboat
on River Zambezi or 500 sterling ponds, a monthly salary of 100 sterling pounds, 1000 rifles and
100,000 cartridges. Lobengula’s conditions for concession were not incorporated in the final text.

When the terms of the treaty were interpreted to him, he learned that he had been tricked into
surrendering his kingdom to Europeans.In 1889, he repudiated the treaty and sent a fruitless delegation
of Indunas (Motshede and Babiyance) to London to meet Queen Victoria. Despite the Ndebele king's
repeal of the concession, Rhodes, supported by the British crown, enacted a charter of the newly
created British South Africa Company investing it with an array of rights: the right to ma.ke treaties, to

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pass laws and to subject the natives to its police force, as well as to make grants of minerals and land to
white settlers. Lobengula was thus pushed into reluctant resistance by white greedy rapacity.

Causes of the 1893 Ndebele war.

1. The Ndebele detested the treachery used by the British in compelling Lobengula to sign the Rudd
Concession
2. British occupation of Matabeleland had ended Ndebele powers over the shona whom they always
raided for cattle and women.
3. The British acts of provocation (inciting the Shona to raid the Ndebele for cattle). When the Ndebele
chose to attack the shona, the British would then fight them under the pretext of protecting their
interests in Mashonaland.
4. The attempt by the Ndebele indunas to punish some shona who disobeyed King Lobengula became
the immediate cause.

Course of the war.

The war broke out in October 1893. The British army was led by Dr.Starr Jameson and comprised the
shona police and other mercenaries from South Africa. At that time, the Ndebele had been weakened
by smallpox and inferior weapons leading to little confrontation between them and the British.
Lobengula chose to evacuate his people towards Northern Rhodesia. Atthe two battles of Shangani
River and Mbembezi. The Ndebele were defeated by superior European gun-fire. Lobengula finally
fled to Bulawayo where he died in 1894. The conquerors took advantage of the natives' inner divisions,
with people of the low castes remaining passive and even some traitors helping the invaders. The
aftermath of the British conquest in Zimbabwe was that cattle were seized from the natives and their
land taken. Even the for the small plots that were left to them, Africans were often forcibly prevented
from ploughing and sowing, since they were subjected to tax-collection and coerced labour in
whiteowned farms. The Ndebele were pushed to the reserves of Gwaai and Shangani.

Second Matabele War (the Chimurenga war 1896-1897)

The war of liberation which was dubbed ‘Chimurenga’, or the Second Matabele War was a fulfillment
of prophesy of a great Shona spirit, Mbuya Nehanda, sister of the great Shona prophet Chaminuka.
Mlimo, the Ndebele spiritual leader is in fact credited with fomenting the Second Ndebele War. He
convinced the Ndebele that the White settlers were responsible for the drought, locust plagues and the
cattle disease rinderpest ravaging the country at the time.

Causes of the Chimurenga war

a) The war broke out because the Shona and the Ndebele feared disruption of their age-old and valued
trade and trade routes.

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b) They fought for economic and trade independence. The company had stopped shona Gold and ivory
trade with the Portuguese and forced them to trade only with the company only and at low exchange
rates.
c) They were fighting against land alienation. The BSA Company had alienated the Ndebele land and
pushed them to the Gwaai and Shangani reserves that had no water and were infested with tsetseflies.
d) The war eroded the Ndebele traditional authority. When Lobengula’s sons were sent to South
Africa by Rhodes for education, they were denied chance of succeeding their father.
e) They detested the removal of the rights of chiefs to allocate land. The British ruined the regimental
system and refused to recognize the power of the indunas and Ndebele laws.
f) The British began to assume the rights to punish the subjects on behalf of the chiefs.
Sometimes even the chiefs were also punished. E.g, Chief Moghabi’s village was burnt.
g) They revolted against taxation which was an interference with their economic independence. The
hut tax, introduced in 1894 was collected with much brutality.
h) The Ndebele were not pleased with the recruitment of the shona in the police force. Theyfelt
humiliated as the shona took the chance to revenge for the many years of oppression.
i) They resented the general brutality of the whites when dealing with the Africans, like threatening the
black people with punishment just before pay, to cause them to run away.
j) They wanted the removal of the policy of forced labour on European mines and farmswhere workers
operated under deplorable conditions, often whipped with syambok (whip) and worked for long hours
without chance to engage in activities of their choice.
k) The company disregarded the Ndebele customs especially the class system. They treated everybody
equally, including the Holi – who were traditionally slaves to the Ndebele
aristocrats. The traditional leaders were sometimes flogged before their subjects.
l) The confiscation, by the company, of 250,000 head of cattle in 1893 from the Ndebele. Leaving
them with only 50,000 affected by cattle disease. The rights to raid the shona for cattle was also
denied.
m) The people were resented more by the Natural calamities that continued to afflict them and which
religious mediums like Mlimo blamed on the presence of the whites.
n) The influence of the Mwari cult leaders who urged people to resist with an assurance of victory
against the British and immunity against the European bullets.

Course of the war.

Mlimo's call to battle happened at a time when the BSA Co's Administrator General Matabeleland,
Leander Starr Jameson, had sent most of his troops to fight the Transvaal Republic in the ill-fated
Jameson Raid in Dec. 1995 leaving the country's defenses in disarray.
War in Matabeleland.On 29thMarch 1896, the Ndebele High Priest Umlugulu, with senior indunas,
organized a ceremony to install Umfezela as Lobengula’s successor. On that day, The Ndebele rebels
killed the whites on their farms as they found them by surprise. They also killed African policemen in
the British force. The European settlers took refuge in fortified camps in Bulawayo, Gwelo, Belingwe

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and Mangwe.The British immediately sent troops to suppress the Ndebele and the Shona, but it cost the
lives of many settlers, Ndebele, and Shona alike. The Matabele military defiance ended only when
Burnham found and assassinated Mlimo, thanks to a Zulu informant. The Ndebele finally agreed to
peace talks with Rhodes during which Rhodes agreed to disband the shona police and give the Ndebele
headmen some powers as indunas.

The War in Mashonaland

On 17 June 1896, the Hwata dynasty at Mazowe attacked the Alice Mine. They succeeded in driving
away the British settlers from their lands on 20 June 1896. In the same month, Mashaykuma, working
with the local spiritual leader Kagubi, the Zezuru Shona people in killing a British farmer Norton and
his wife at Porta Farm in Norton.

With the war in Matabeleland ending in October 1897, Gen. Carrington was able to concentrate his
forces on Mashonaland. Nehanda Nyakasikana and Kagubi Gumbo-reshumba were captured and
executed in 1898, but Mkwati, a priest of the Mwari shrine, was never captured and died in Mutoko.
Traditional leaders played a major role in the rebellion, notably Chief Mashayamombe, who led
resistance in Mhondoro, Gwabayana, Makoni, Mapondera, Mangwende and Seke.

Role of religion in the organization of the S hona –Ndebele resistance

a) Religion united the Shona and Ndebele who had hitherto been bitter rivals. / The two communities
entered a common plan of action.
b) It boosted and sustained the morale of the masses and gave them spiritual strength to fight a might force.
c) Religion was used as a base of mass action. It provided the resistance with a common ideology.
Much of the ideology used was derived from Umlugulu, the chief priest of the Ndebele Nyamanda,
Lobengula’s eldest son and Mlimo, the medium of Mwari Cult
d) Religious leaders provided leadership to the war against white aggressors who were considered
immoral and brutal.
e) The Mwari Cult provided an important organization link between the Ndebele and shona since it
was widespread.
f) The most important representatives of the Mwari Cult were Mkwati and Singinyamatse who were
the backbone of the spiritual unity of the Ndebele.

Why the Ndebele and shona were defeated

a) Disunity among Africans and between Shona and Ndebele. They fought on different fronts. Even
some African communities supported the British against the shona and Ndebele.
b) The Ndebele social class lacked unity of purpose. The former aristocrats fought on their own while
the former slave classes chose to even cooperate with the British.
c) British soldiers were well trained as compared to African soldiers. They also got reinforcement from
Botswana and South Africa.

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d) The arrest and execution of African leaders like Nehanda, Kagubi and Singinyamatse demoralized
the people.
e) The British had superior weapons as compared to African inferior weapons.
f) The magic failed to protect them against the enemy bullets. Many people were killed by the British
including the leaders of the Mwari cult.
g) The determination of Cecil Rhodes, who negotiated for peace with Ndebele thus ending the war.
This made the suppression of the Shona by the British easy.

Results of the war.

a) The Africans lost their independence as the British established their authority over them.
b) There was an enormous loss of life and property.
c) The African land was alienated and they confined to reserves
d) Africans in reserves were be subjected to forced labour.
e) The war led to rapid spread of Christianity as the local people lost faith in their religion.
f) The Ndebele indunas gained recognition as headmen.
g) The Africans were exposed to severe famine, as the war hindered farming.
h) The colonial office in London lost confidence in company rule due to its poor administration.

COLLABORATION
What is collaboration?
This was a style in which Africans responded to European intrusion through diplomacy, adaptation or
allying with the Europeans for military support and for material gains

Reasons for collaboration by some African communities.

a) Some African kings needed to safe guard themselves against internal and external enemies. e.g.
Lewanika of Lozi who was facing threat from the Ndebele and the Ngoni.
b) Others wanted to promote trade with the imperialists so that they can gain material wealth. For
example, the Wanga and the Shona.
c) Influence of the missionaries who convinced some African leaders to collaborate in order to get
western education and civilization. E.g, François Coillard encouraged Lewanika to collaborate with
the British.
d) In some communities, there was need for protection against other European powers e.g. the Lozi
against the Portuguese.
e) Others were merely in need for assistance to gain regional supremacy. E.g the Maasai who were on
downward trend as the Nandi were raising.
f) To some it was a means of showing courtesy visitors assuming that they would leave soon and being
ignorant of European intentions. For example, Kabaka Mwanga of Buganda.

