Forest Extension note by :Kebal pd.

Pandey (Forestry Instructor @KTS,Jumla)

Unit: 1 Extension Education

Background:
The term “Extension” originated in England in 1867-68, first taken up by Cambridge and
Oxford University. The term “Extension Education” was first used in 1873 by Cambridge
University as an educational innovation to take the educational benefits of the universities to
the common people in their working situation.
First use of extension was by Vorhees (1894) in the agricultural sector for diffusion of
agricultural information to the farmers. Since then, Agricultural extension; Rural Extension;
Forest Extension etc. has been interchangeably used.

Meaning:
Derived from Latin language “Ex” meaning out “tension” means to stretch. So extension means
outstretch, extend, spread, disseminate. The term “extension” is used to disseminate useful
information and ideas to the ordinary people in their working situation to make them capable
of solving their problems themselves.

Definition:
Many extension professionals have provided useful insights and thoughts to define the
extension education for a long time.
Extension Education is a science, which deals with the creation, transmission & application of
knowledge designed to bring about planned changes in the behaviour of people, with a view to
help them live better by learning the ways of improving their vocations, enterprises &
institutions- Reddy (1993).

Extension Education is a science that brings about desirable changes in the behaviour of the
concerned persons through educational methods, so as to improve their general standard of
living with their own efforts. In fact, it deals with the designs & strategies of transfer of
technology to the concerned persons. In other words, what is taught to the farmers is not
Extension Education, though its knowledge is applied for the effective & efficient
communication of various programs of change- Singh (1994).
Extension education is the process of teaching rural people how to live better by learning ways
that improve their farm, home and community institutions – J.P. Leagans (1961)
Extension work is an out of school system of education in which adult and young people learn
by doing. It is partnership between the Govt. and the people, which provides service and
education designed to meet the people. Its fundamental objective is the development of the
people. – Kelsey and Harne (1963)

It is an integral behavior science, which contributes towards the understanding and formulation
of methods and procedures for bringing planned change in human behavior.
It is education for the betterment of people and for changing their behavior i.e. knowledge,
skills and attitude.
It is the dissemination of research findings and ideas among rural people to bring out desirable
changes in their social and cultural behavior.
Forest Extension note by :Kebal pd.Pandey (Forestry Instructor @KTS,Jumla)

The main task of extension education is to assist farmers and other forest user group by
providing information, by individual and group devices and by use of mass media to increase
their professional knowledge and skills.
Extension by nature is an educational process of transferring useful information and research
findings to end-users for their benefits.
From the above definitions, it is concluded “Extension education is an education to bring a
desirable change in behavior (knowledge, skills and attitudes) of rural people to improve their
social, economic and psychological status”.

Scope:
The scope of extension education is wide and increasing day by day in the context of tackling
the world poverty through mass education and extension training, which are listed as follows:

 Efficiency in livestock production

 Efficiency in marketing, distribution and utilization
 Conservation, development, and use of natural resources
 Management on the farm and in the home
 Family living
 Youth development
 Leadership development
 Community development
 Public affairs
Scope of Extension in Forestry
Man has lived in past with various benefits from forest resources ranging from food, shelter
and clothing. This has resulted in degradation and loss of forest resources.
To address the problem of forest conservation, there is need for reorientation of man’s
perceptions of and attitudes towards the forest, so that he can appreciate and value it, change
in his behavior in exploration of alternatives to forest destruction as a way of life.

Objective:

Fundamental objective of extension education is the overall development of the rural

people.
The major objective is development of stakeholders by improving their quality of Life
(QoL)
General Objectives of Extension Education
 Dissemination of useful & practical information relating to agroforestry, including
improved seeds, NTFP”s and their sustainable use, fertilizers, implements, pesticides,
improved cultural practices, dairying, poultry, fisheries, veterinary & animal
husbandry, and food & nutrition.
 Practical application of useful knowledge to farm & home.