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g) Other African leaders influenced some communities. For example, Chief Khama influenced
Lewanika of the Lozi to resist.
h) Having witnessed the European military might against the resisting neighbours some communities
saw it futile to resist stronger force

The Lozi Collaboration

Factors, which influenced Lewanika of the Lozi to collaborate with the British
a) Lewanika was encouraged to collaborate with the British by King Khama of Botswana who had
already benefited from British protection against the Dutch in South Africa.
b) The European missionaries who had visited him earlier influenced Lewanika. For example,
François Coillard who convinced Lewanika to ally with the British to gain western education.
c) Lewanika needed support against Portuguese and Germans who were approaching his territory.
d) Lewanika wanted the British to protect his kingdom from attacks by other African communities
such as the Ndebele and Shona-protection against African enemies.
e) Lewanika also wanted the British to protect him against internal enemies e.g. in 1884,
Lewanika faced an internal rebellion-to safeguard his position.
f) Lewanika desired western education especially for his sons and civilization in his country.
g) Desire for promotion of trade between Britain and his people. He was keen on acquiring European
goods such as firearms for territorial defence.
h) He was fearful and considered it futile to resist a strong military force like Britain.

How Lewanika collaborated with the British.

Signing of treaties e.g. he first signed a treaty with Harry Ware in 1889 before signing the Lochner
Treaty of 1890 and the Corydon Treaty of 1898. These treaties put Bulozi under British
protectorate.Lewanika became friendly to British agents like Frank Lochner and the missionary,
François Coillard, whom he allowed to establish a permanent mission station within his territory. He
sent his sons to the Coillard mission school as a show of acceptance of westernization.

Lochner Treaty of 1890.

It was British missionary Francois Coillard who negotiated for the meeting between Frank Lochner,
acting on behalf of Rhodes, and Lewanika in 1890. The treaty put Lewanika’s Kingdom under the
protection of the British South African Company.

Terms of the treaty.

a) Lewanika gave the BSA Company mining rights in Bulozi except in certain farming and iron
mining areas.
b) The company promised to protect the kingdom from outside attacks.
c) The British company promised to pay the king 2000 sterling pounds a year and 4% royalties of all
minerals mined in the area.
d) A promise was made to develop trade, build schools and develop telegraphy in the kingdom.

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e) Lewanika would still be a king but just a constitutional monarch, not an absolute ruler as before.
f) That a British resident would be posted in Lealui, the capital of the Kingdom, to
monitor company activities and advise Lewanika on foreign affairs.
The treaty consequently implied that Lewanika had given up his kingdom to the British company.In
1897, Robert T. Coryndon a former police officer was sent as a British resident in Bulozi. Upon his
arrival, he made arrangements for the signing of the Lawley treaty of 1898 which further reduced the
size of the area governed by Lewanika.
In October 1900, he signed another treaty, the Coryndon Treaty with Lewanika.
The Coryndon Treaty (1900)

It had the following terms;

a) The British government would be responsible for administration of Bulozi. The company
administrator would answer to the High Commissioner at the cape.
b) The company would appoint officials and pay for the administration of the area.
c) The company would provide schools, industries, postal services, transport and telegraphic facilities.
d) Lewanika would receive only 850 sterling pounds a year as his stipend.
e) The company was allowed to acquire land on the Batoka plateau.
f) The company maintained its rights to prospect for mineral in Bulozi.
g) Lewanika was to stop slavery and witchcraft in his area.
h) Lewanika was made paramount chief of Barotse. His powers were reduced more when more white
settlers arrived in 1905 ready to participate in government.

NB; the Coryndon treaty made Lewanika a mere employee of the company, receiving only a stipend.
He lost control of the former vassal states that no longer would pay tribute to him since they were now
under the British.In the final run, Lewanika lost his independence just like any other collaborator or
resistor.

Results of Lewanika collaboration

a) Schools and health centres were put up in his kingdom.
b) He got British protection from Ndebele attacks.
c) It marked the beginning of the erosion of the independence and traditional authority of his empire.
Lewanika lost his authority as the administration was taken over by the British South Africa
Company
d) The British recognized Lewanika as a paramount chief of Barotse and gave him necessary protection.
e) Lewanika received payment of £ 2000 yearly
f) The British South Africa Company took over the control of the minerals
g) The Lozi land was alienated and given to British settlers
h) The Lozi were later forced to pay taxes in order to maintain the administration.
i) The Lozi were forced to work as labourers on settler’s farms

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j) The Lozi were employed in the civil service
k) The British South Africa Company developed infrastructure in Barotseland
l) The British used Barotseland as a base to conquer the neighbouring communities.

The Buganda collaboration.

By the mid 19thcentury, Buganda had become the most powerful state in the interior of East Africa.
However despite this might, the Kabakas (Mutesa I and Mwanga) chose the path of collaboration
instead of resisting the European intrusion.

Why kabaka Mutesa I (1856-1884) collaborated with the Europeans.

a) His kingdom was under threat form Khedive Ishmael of Egypt. He therefore wanted British
assistance against the Egyptian threat.
b) There was threat from his traditional enemy, Omukama Kabalega of Bunyoro Kingdom.
c) Mutesa wanted to establish a centralized religious authority over Buganda to counter there power
wielded by the traditional priest of the Lubaale Cult and the Muslim power and influence.
d) He wanted modernization and to gain Prestige from association with the Europeans. For example,
western education, medicine and other material benefits.
e) He had the desire to trade with Europeans to get their goods especially firearms.

Kabaka Mwanga (1884-1898)

Mwanga’s main problem when he took over power was religious indecision which eventually
generated political instability. In January 1885, he executed three C.M.S converts. In October 1885, he
had Bishop Hannington killed. In May 1886, 30 young converts were burnt to death at Namugongo for
refusing to denounce their Christian faith.

In 1888, under the urge of the traditionalists, he unsuccessfully attempted to expel all foreigners whom
he blamed for causing chaos in his kingdom. He instead was disposed by a combined force of Muslims,
Catholics and Protestants and replaced by his brother Kiwewa, sharing authority with foreigners.In
1890, Mwanga recaptured the throne assisted by the Christians and Kabalega of Bunyoro kingdom.

He signed a protectorate treaty with Carl peters for the Germans and rejected a treaty offer by Fredrick
Jackson of IBEACO. IN 1891, Mwanga signed a treaty of collaboration with Fredrick Lugard, the
First British administrator sent to Uganda. This was after the Heligoland Treaty of 1890 had put
Uganda a British sphere of influence.

Why Mwanga collaborated

a) He wanted to acquire protection from internal and external enemies e.g religious groups and Banyoro.
b) He wanted to secure his position and safeguard the Baganda from interference.
c) He wanted the British to help him Gain regional supremacy over the surrounding kingdoms of
Bunyoro, Ankole and Toro.However, throughout all the religious conflicts that continued in Uganda

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 between the Protestants and the Catholics, Kabaka Mwanga always supported the Catholics to the
Chagrin of the British administrators. He was disposed by Lugard in 1894 after the capture of his
palace at Mengo.Under Kabaka Mwanga II, Buganda became a protectorate in 1894. This did not
last and the Kabaka declared war on Britain in on July 6, 1897.

He was defeated at the battle of Buddu on July 20 of the same year. He fled to German East Africa
where he was arrested and interned at Bukoba. The Kabaka later escaped and led a rebel army to retake
the kingdom before being defeated once again in 1898 and being exiled to the Seychelles.While in
exile, Mwanga II was received into the Anglican Church, was baptized with the name of Danieri
(Daniel). He spent the rest of his life in exile.

He died in 1903, aged 35 years. In 1910 his remains were repatriated and buried at Kasubi.The war
against Kabaka Mwanga II had been expensive, and the new commissioner of Uganda in 1900, Sir
Harry H. Johnston, had orders to establish an efficient administration and to levy taxes as quickly as
possible. This he did through the Buganda Agreement of 1900

The Buganda agreement

The Buganda agreement was signed in 1900 between Sir Harry Johnstone, British Official, and Apollo
Kagwa, representing the Baganda

Reasons for signing of the Buganda agreement

a) The treaty was to define the position of Buganda in the country.
b) To introduce law and order in the country.
c) To reduce the cost of British administration since Buganda was to meet the cost of administration.
d) To define the relationship between Buganda and the British government.

Terms of the Buganda agreement

a) The Buganda laws were to remain in effect as much as they did not interfere with protectorate laws
that were to be applicable to Buganda Kingdom as well. Bugandakingdom was to be ruled by the
Kabaka with the assistance of Katikiro. The Lukiko was to be the legitimate body making laws of
Buganda and it was to compose 89 members.
b) Buganda people were to pay poll and hut tax. However, No tax was to be levied on Buganda unless
approved by the Lukiko (parliament). Revenue from Buganda was to be merged with all the revenue
from other provinces.
c) The kabaka, ministers and Chiefs to be paid since they were now employees of the British government.
d) Buganda boundaries were defined to include parts of Bunyoro (the ten sazas she had acquired from
Bunyoro). The kingdom was therefore expanded to twenty counties. To ease administration, each
county was placed under a Saza Chief.

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e) Land tenure system was changed to include land on freehold basis (Mailo land) and crown land. The
crown land was for protectorate government while the Mailo land was particularly for the kabaka,
his ministers and his chiefs.
f) Though Buganda became a province within the protectorate, Ganda system of government was
recognized and modified. It was to have three ministers (katikiro, treasurer and chief justice.). The
Lukiko had fixed number- 20-saza chiefs, 60 notables and 6 Kabaka’sappointees.

Results of the Buganda agreement.

a) British overlord ship was confirmed over Buganda.
b) Buganda was reduced to a status of a mere province.
c) The position of the king was reduced – he lost his power to give or withhold land as well as the
power to appoint or transfer chiefs.
d) The 1900 Agreement led to the birth of early nationalistic movements. For example, the Bataka
Opposition Movement in the 1920s by the landless class people rising up against the land-owning group.
e) Modern economy and western education were introduced with Buganda taking the lead.
f) Buganda formed the basis for the British administration as baganda were appointed as British
administrators.
g) It strengthened the special position of Buganda in relation to other communities in Uganda.
h) Sazas were increased from 10 to 20 and saza chiefs got land and right to impose land rent.
i) It led expansion of Christianity and decline of Islamic influence.
j) Bunyoro kingdom became aggrieved as results of loss of part their territory that was transferred to
Buganda by the British. This caused friction later.

Results of African collaboration

a) Just like resistors, the collaborating communities also lost their independence and were eventually
colonized. Bulozi and Buganda finally became British Protectorates.
b) The collaborating community leaders gained some recognition, though with reduced powers.
Lewanika foe example became the paramount Chief of Barotseland while Kabaka gained the title,
‘His Highness’.
c) The collaborators were able to secure some amount of protection from their traditional enemies. The
Lozi were protected from the Ndebele while the Baganda were protected from the Banyoro.
d) The collaborators were used by the Europeans to exert their authority over other African societies.
The baganda on their part were used to administer Busoga.
e) The collaborating Africans gained from missionary work. Lewanika’s sons for example gained
western education. Hospitals and schools were also built in the kingdoms.
f) There was increased trade between the collaborating communities and the Europeans. The
communities gained European goods such as glassware, clothes, guns and ammunition.
g) The collaborators just like resistors were later subjected to economic exploitation such as land
alienation, mining, taxation and forced labour.

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TOPIC 2
ESTABLISHMENT OF COLONIAL RULE IN KENYA
CAUSES OF THE SCRAMBLE FOR EAST AFRICA
Factors that contributed to the scramble and partition of East Africa
1. The rise of Nationalism in Europe. The Unification of Germany, after the Franco- Prussian war
(1870-71) upset the balance of power in Europe and there was need to rebalance out through
acquisition of colonies in Africa including east Africa. The Germans also felt that the only way their
nation could gain recognition among other European powers was through securing colonial
possession.
2. Strategic location of East Africa in relation to Egypt. Europeans were concerned with the source
of the river Nile in East Africa and control of the Suez Canal. Therefore, the ownership of East Africa
was crucial to the Egyptian affairs. East Africa, had, from the days of the Portuguese conquest in the
15thcentury, proved to be a strategic location for fresh supplies. That is why the Germans and the
British competed for possessions in the region.
3. The need to speed up economic development of the European countries. The industrializednations
were rushing for colonies to tap raw materials to keep their factories running. There was also a
popular believe that East Africa contained pockets of precious metals awaiting exploitation. They
were also driven by the search for market for European produced goods.
The Europeans were also looking for places to invest their capital.
4. The rise of Public opinion in Europe. There was growth of public support towards the acquisition
of colonies. E.g., the Daily Press in London spoke well about acquiring colonies.
5. Social factors.
~ East Africa was to be occupied as a means of stamping out slave trade and replacing
it with legitimate trade.
~ The Europeans were keen on spreading their culture to east Africa.
~ They wanted to protect their missionaries who were already operating in east Africa
The process of Partition
The Berlin conference failed to fully resolve the rivalry between the Germans and the British in East
Africa. The activities of Karl Peters and Harry Johnstone for the Germans and the British respectively
in the Mount Kilimanjaro region depicted intense rivalry which almost led to war.The two signed
treaties with local chiefs as a way of legalizing their arbitrary declaration of their spheres of influence.
Karl peters even declared german protectorate over Ungulu, Uzigua, Usagara and Ukami.These
activities together with those of Sir William Mackinnon of the Imperial British East Africa Company
became the immediate cause of the partition of east Africa.The partition of East Africa was sealed
through the following two treaties.

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The Anglo-German Agreement of 1886
The agreement facilitated peaceful settlement of the german and British claims on east Africa as
follows;
a) The Sultan was given the 16 KM (10mile) coastal strip from Vanga to Lamu. He also acquired
islands of Zanzibar, Pemba, mafia, Lamu, pate and Towns like Lamu, Kisimayu, Mogadishu, Merca,
and Brava.
b) Germany acquired the coastline of Witu the region between river Umba in the North and river
Ruvuma in the south.
c) The British got the territory north of river Umba up to river Juba in the north.
However, the treaty failed to determine the western boundary, thus leaving Uganda up for grab to any
power that got there first. Uganda therefore became a theatre of intense rivalry between Karl Peters
who even secured a treaty with Kabaka Mwanga in 1890 and Fredrick Lugard who tried in vain to
sign a treaty with Kabaka Mwanga.

This tension is what led to the Heligoland Treaty of 1890.

Terms of the Heligoland Treaty of 1890

a) Germany officially recognized Uganda as a British sphere of influence/protectorate.
b) Germany abandoned her claim over the territory of Witu for British in exchange for Heligoland
island in the North sea
c) Germany accepted British protectorate over Zanzibar and Pemba.
d) Germany acquired a strip of land on Lake Tanganyika from Britain and the Coastal region of
Tanganyika from the Sultan of Zanzibar.
e) The Sultan of Zanzibar retained a 16km (10 miles) Coastal strip.

This treaty thus ended the scramble for and partition of East Africa.

BRITISH OCCUPATION OF KENYA

Methods used by the British to occupy Kenya.
a) Signing of treaties. The following treaties were signed either by the British or on behalf of the
British to facilitate their occupation of Kenya;
~ A treaty by Sir William Mackinnon and the Sultan of Zanzibar Barghash in 1887
which effectively put Zanzibar under the British for 50 years.
~ The Maasai Agreements of 1904 and 1911 between Oloibon Lenana and the British
~ The Anglo-Germany Treaties of 1886 and 1890.
b) Collaboration. The British collaborated with communities like the Wanga and Maasai who were
later used as bases to extend British Authority over other areas.
c) Establishing operational bases. The British built Forts like Fort Smith (Kabete) and Fort Hall
(Murang’a) to enhance their political control.

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d) Use of company Rule. In the initial stages, due to the fear of the enormous costs of effective
occupation and administration, the British mandated the IBEA. Company to administer the Kenyan
protectorate.
The Imperial British East Africa Company of Sir William Mackinnon was given the royal charter in
1888 and thus had the following new powers;
a) Levying and collecting taxes and institute custom duties in the area.
b) Establishing political authority and Maintain of law and order in the British East Africa.
c) Promoting legitimate trade and Eradicate slave trade
d) Developing and civilizing the indigenous peoples with the assistance of the imperial consul based in
Zanzibar.

Achievements of the IBEAC.

a) The company succeeded in quelling local aggression in the British spheres of influence from
communities such as the Nandi, Maasai and Akamba.
b) The company established a series of Forts at Kibwezi, Machakos, Smith and Dagoretti, which laid
the basis for colonial administration in Kenya.
c) The company improved transport and communication in the protectorate by pioneering road
construction in Kenya. For example the Sclater’s Road between Kibwezi and Busia in 1894 which
assisted in transportation of railway building materials.
d) The company succeeded in eradicating slavery to some extend and securing freedom for many slaves.
e) The company also developed a rubber industry along the coast and the interior.

Reasons why Britain used the IBEA Company to administer her possession
a) Absence of a clear policy on the administration of colonial possessions. This gave room to the use
of the company to administer the colony.
b) The company could provide cheap administrative capital that Britain had failed to raise for colonial
governance. The colonies were not yet economically viable
c) There was a problem of inadequate personnel to be used in the administration of the colonies.
d) I.B.E.A.Co’s long experience in the region. The company had invested heavily in east Africa, hence
making its participation in the administration of the colony inevitable.

Why company rule had failed by 1895.

a) The region lacked strategic natural resources for export thus making the IBEACO, a trading
company, to operate at a loss and narrow its revenue base. Minerals like Gold, copper and Diamond
were not existent.
b) The company lacked sufficient capital to carry out the day- to- day administrative operations. The
company had spent the little funds available in the construction of fortified trading stations, with little
reward.

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c) Transportation of goods in the region proved expensive and slow as the region did not have any
navigable rivers
d) The company faced the problem of poor coordination of its activities caused by lack of proper
channels of communication between the head office in Europe and the offices in the colony.
e) Some of the company officials were corrupt and therefore misappropriated funds.
f) The company faced numerous resistances especially in the Nandi country thus disrupting their
operation. At one time, Fort Smith was set on fire by African resisters.
g) Some of the company officials lacked experience in administrative matters since most of them came
merely as traders.
h) The company officials also were affected by the harsh tropical climate and diseases like malaria and
sleeping sickness that killed many.
The company thus surrendered the Charter in 1895 to the British government for a compensation of
250,000 dollars

Factors facilitated the establishment of the British control over Kenya during the 19th century?
a) The Christian missionary factor. They created an atmosphere of friendship with Africans, which
was important for colonization. They also occasionally called home for protection against hostile
communities.
b) Presence of trading company (IBEACO. The companies through their agents signed treaties with
African rulers and among themselves as a means of initiating effective occupation of Kenya.
c) Superior military power/good army. The European armies were more efficient than he African ones.
This was witnessed in the ability to quell the numerous wars of resistance like the Nandi resistance.
d) Disunity among African communities. By the time the British came to East Africa, the Wanga were
up against the neighboring communities in western Kenya, the Nandi and the Maasaiwere at war and
the Mijikenda against the coastal Arabs over land. This was of advantage to the British.
e) Signing of treaties. There was Collaboration of some communities with the British. The Maasai
signed the Maasai Agreement of 1900. The Wanga also signed various treaties with the British.
f) The British policy of indirect rule was readily acceptable, thus reducing the chances of resistance.
g) Financial support from the home government.

KENYA PEOPLES’ RESPONSES BRITISH INVASION OF KENYA

Africans in Kenya offered varied responses to the British intrusion into their country. Some resisted
while other collaborated.The communities that resisted actively included the Nandi, Agiryama,
Bukusu, Somali and sections of the Agikuyu

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The Nandi Resistance (1895-1906)
Reasons why the Nandi resisted British occupation of their land
a) The Nandi had gained a lot of pride, having subdued their neighbours E.g the Luo, Maasai,
Abagusii and Abaluhyia. At that time, they were enjoying a sense of superiority that gave them
confidence to take the British Intruders head-on.
b) The Nandi military superiority made them feel equal if not superior to the whites. Their warriors
were well- trained and equipped and had gained a lot of experience through the numerous cattle raids
the conducted against their neighbours.
c) The Nandi detested the physical appearance of the white people which they considered as evil and
must be expelled from their community.
d) The Nandi were opposed to Land alienation by the British. They disliked the grabbing of their land
for railway construction/white settlement.
e) Kimnyole’s prophecy that foreigners would dominate the Nandi motivated them to fight against the
Europeans.
f) The Nandi had a long history of resisting and fighting intruders. They had successfully warded off
the Arab and Swahili traders in the 1850s.
g) The Nandi resisted as a means of safeguarding their independence which they had enjoyed for a long
time.
h) The Nandi also enjoyed unity under the leadership of Koitalel Arap Samoei between 1895 and
1905. This had helped them to register numerous victories against neighbouring communities. They
therefore felt strong enough to resist the British.

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TOPIC 3
COLONIAL ADMINISTRATION
The methods mainly used by the British to administer their colonies were
1. Direct rule.
2. Indirect rile.

Difference between direct rule and indirect rule.

Indirect rule was a system under which the British recognized the existing African political system and
used it to rule over the colonies.Direct rule was a system where the Europeans/the British entrenched
themselves in the direct administration of their colonies. Indigenous political and administrative
institutions and leaders are replaced with European systems.

Indirect rule
This was a policy advanced by Fredrick Lugard, the British High Commissioner in the protectorate of
Northern Nigeria from 1900 to 1906.To Lugard, as summed up in his book, The Dual Mandate in the
Tropical Africa (1922),”the resident acts as a sympathetic adviser to the native chief, on matters of
general policy. But the native ruler issues his instructions to the subordinate chiefs and district heads,
not as orders of the resident but as his own”.Such a system was applied in Kenya and in West Africa.

Why Britain used indirect rule in Kenya and Nigeria

a) Britain lacked enough manpower to handle all the administrative responsibilities in the colonies.
For example, in the Nigerian protectorate, there were only 42 British officials by 1900.
b) Lack of adequate funds for colonial administration from the parent government made her use the
existing traditional political system as a means of cutting down the administrative costs.
c) The use of indirect rule was a means of diffusing the expected stiff resistance from the Africans.
The traditional rulers were to be made to feel that they had lost no power.
d) The policy of administration had succeeded in India and Uganda, thus motivating them to apply it
in Kenya and Nigeria.

British rule in Kenya

In Kenya, the British lacked both funds and experienced personnel to facilitate their administration.
Kenya also did not have a reference model of an administrative system –like that in Buganda Kingdom.
It was only among the Wanga section of the Abaluhyia and the Maasai where traditional chiefs that
were recognized by the British existed.
Where the institution of chieftainship did not exist as the case of the Agikuyu, the British appointed
chiefs (men with ability to communicate in Kiswahili and organize porters) like Kinyanjui WA
Gathirimu in Kiambu, Karuri wa Gakure in Murang’a and Wang’ombe wa Ihura in Nyeri. The passing
of the Village Headman Act in 1902 gave the chiefs the responsibilities of maintaining public order,
hearing of petty cases and clearing of roads and footpaths.The 1912 0rdinance increased the powers of

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the chiefs and their assistants (headmen); they were now allowed to employ other persons to assist
them, such as messengers and retainers. They were to assist the District officers in Tax collection and
control brewing of illegal liquor and cultivation of poisonous plants like Cannabis sativa. They were to
control carrying of weapons and mobilize African labour for public works.

The selected colonial chiefs however faced two problems;

a) Most of them lacked legitimacy and were therefore rejected not only by the African elders who
regarded them as nonentities, but also by the young generation who saw them as tools of colonial
oppression and exploitation.
b) Many of the colonial chiefs were young and inexperienced.
c) Many of the chiefs also became unpopular since they used their positions to amass riches in terms of
large tracts of land, livestock and wives. E.g Chief Musau wa Mwanza and Nthiwa wa Tama acquired
8000 herds of cattle and 15 wives respectively in kambaland.The structure of administration was as
discussed earlier with governor being answerable to the colonial secretary in London. Below him
were provincial commissioners, district commissioners, district Officers and Chiefs.All the
administrative positions above that of the chief were occupied by European personnel.

The British in Nigeria.

Nigeria comprised the Lagos colony and protectorate, the Southern Nigeria Protectorate and the
Northern Nigeria Protectorate. These regions were later amalgamated into the Nigerian protectorate in
1914.In Northern Nigeria, Fredrick Lugard employed indirect rule.

Reasons for the use of indirect rule by the British in northern Nigeria.
a) The system was cost-effective. There was need to reduce the administrative cost by using
the local chiefs in administration while employing very few British officials.
b) Northern Nigeria had communities with a well-organized centralized system of government
complete with Islamic sharia whose use provided a base to govern the protectorate. i.e. The Sokoto
Caliphate
c) The vastness of the region coupled with the inadequate British administrative work forceand Poor
transport and communication network made it difficult for the British officials to effectively
administer some parts of the region.
d) The system would help dilute African resistances since governance was by local rulers. TheBritish
were keen on guarding against the local resistance to their administration.
e) The method ensured smooth transition from African to British dominion. It was a way of
deliberately preparing Africans for self-government.
f) Indirect rule had been tried successfully in Uganda and India.

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Indirect administration as applied in northern Nigeria
In Northern Nigeria, the existing emirates with centralized system of administration formed thebasis of
local governance. The Emirs were retained and were to rule under supervision of the British resident
officials.The British administration was based on the local customs and laws. Chiefs chosen by the
British were to be acceptable by the local people. Local chiefs collected taxes and a portion of it was
given to the Central Government.Local Native Courts operated as per the laws of the land. The Emirs
were allowed to try cases in their own Muslim courts.The Emirs were mandated to maintain law and
order. They possessed firearms.In 1914, Northern and Southern Nigeria were Brought under one
syatem of administration.
However Lugard found it hard to apply indirect rule in Southern Nigeria.

Why indirect rule was not successful applied in southern Nigeria

a) Southern Nigeria lacked a centralized indigenous system of administration, which would have been
vital in the application of indirect rule.
b) The south had many ethnic groups, many languages and many disparities in customs, whichdenied
it the homogeneity necessary for the application of indirect rule.
c) The southern people were infuriated by the British introduction of new concepts like forced labour
and direct taxes.
d) The British did not give themselves time to understand the operation of the social, politicaland
economic systems of the people of southern Nigeria.
e) The educated elites in the south felt left out of the administration of their own country in favour of
the illiterate appointees of the British.
f) There existed communication barrier between the British supervisors, the warrant chiefs and the
people, which sometimes led to misinterpretation and misunderstanding.
g) The warrant chiefs sometimes misused their powers in tax collection and molesting women
sexually.
h) The brutish had used excessive force in dealing with any form of resistance and this made them
unpopular

Problems associated with indirect rule as a system of government.

a) Indirect rule could only e applied where centralized government was present. Its application in
stateless societies often faced difficulties.
b) Where chiefs were imposed, especially in the stateless societies, their authority lacked legitimacy
and only resulted in suspicion and lack of confidence. This would lead to constant riots when they
tried to exert their authority.
c) Local people even in the highly centralized states looked at indirect rule as curtailing the authority
of their local rulers and hence resented it. E.g the Yoruba state in Nigeria.
d) Some inexperienced British officials tended to interfere too much with the vital African customs
and practices e.g. among the Asante thus bringing further problems.

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e) Different administrations had different views on the degree of indirect rule to be applied hence
confusion was created. It was difficult to draw a boundary between the advisory and supervisory roles
of colonial powers.
f) Language was a problem and there was need for interpreters. Communication was poor and made
adaptation difficult.
g) Education of chiefs was necessary but even this took a long time and needed patience and skillful
knowledge which the British did not have.

Effects of indirect rule.

a) The system led to transformation of the role of traditional African chiefs. they now began to recruit
fellow Africans to provide labour to the colonial government and even fight in world war I. the chiefs
thus became unpopular.
b) The indigenous system of administration was modernized by the British especially in northern
Nigeria.
c) Many African chiefs used their positions to accumulate a lot of wealth at the expense of their
people. Chiefs like Wang’ombe and Gakure in central Kenya acquired large tracts of land.
d) Indirect rule created suspicion and mistrust between the educated elites and the traditional chiefs
who were given power ib southern Nigeria. The elite reacted by forming political movements thus
leading to growth of nationalism in Nigeria.
e) Indirect rule helped preserve African cultures, unlike assimilation which sought to replace them.

DIRECT RULE
This system was mainly used in regions with large white settler population such as Algeria, south
Nigeria and Zimbabwe.

Direct rule in Zimbabwe

Zimbabwe was colonized by the British South African Company under John Cecil Rhodes. Rhodes
used his resources to sponsor a group of South African Europeans who set out to establish in Southern
Rhodesia, a satellite of South African System.
They began off by engaging the Ndebele in a series of wars from 1893 before finally occupying the
fertile land in Mashonaland and Matabeleland.

Characteristics of direct rule in Zimbabwe

a) Zimbabwe had a large number of European settlers with their population rising to 50,000 by 1931. The
whites therefore maintained an advantaged position throughout their administration of Zimbabwe.
b) Many of the British settlers developed the attitude and consequently the belief that the territory was
pre-ordained to be a white settler colony.
c) The territory was administered by a commercial company (B.S.A.C) for a long period (1890-1923)
d) An administrator below who was a long chain of European civil servants performing simple
administrative duties headed BSAC.

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e) Direct method of administration was applied to the Africans who had initially resisted the intrusion.
New chiefs were appointed to dethrone the traditional leaders.
f) The Legislative Council that was begun in 1898 gave the European settlers political Rights to the
extent that by 1923, they had attained some self-governance.
g) The system was characterized by massive alienation of African Land compelling Africans to
provide labour to the new European settlers.
h) There was racial segregation which was effected through the Legislative Council. African
communities suffered greatly in the hands of the settler regime.

Reasons for use of direct rule by the British in Zimbabwe

a) The British desired to fully control the economy of Zimbabwe and maximize on profit generation
through direct involvement in administration.
b) The Shona and Ndebele resistance against British intrusion made the them not to trust the Matabele
chiefs nor use them as British agents
c) There was lack of reliable political system to be used in indirect administration of the region. The
local political institutions based on the Induna system had been destroyed when the British conquered
and occupied Zimbabwe.
d) Existence of enough B.S.A Co personnel on the spot who were familiar with the area as well as the
British system of government.
e) Favourable climatic conditions and the expected rich mineral deposits attracted many settlers who
later provided the necessary personnel.
f) There was a strong desire by the Europeans to be able to direct their own affairs and destiny without
interference from within or without/The spirit nationalism

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TOPIC 4
SOCIAL AND ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENTS
DURING THE COLONIAL PERIOD IN KENYA.
The Uganda Railway
The railway was built between 1896 and 1901 with George Whitehouse as the Engineer. Work was
mainly done by 32,000 Indian coolies and 5,000 clerks and craftsmen. The locals could not provide
skilled labour. It costed the British taxpayers about 6 million sterling pounds.

Reasons for the construction of the Uganda railway line.

a) To promote trade with the outside world by encouraging the exploitation of available resources and
enable the colony sustain itself
b) To link Uganda with the Coast so that the British can achieve their strategic interests.
c) To enable missionaries to go the interior to spread Christianity.
d) To help stop slave trade since slaves would no longer be needed to ferry goods to and from the coast.
e) To provide quick, safe and convenient means of transport for government administrators/troops
f) Open up Kenya for economic development/to stop slave trade/promote legitimate trade
g) To maintain law and order so that economic development could be achieved.
h) To make Africans more productive and able to generate revenue in form of tax to the colonial
government.
i) To activate interior trade to enable transportation of imported goods to the interior of the colony.

The construction
The railway construction works commenced in Mombasa in 1896. By 1901, the railway had reached
Kisumu (then Port Florence) passing through Nairobi in 1899.
Numerous feeder lines were later laid down as follows;
The Nairobi –Thika Branch(1914), Konza – Magadi (1915), Voi- Moshi(1918), Rongai- Solai (1925),
Eldoret-Kitale(1926), Eldoret- Jinja (1927), Gilgil-Nyahururu(1929), Thika- Nanyuki(1930)and
Kisumu – Butere(1930)
In 1948, the Kenya Uganda Railway had been linked with the Tanganyika network to become the East
African Railways.

Problems experienced during the construction of the Uganda railway.

a) There was insufficient labour since African labour force was not forthcoming. In the case of the
Akamba and the Maasai, they were forcefully recruited.
b) The climate of the interior was not suitable for the European labour force. The Europeans
constantly fell ill, thus interfering with construction progress.

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c) The Arab rebellion under Mbaruk Rashid between 1895 –96 at the coast delayed the railway
construction.
d) There was an additional expense of constructing special jetties since Mombasa port was not large
enough.
e) The Man-eaters of Tsavo created danger and havoc to the construction works.
f) The rift valley terrain was difficult. It was rugged with many hills and escarpments thus causing
difficulties in construction.
g) Hostility of some Kenyan communities to intruders e.g. the Nandi who vandalized the railway and
telegraph lines.
h) Insufficient building material since most of them came from Europe and their delivery often delayed,

The effects of railway construction.

a) It led to development of European settler farming in order to make the railway pay for its
construction.
b) There was rampant land alienation. The colonial government alienated African land for railway
construction forcing communities like the Maasai and Nandi to move into reserves.
c) There was rise of wage labour for the railway and later for the settler farmers.
d) It led to growth of urban centres along the railway line e.g. Nairobi.
e) Railway construction promoted economic growth of the East African region. This is because farm
produce and other commercial products could easily reach market.
f) It led to rise of large Asian settlement since many Indians were employed as railway workers. This
Asians boosted trade in east Africa.
g) It led to development of other forms of infrastructure like the roads and telecommunication lines.
This stimulated trade development.
h) It led to transfer of the administrative capital from Mombasa in 1905 to Nairobi.
i) When the railway reached Kisumu in 1902, it led to major changes to the ad ministrative boundaries
within East African region. Initially, the western region up to Naivasha was part of Uganda.
j) The railway became a major revenue source for the colonial authorities.
k) It facilitated the establishment of colonial rule in Kenya since it was possible for rapid movement of
troops.
l) It facilitated the cultural and social interaction among the different races.
m) The railway made rural-urban migration and the resultant enterprises such as hawking and charcoal
–selling possible.
n) Other forms of transport and communication developed and expanded along the ralwayline. For
example:roads and telecommunications.
o) Christian missionaries were able to move into the interior, where they established missionschools.

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SETTLER FARMING AND COLONIAL LAND POLICIES
As a means of raising revenue to meet the cost of administering the Kenya colony and maintain the
Uganda railway, the colonial government encouraged the influx of white settlers to the ‘white
Highlands’.
The administration did this by;
a) Providing efficient railway transport connecting the coast and the interior
b) Alienating of the white highlands for European settlement.
c) Advertising the availability of free land in foreign newspapers
d) Giving loan incentives
e) Providing security

The settlers however faced the initial challenges of crop and animal diseases, labour shortage, lack of
inputs and African aggression.

Why the colonial government encouraged white settlement in Kenya.

The reasons why the colonial administration led by Sir Charles Eliot (1900- 1904) and later Sir
Edward Northey encouraged settler farming in the white highlands were;
a) They hoped that settler farming would meet the cost of administration and railway maintenance.
b) The British industries were also in need of cheaper raw Materials in an increasingly competitive
European Market. These raw materials would be cheaply produced by the settlers.
c) The settlers would also help control the prevailing Asian immigration and influence in Kenya.
d) The colonial government wanted to make Kenya a white man’s country by encouraging white
settlers to form the backbone of the economy.
e) Kenya Highlands had cool wet climate and fertile volcanic soils suitable for Europeansettlement and
agriculture.
f) There was need to get rid of social misfits in Europe and the landless who would be offered avenues
in the Kenya colony.
g) Existence of already willing entrepreneurs lake Lord Delamere and Captain Grogan who were ready
to come to Kenya and engage in profitable agriculture.

Factors which promoted settler farming

a) The land policies availed cheap African labour to settler farmers. The alienation of African land and
Creation of African reserves forced Africans to work in the settler farms.
b) Africans in Kenya were not allowed to grow some cash crops in order to enable Europeans continue
getting cheap African labour for their farms.
c) The government built and maintained various forms of transport. For example the railway, Bridges
and roads which facilitated faster movement of produce and inputs.
d) The government Reduced freight charges in the importation and exportation of agricultural inputs
and products.

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e) The government encouraged formation of cooperatives to help in the processing and marketing of
produce.
f) The establishment of financial institutions such as Agricultural Finance Corporation and Banks
provided the settlers with credit facilities.
g) The government availed extension services for crops and animal farming through the establishment
of the Department of Agriculture and research stations to improve the quality of crops and animals.
h) Trade tariffs were also removed and settlers were granted concessions.

Problems experienced by settlers.

a) Inadequate labour as Africans refused to work. Bush clearance and preparation of land for
cultivation was therefore a problem.
b) Constant raids by the local inhabitants such as the Nandi, Maasai and Agikuyu threatened their
peace and security. Some communities even raided their dairy farms for cattle.
c) Some of the settlers lacked faring experience. Some of the settlers had not engaged in farming
before and therefore lacked basic agricultural knowledge.
d) Inadequate capital often hindered procurement of farm inputs. Machinery, labour. Some settlers
became bankrupt and could not meet the day to day operational costs on the farms.
e) Lack of proper knowledge on farming seasons hence crop failure. The climate and soils in the
colony were alien to the settlers.
f) There was the problem of poor transport and communication as it had become difficult for the
government to network all areas occupied by settlers with roads and communication lines.
g) Inadequate and unreliable market for their produce. They mainly relied on foreign market which
could not serve in the case of perishable commodities.
h) Pests and diseases were prevalent in the white highlands. The settlers were assailed by various
human, animal and crop disease.

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TOPIC 5

POLITICAL DEVELOPMENTS AND STRUGGLE

FOR INDEPENDENCE IN KENYA (1919-1963)
Early Political Organizations In Kenya Upto 1939
African participation in the First World War contributed to rapid political developments in Kenya in
the following ways;

a) When many African from different communities and countries met, they realized that they shared
numerous interests and problems which necessitated political unity.
b) The Africans’ disapproval of the Whiteman’s immortality during the war, as he could alsoget
wounded, die and suffer like them. This motivated them to strive for equal rights when they came back.
c) The introduction of many unfair measures after the war made their lives difficult. For example,
governor Northey introduced the Soldier settlement scheme in 1919 to settle British ex-soldiers while
African ex-soldiers got a raw deal.

Other factors for the rise of early political organizations included;

a) The introduction of the Kipande system in 1920 which was used to force Africans to provide labour
for the European settlers.
b) The replacement of the Indian Rupee with the shilling in 1921 meant that those in possession of the
rupee had valueless money at a short notice.
c) The reduction of African wages and the increase in hut tax and poll tax in 1920 from 10 to 16 shillings.
d) The change of status of Kenya from a protectorate to a colony in 1920 which d awned on the
Africans that the Whiteman was here to stay unless this move was fought.

Kikuyu Association
This was the first political organization in Kenya. It was founded in 1920 by Loyalist Kikuyu chiefs,
concerned about the continued grabbing of African land for European settlement.They also complained
about the planned reduction of African wages after the replacement of the rupee with the shilling, the
kipande system which they equated to slavery.The patron was Paramount Chief Kinyanjui wa
Gathirimu and Chief Koinange wa Mbiyu was the president. The secretary was I.M.Ishmael.

Other members were Josiah Njonjo, Philip Karanja, Mathew Njoroge and Waweru wa Mahui. The
Association, being made of loyalist chiefs, was never aggressive in its demands. The members
therefore failed to get any meaningful concessions from the government.Later, Harry Thuku and
Abdalla Tairara joined the association together with other Christian converts who were labourers,
colonial house servants and clerks in Nairobi and central Kenya.When Thuku tried to introduce

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radicalism in the Association, he was forced to decamp on 7thJune 1921 and founded the Young
Kikuyu Association.

The East African Association.

It began off as Young Kikuyu Association (YKA) in 1921 having been inspired by the Young Buganda
Association in Uganda. Its founders included Harry Thuku, Abdalla Tairara, Mwalimu Hamisi and
Muhamed Sheikh.Harry Thuku, the leading founder of this association was a mission educated elite
who was working as a telephone operator in Nairobi.

He became dissatisfied with the nonaggressiveness of the Kikuyu Association which was dominated by
loyalist chiefs, in pressing the colonial government for Africans’ demands.YKA being very aggressive
demanded;
~ The return of African land.
~ Better working conditions for Africans.
~ Reduction of taxes.
~ Withdrawal of Kipande system which had been introduced in 1920.
~ Increase in wages.

YKA incorporated other ethnic community members thus necessitating it to change the name to the
East African Association in July 1921. The officials included Harry Thuku (Chairman) George Samuel
Okoth, Abdalla Tairara, Kibwana Kambo, Jesse Kang’ethe, Z. K. Sentongo from Uganda, Maitei ole
Mootian, Molanket ole Sempele from Tanzania, James Mwanthi and Muhamed Sheikh. EAA became a
very popular association in the 1920s attracting huge crowd in its meetings.

Grievances of the East African Association

~ They were demanding for the removal of the status of Kenya as a colonial territory.
~ They were demanding for a common roll for all in the legislative council elections.
~ They wanted the return of the alienated land, back to African owners.
~ They were opposed to forced labour.
~ They wanted more educational facilities and opportunities for Africans.
~ They were demanding that all labour in urban areas be paid fair wages.
~ They wanted the compulsory selling of cattle be stopped.
~ Removal of Kipande System.
~ Protested European domination of government.
~ Wanted hut tax that was exclusively paid by Africans abolished.

Due to the radical approach that was adopted by Harry Thuku, the colonial Governor had him arrested
on 15thMarch 1922 and detained at the Kingsway Police Station (now Nairobi Central Police Station).

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On 16thMarch 1922, a Kikuyu Woman, Muthoni Nyanjiru, challenged the African men to violence
demanding the release of Thuku.

More than 21 people including Muthoni Nyanjiru, were killed when the police opened fire on the over
1000 people who were surging forward.Harry Thuku was deported to Kisimayu. His colleagues
Waiganjo and Mugekenji were banished to Lamu as EAA was banned.

Consequences of Harry Thuku’s arrest

a) The political parties that succeeded the EAA continued using even more radical approach when
they realized that the colonial government was determined to continue using ‘Iron Rule’ in Kenya.
b) Governor Edward Northey was recalled to London by the then Colonial Secretary, Sir Winston
Churchill due to the way he mishandled the Thuku affair.
c) The colonial government did not allow formation of any other countrywide political Associations
among Africans until 1945.
d) Thuku became the undisputed flag-bearer of Kenyan Nationalism prior to formation of later
political parties.

The kikuyu central association.

When EAA was banned, its former officials Joseph Kang’ethe and Jesse Kariuki founded the Kikuyu
central Association. It was formed in 1924 at Kahuhia, Fort Hall with Kang’ethe becoming the
president and Henry Gichuru, secretary. Job Muchuchu (Treasurer), James Beauttah (secretary-general)
and Jesse Kariuki (vice-president). All these were extremist politicians whose activities were closely
monitored by the government.

Grievances of the Kikuyu Central Association.

~ They were demanding for the removal of the 1915 Crown Land Ordinance that made
Africans mere tenants and not real owners of their land.
~ They were demanding for African representation in the Legislative Council.
~ They were opposed to forced labour.
~ They wanted free primary education as opposed to the colonial education system.
~ Establishment of a secondary school, training facility for hospital workers and a school for girls.
~ Removal of kipande system.
~ They demanded that all colonial laws be translated into Gikuyu Language so that all members of the
community could understand them.
~ They demanded for the appointment of a well-educated Paramount Chief elected by the majority of
the Agikuyu.
~ Wanted hut tax abolished and other taxes reduced
~ They advocated for the growing of coffee and other cash crops by Africans.
~ To work towards the restoration of alienated African land.

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~ To pressurize the colonial government to abolish racial segregation.
~ Respect of African culture & customs e.g. Circumcision/polygamy
~ Agitating release of political prisoners e.g. Harry Thuku.

By 1925, KCA had attracted membership from all large urban centres in Kenya and the Kikuyu
squatters in the Rift Valley. They presented their demands to Governor Grigg when he visited Fort Hall
in 1925.In 1927, KCA relocated its headquarters from Murang’a to Nairobi in order to link up with
other Kenyan elites. In 1928, Jomo Kenyatta became its Secretary- General, taking over from James
Beauttah who had been transferred from Nairobi in an act of sabotage by the government. Kenyatta
started the Association newspaper, Muigwithania which was instrumental in reviving the cultural
values of the Agikuyu.

When the Hilton Young Commission was formed in 1927 to look into the question of the federation of
Kenya, Uganda and Tanganyika, KCA through Jomo Kenyatta presented the following demands to it;
~ Introduction of free primary education for Africans.
~ Provision of secondary and higher education for Africans.
~ Abolition of kipande system
~ Appointment of Africans to LEGCO
~ Release of Harry Thuku
~ Giving of Title Deeds to Africans as a guarantee against any further land alienation.
~ Rejection of the proposed East Africa Federation

KCA championed female circumcision arguing that it was a beautiful cultural practice which
eradicated prostitution in the community. When the Church of Scotland Mission, African inland
Mission and CMS expelled all sympathizers with the practice from their missions, KCA responded by
leading the pack in the beginning of independent schools and churches.KCA sent Jomo Kenyatta,
accompanied by Parmenas Mukiri, to present Agikuyu grievances in 1929 to the colonial office in
London. It also helped kikuyu elders in preparing evidence to the Kenya Land Commission in
1931.Rivalry for power within the KCA between 1931 and 1938 nearly rocked the association.The
Association was banned in 1940 alongside others.

Kavirondo Tax Payers and Welfare Association

It started as Young Kavirondo Association (YKA) in December 1921 at a Baraza held in Ludha, central
Nyanza, by mission educated Luo and Luhyia men. The meeting was meant to discuss issues affecting
African communities.The official of the Association were Jonathan Okwiri (chairman), Simon Nyende
(Treasurer), Benjamin Owuor (secretary), Rueben Omulo, Ezekiel Apindi, George Samuel Okoth,
Mathayo Otieno, Joel Omino and Jolmeo Okaka. The demands of the YKA included;

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~ They were demanding for addressing of the problem of change of the status of Kenya from a
protectorate to colonial territory.
~ Demanded for a government school to be built in central Nyanza.
~ Demanded for a self- government for nyanza province with a separate legislative council and an
elected African president.
~ They were opposed to forced labour and labour camps.
~ An end to land alienation.
~ Creation of the position of paramount chief for central and southern Nyanza, just like Mumias was
for northern Nyanza.
~ Removal of Kipande System.
~ Demanded to be given title deeds for their land.
~ Wanted hut tax removed.
~ The advocated for better wages.

The members presented their demands to the Nyanza PC in May 1922 and met governor Northey in
Kisumu in July 1922 at Nyahera in Kisumu. The governor agreed to authorize the closing down of
labour camps and reduce taxation. However, the revocation of the Crown Colony Status was out of
question.In 1923, however, government, alarmed by the mobilization level of YKA in Nyanza,
compromised its leadership and Jonathan Okwiri handed over chairmanship to Archdeacon Owen
fearing the banning of the association the way EAA had been.Under Owen YKA changed its name to
KTWA with its emphasis shifting from political grievances to social grievances focusing on killing
rats, digging latrines and keeping compounds clean. It also adopted the use of written memoranda in
expressing their grievances.

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TOPIC 6
EMERGENCE AND GROWTH OF
NATIONALISM IN AFRICA
Factors for the rise of nationalism in Africa
a) The exposure of Africans to severe economic exploitation during the colonial period. For example
land alienation in the Kenya Highlands, in southern Rhodesian, Algeria and South Africa which was
accompanied with forced labour where the labourers faced mistreatment.
b) Africans were fed up of heavy and harsh taxation by the Europeans. They were exposed to heavy
taxation, ranging from hut tax to breast tax in Belgian Congo.
c) Africans were fed up with the gradual destruction of their culture by the whites.
Missionaries totally dismissed the age-old African traditions as being barbaric. This explains why
independent schools and churches sprung up in central Kenya.
d) The introduction of racial discrimination to go hand in hand with colonialism. All the best social
amenities in South Africa, Zimbabwe and Kenya were reserved for the whites. The Europeans
equated the black colour with low intelligence, uncivilized and a backward race.
e) Africans resented colonialism because it interfered with their political institutions. The colonial
rulers disregarded traditional rulers, appointing their own puppets in their place.
f) The Acquisition of western education by many Africans by 1945 enabled them to articulate their
grievances more forcefully and to understand political developments outside Africa.
g) The return of the ex-servicemen after the second world war which exposed the myth of the white
supremacy making Africans ready to fight them. Moreover, the colonial government failed to reward
African ex-soldiers to embitter them more.
h) The change of government from Conservative to Labour Party in Britain in 1946 stimulated a new
attitude in Britain towards decolonization. This motivated African nationalists.
i) The rise of nationalism in Asia, culminating into the granting of independence to India and Pakistan
in 1947 aroused great confidence among Africans who worked closely with Asian nationalists like
Jawaharlal Nehru, the India Prime Minister.
j) The rise of Pan-Africanism in Africa after the 1945 Manchester conference contributed to the new
demands for political independence in Africa Many African élites attended the conference which
served as a source of awakening.
k) The formation of the UNO and the pressure it exerted on the European powers to decolonize helped
the Africans in their course.
l) The emergence of United States and the Soviet Union as super powers in the world contributed to
the decolonization process. USA was keen to see Britain and France grant independence to their
subjects in the world in order to secure new markets.

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m) The signing of the Atlantic Charter in 1941 by Winston Churchill and Franklin Roosevelt which
demanded that when the WWII ended, all subject peoples should enjoy the right to self-
determination.

NATIONALISM IN GHANA
The British annexed Gold Coast in 1874 after quelling a stiff resistance by the Asante. In response to
the British imperialism, the Fonte Confederation was initiated in 1868, marking the birth of African
Nationalism in Ghana. In 1897, the Aborigines Rights Protection Society was formed to guard against
the alienation of African land.In the 1930s, African elites like J.B. Danquah launched the Gold Coast
Youth Conference in order to awaken the youth to the economic and social needs of the country.Their
efforts bore fruits because in 1946, governor Burns embarked on constitutional reforms leading to
increased African representation in the LegCo. (Of the 18 slots given to Africans in the LegCo, 13 were
to drawn from among the chiefs while 5 were to be popularly elected).
The elites formed the United Gold Coast Convention (UGCC) and invited Kwame Nkrumah, a
graduate of the University of Pennsylvania in Philadelphia, to come and lead it since most of them
were professionals lacking time for political commitment. Nkrumah appeared to have more political
experience having participated in the 1945 Manchester conference.

Factors for the growth of nationalism in Ghana

a) The early Introduction of cocoa growing led to adoption of money economy in Ghana ahead of
other countries. This enabled faster social and economic transformation of the people.
b) The colonial government’s attempt to tamper with cocoa growing by ordering cutting of coca trees
hurt people to the level of developing nationalistic feelings against the British.
c) Ghana was one of the first countries in Africa to receive western education from the missionaries.
There was a large class of elites with western university education accompanied with leadership skills
to spearhead nationalism their country.
d) The existence of ex-servicemen in Ghana also played an important role in the campaign for
independence.
e) The granting of trading licences by the government selectively to European traders while
deliberately denying then Africans.
f) Ghana had comparatively better developed transport and communication system. Also being a small
country, movement of information, ideas and people was easy, quick and efficient. This facilitated
nationalist activities.
g) The charismatic and strong leadership provided by Kwame Nkrumah brought cohesiveness among
people of Ghana. He formed the CPP party, which became the symbol of struggle for the oppressed
people of Ghana.
h) The participation of Kwame Nkrumah in the Pan-African Manchester conference in 1945, which
championed the right of countries to self-determination, made the country take the lead in Africa in
championing this right.

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i) The people of Ghana were more exposed to international affairs than other countries in Africa due to
its location in a region, which had the earliest contacts with European traders and colonizers.
The peak of nationalism in Ghana.On 28thFebruary 1948, the ex-soldiers led the Accra riots, protesting
to Governor Gerald Creasy the failed fulfillment of the government pledges while in service during the
World WarII. Two rioters were killed. The shooting incident sparked of chaos in the town leading to
another 29 Africans being killed. Nkrumah was arrested together with his colleagues popularly
known as the ‘Big Six’. (Nkrumah, Danquah, William Ofori, Addo, Adjei and Obetsebi Lamptey).
This arrest popularized Nkrumah among the Africans. The 1948 Alken Watson commission blamed the
social-economic oppression for the riots. The governor ordered for constitutional reforms led by J.H
Coussey.On 12thJune 1949, Nkrumah broke ranks with the conservative UGCC senior members and
formed the Convention People’s Party (CPP). His party gained support mainly from among the primary
school leavers, store-keepers, artisans, peasants and cocoa farmers. Nkrumah advocated positive action
through legitimate political action, newspaper and political campaigns and constitutional application of
boycotts, strikes and non-cooperation based on the policy of absolute non-violence on the basis of
Mahatma Gandhi teachings. He started a newspaper, The Accra Evening News to expound CPP views.
He was arrested, but secured landslide victory in the February 1951 elections while in jail. He was
released to become the leader of government business in the new cabinet. CPP also won in the 1954
elections in which a new party, the National Liberation Movement (NLM) had emerged to compete
CPP. NLM membership mainly from the Ashanti, were uncomfortable with Nkrumah because;
~ He came from a small ethnic group little known in southern Ghana.
~ His radicalism did not please the conservative Ashanti leaders.
Again elections were called in July 1956 and CPP trounced NLM. This time, the British accepted the
results and on 6thMarch 1957, the country attained political independence under Kwame Nkrumah

Achievements of CPP under Kwame Nkrumah

a) CPP under Nkrumah united Africans of all ranks in Ghana in the struggle for national liberation.
b) The party introduced the concept of positive action to pressurize the government to liberate
Africans.
c) CPP formed the first African government in Africa in 1951 after winning the elections. Under
Nkrumah’s leadership, Ghana began attaining economic development.
d) CPP, under Nkrumah, advocated for unity of all Africans in the country us other parties like NLM
advocated for regionalism, a factor that enhanced progress towards political libration.

How Kwame Nkrumah contributed to the liberation struggle in Africa.

a) He funded nationalists in other countries e.g. Guinea and Algeria.
b) He supported other African leaders who faced political threats from their former colonial masters.
c) When some countries were faced with threats from their former colonial masters after independence
like in the case of Patrice Lumumba in DRC, Nkrumah provided them with his support.
d) He championed trade unionism in Africa.
e) He attended pan-African congress in 1945 which was key to defining the liberation struggles in Africa.

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f) He initiated the formation of the Ghana- Guinea Union in 1958 as a practical step towards building
African unity.
g) He convened two pan-African conferences in April 1958 and the all African Peoples conference in
December 1958 that led to the formation of O.A.U in 1963.

NATIONALISM IN MOZAMBIQUE
Mozambique was among the last countries in Africa to attain independence from the Portuguese. Even
before the Berlin conference, Mozambique and Angola were considered Portuguese colonies owing to
the later’s interests in the region dating back to the pioneer years.

Reasons for slow process in decolonization process of Mozambique.

a) Mozambique was colonized by a colonial power that was very poor and backward and which
needed to keep its hold on her to enable her economy grow. She was an important source of revenue
for the Lisbon government.
b) Mozambique housed many settlers who had invested heavily in farming, mining, building,
construction and in other sectors. They were therefore reluctant to leave.
c) Mozambique was an important market for Portuguese products. Portugal was not willing to let go
easily.
d) The support, which the colonial government got from South Africa, enabled them to get uranium,
which they used, for making bombs used to suppress African independence riots. They also got
electricity and assistance to built caborra bassa dam on Zambezi.
e) Mozambique was big geographically with very poor infrastructure i.e. roads and
communication facilities. This hampered fast movement of people and ideas.
f) Unlike other colonized countries, Mozambique suffered the worst kind of exploitation and
repression/ rigorous censorship and surveillance by security forces, which discouraged emergence of
nationalism.
g) The Portuguese practiced racism out of fear that if they educated Africans and gave them equal
status, the Africans would outnumber them and throw them out.

Factors for the growth of nationalism in Mozambique.

a) The arbitrary replacement of the traditional rulers by the Portuguese administrators whenever they
felt they were not performing.
b) The massive alienation of African land by the Portuguese who pushed Africans to regions of
unfavourable conditions.
c) The exposure of Africans to severe economic exploitation like forced labour where the labourers
faced mistreatment.
d) The rampant racial discrimination through which Africans continued to lose agricultural land to the
Europeans. Being from a poor country, the Europeans competed with Africans for simple jobs like
taxi driving and often gaining advantage on racial lines.

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e) The Portuguese imposed many restrictions on Africans, limiting their freedom of expression and
intellectual advancement. For example, General Salazar, who rose to power in the 1920s, ensured
strict censorship of the press.
f) The security police treated Africans with great cruelty. Any political unrest was crushed ruthlessly.

The peak of nationalism in Mozambique.

In early 1960, the Makonde people of Cabo Delgado province formed the MozambicanMakonde Union
(MANU).In June 1960 MANU organized a peaceful protest but in which over 600 Africans perished in
police firepower. The government outlawed all African organizations with membership of over thirty
people. African political activities went underground. Mwalimu Julius Nyerere inviting some of the
liberation groups to relocate to Tanzania in 1962. The political groups united to form the Liberation
Front of Mozambique (FRELIMO) with Eduardo Mondlane Chirambo, formerly a lecturer at Syracuse
University in USA, as its first president.From 1962 to 1964, FRELIMO undertook guerilla training in
Bagamoyo and at the Mozambique institute in Dar es Salam in preparation for war.

From September 1964, they began a full-scale war against the Portuguese along river Ruvuma and
extending their attacks on the Cabo Delgado province. By 1967, the Portuguese forces numbered
65,000 soldiers.Mondlane Eduardo was assassinated in 1969. Samora Machel was elected to become
the FRELIMO army commander in 1970.The coup d’etat in Lisbon in 1974 was a blessing to
FRELIMO movement since soldiers who did not favour colonial wars by Marcello Caetano carried it
out. The new military junta finally signed an agreement with FRELIMO the enabled the setting up of a
transitional gover nment in September 1974. He handed over power to the Africans in 1975 with
Samora Machel becoming the first president.

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TOPIC 7
LIVES AND CONTRIBUTIONS OF KENYAN
LEADERS
Jomo Kenyatta.
Early life
Jomo Kenyatta was born Kamau wa Ngengi to Ngengi wa Muigai and Wambui in Gatundu, Kiambu on
20thOctober 1891. His father died while Kamau was very young was adopted by his uncle Ngengi, who
inherited his mother. When his mother died during childbirth, young Kamau moved from Ng'enda to
Muthiga to live with his medicine man grandfather Kũngũ wa Magana.He joined the Church of
Scotland Mission (CSM) at Thogoto, as a resident pupil. In 1912, having completed his mission school
education, he became an apprentice carpenter. In 1914, he converted to Christianity, assuming the
name Johnstone Kamau.

He left the mission later that year to seek employment as an apprentice carpenter on a sisal farm in
Thika.To avoid forced recruitment as WWI soldier, he lived with Maasai relatives in Narok, where he
worked as a clerk for an Asian contractor. He took to wearing a traditional beaded belt known as a
'Kenyatta', a Swahili word which means 'light of Kenya'.In 1922 Kamau adopted the name Jomo
Kenyatta, and began working for the Nairobi Municipal Council Public Works Department as a store
clerk and water-meter reader.

Marriage and family.

In 1919 he married Grace Wahu. On 20 November 1920 Kamau's first son Peter Muigai was born.
Grace Wahu lived in the Dagoretti home until her death in April 2007 at the age of around 100.In 1942,
he married Edna Clarke and Peter Magana was born in 1943. In 1951 Kenyatta married Ngina
Muhoho, daughter of Chief Muhoho and was independent Kenya's First Lady, when Kenyatta was
elected President.

Kenyatta and politics

Kenyatta joined the EAA in 1922 which disbanded in 1925.Kenyatta worked as editor of the KCA's
journal between 1924 and 1929, and by 1928 he had become the KCA's general secretary. In May 1928
Kenyatta launched a monthly Kikuyu-language newspaper called Mwĩgwithaniawhich was intended to
draw all sections of the Kikuyu together. He also made a presentation on Kikuyu land problems before
the Hilton Young Commission in Nairobi in the same year.In February 1929 Kenyatta was dispatched
to London to represent the KCA in discussions with the Colonial Office.

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He wrote several letters and in the letter published in The Times in March 1930 set out five points:
~ The security of land tenure and the return of the land taken by European settlers.
~ Improved educational opportunities for Black Africans.
~ The repeal of Hut and poll taxes.
~ Representation for Black Africans in the Legislative Council.
~ Freedom to pursue traditional customs (such as female genital mutilation)

He returned to Kenya on 24 September 1930. He returned to London in 1931. In 1932 to 1933, he

briefly studied economics in Moscow. at University College London from 1935 studied social
anthropology. Kenyatta published his own book, Facing Mount Kenya in 1938.

Kenyatta and pan-Africanism.

In 1945, with other prominent African nationalist figures, such as Kwame Nkrumah of Ghana,
Kenyatta helped organize the fifth Pan-African Congress held in Britain.

Kenyatta and the struggle for independence.On arrival into Kenya in 1947, he became principal of
Kenya Teachers College Githunguri.In 1947, he was elected president of the Kenya African Union
(KAU) after James Gichuru stepped down.From 1948 to 1951 he toured and lectured around the
country. He also published My People of Kikuyu and The Life of Chief Wang'ombe, a history shading
into legend.The Mau Mau Rebellion began in 1951 and KAU was banned, and a state of emergency
was declared on 20 October 1952. Kenyatta was arrested in October 1952 and indicted with five others
(Bildad Kaggia, Fred Kubai, Paul Ngei, Achieng Oneko and Kung’u Karumba).

At Kapenguria trials lasting 5 years, Rawson Macharia who was the main prosecution witness later
confessed that he had been bribed to give false information about Kenyatta. The defense was led by
British barrister D.N. Pritt. The court led by Judge R.S. Thacker, sentenced Kenyatta and his team on 8
April 1953 to seven years imprisonment with hard labour and indefinite restriction thereafter.Kenyatta
remained in prison at Lokitaung in north western Kenya until April 1959, after which he was detained
in Lodwar.On 14 May 1960, he was elected KANU President in absentia.

In 1960, Ambu Patel, a follower of Mahatma Gandhi formed the ‘Release Jomo Kenyatta Committee’.
On 23rdmarch 1961, Kenyan leaders visited him in Lodwar. On 11 April 1961, he was moved to
Maralal with daughter Margaret. On 14 August 1961, he was released.

Leadership
Kenyatta was admitted into the LegCo after his release in 1961, after Kariuki Njiiri gave up his
Kigumo seat for him. In 1961 and 1962, he led the KANU delegation to first and second Lancaster
Conference in London to negotiate Kenya's independence constitution.

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Elections were then held in May 1963 and KANU beat KADU by winning 83 seats out of 124. On 1
June 1963, Kenyatta became prime minister of the autonomous Kenyan government. On 1 June 1964,
Kenyatta became an executive President following amendment of the Constitution to make Kenya a
republic.

Commentary
Historians have questioned Kenyatta’s alleged leadership of the radical Mau Mau movement. Kenyatta
was in truth a political moderate. It is even alleged that the colonial administration deliberately arrested
him to protect him from the radical KAU members who accused him of betraying their course. (There
were three attempts to assassinate him before he was arrested). His marriage of Colonial Chief's
daughters, his post independ-ence Kikuyu allies mainly being former colonial collaborators, and his
short shrift treatment of former Mau Mau fight ers after he came to power, all strongly suggest he had
scant regard for the Mau Mau

Kenyatta and nation building

On 10 November 1964, KADU officially dissolved and its representatives joined KANU, forming a
single party. Kenyatta was re-elected un-opposed in 1966, and the next year had the Constitution
amended to expand his powers. In the 1969 elections, Kenyatta banned the only other party, KPU led
by Jaramogi Oginga Odinga, detained its leaders, and called elections in which only KANU was
allowed to participate.

Kenyatta made use of detention, ethnic loyalties, and careful appointment of government jobs to
maintain his commanding position in Kenya’s political system.Kenyatta was again re-elected
unopposed as President in 1974He remained president until his death four years later in 1978.

Sickness and Death

President Kenyatta had suffered a heart attack in 1966. In April 1977, then well into his 80s, he
suffered a massive heart attack.On 14 August 1978, he hosted his entire family, including his son Peter
Magana who flew in from Britain with his family, to a reunion in Mombasa. On 22 August 1978, he
died in Mombasa due to ‘old age’. He was buried on 31 August 1978 at a mausoleum on Parliament
grounds.Kenyatta’s tenure as president featured the following problems.

a) There was a great split within KANU due to his land policy. Kenyatta compromised with the whites
over their property. The Land-buying companies formed to buy European farms favoured one community.
b) From the onset of independence, KADU advocated for Majimboism and therefore opposing
national unity.
c) The 1966 term featured border conflicts with Somalia, and more political opposition. He made the
Kikuyu-led KANU practically the only political party of Kenya. He placed several of his Kikuyu
tribesmen in most of the powerful state and security offices and posts.

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d) Increasing loss of confidence in his government suspected of complicity in murders of Pio Gama
Pinto, Tom Mboya and J.M. Kariuki. MP and Lawyer C.M.G. Argwings-Kodhek and former Kadu
Leader and Minister Ronald Ngala.
e) Poverty, ignorance and disease were serious problems in Kenya in the early years of independence.
f) There was shortage of manpower since the inherited educational policy left Africans illequipped for
skilled employment.
g) Kenya did not have adequate funds to provide for is development needs.
h) There was a serious problem of poor transport and communication.
i) The existence of Banditry (Shifta Menace) in north-eastern kenya also shifted attention from economic
development.

Achievements.
a) Mzee Jomo Kenyatta is credited with leading Kenya to independence and setting up the country as a
relatively prosperous capitalist state.
b) He oversaw a peaceful land reform process, oversaw the setting up of the institutions of
independent Kenya, and also oversaw Kenya's admission into the United Nations.
c) During his reign, the country was reasonably well governed, peaceful and stable, the economy
developed and grew rapidly and attracted high levels of foreign investment, and a black Kenyan
professional and business middle class was established.

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TOPIC 8
THE FORMATION, STRUCTURE AND FUNCTIONS
OF THE GOVERNMENT OF KENYA.
THE ELECTORAL PROCESS.

Role of the Independent Electoral and Boundaries Commission in Kenya.

a) The Commission is responsible for conducting or supervising referenda and elections to any
elective body or office.
b) It is responsible for continuous registration of citizens as voters and regular revision of the voters’
roll.
c) It Prescribes and reviews electoral boundaries in constituencies and wards at intervals of not less
than eight years, and not more than twelve years. The constitution provides for 290 constituencies
established under the following considerations;
~ Community of interest, historical, economic and cultural ties
~ Geographical features and urban centres
~ Means of communication
d) It is responsible for regulation of the process by which parties nominate candidates for elections.
e) The commission is responsible for settlement of electoral disputes, including disputes relating to or
arising from nominations. However it does not handle election petitions and disputes subsequent to
the declaration of election results.
f) The registration of candidates for election.
g) Educate/informs the public on the requirements for voters and contestants
h) Facilitation of the observation, monitoring and evaluation of elections.
i) It is responsible for regulation of the amount of money that may be spent by or on behalf of a
candidate or party in respect of any election.
j) Identifies, appoints and trains election officials.
k) Verifies and announces election results
l) Prepares ballot papers and other election materials.
m) Identifies and recommends polling stations.

Types of elections.
There are three types of elections in Kenya;
a) General elections. These are elections held after every five years. Initially they were meant to be
held on the second Tuesday in August on the fifth year. But this has since been altered due to the
delay in new constitution implementation process
b) By elections. These are elections of new leaders to fill vacant seats left following deaths of
occupants, resignation or annulment of their election through successful petition in court.

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c) Re –run elections- this are elections held exactly one month after the general elections involving
only two presidential candidates in case of no clear winner in the general election.

Why Kenyans elect their representatives to parliament every five years.

a) It is a constitutional requirement that Kenyans elect MPs after every five years.
b) The elections give Kenyans a chance to practice their democratic right of choosing their
representatives.
c) It enables Kenyans control their elected representatives i.e. the fear of losing election ensures that
elected representative serve the electorate well.
d) It enables Kenyans choose between representatives and between parties that express the policies
that they agree with.
e) Through periodic elections, Kenyans are able to participate in activities of their government

The following methods have been used in elections in Kenya.

a) Mololongo (queuing)
b) Acclamation
c) Secret ballot.

THE 2007 ELECTIONS IN KENYA

The electoral process that was adopted by the ECK under the stewardship of Samuel Kivuitu in the
2007 election was very unfair and yielded false results. This caused the outbreak of violence,
bloodshed, destruction and loss of property.The Kreigler commission that was formed to look into the
causes of the 2008 violence reported the following weaknesses.
a) Irregularities in the voter register which excluded 30% of the potential voters the register contained
names of deceased persons. Women who had attained the voting age were found to be under
represented.
b) Imbalanced distribution of registered voters among constituencies. Some constituencies like
Embakasi had over 200, 000 registered voters while others like Mandera East had less than 20,000
registered voters.
c) Rampant cheating where in some cases the votes cast were more than 100% of the registered voters.
d) Existence of exclusive strongholds with some electoral areas being out of bounds for some political
parties.
e) There was a defective system of voter tallying and relaying of information. Some of those declared
winners finally lost their seats through election petitions.
f) Incompetence of the ECK officials with even the chairmen stating clearly that it was impossible to
establish who won the elections.
g) The results relayed sometimes faced integrity queries. Some officials relayed cooked results.
h) The composition of the ECK raised suspicion especially among the opposition.

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The principles that govern the electoral process in Kenya.
a) All citizens have the freedom to exercise their political rights
b) Not more than two-thirds of the members of elective public bodies shall be of the same gender.
c) Persons with disabilities must receive fair representation.
d) There must be universal suffrage based on the aspiration for fair representation and equality of vote.
e) The elections should be free and fair and will be by secret ballot, free from violence, intimidation,
improper influence or corruption.
f) The elections will be conducted by an independent body, transparent; and administered in an
impartial, neutral, efficient, accurate and accountable manner

Legislation on Elections.
The following legislations govern the electoral process in Kenya.
a) The constitution of Kenya-that is a sovereign state and republic with the people owning all
sovereign power directly or through democratically elected leaders.
b) The national assembly and presidential elections Act- it outlines the steps to be followed in the
registration of voters, nomination of candidates, polling and counting of votes and other related
processes.
c) The local government act- it gives the procedure and rules for conducting elections for county,
municipal and town councils.
d) The electoral offences Act. – it lays out the election offences like bribing of voters, threatening
voters, voting more than once or causing violence on polling day or during campaigns.

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 Page 57 of 57
Prefer Calling Amobi Group of Examiners @ 0743 333 000 or 0706 851 439 for F1-F4 All Subjects Notes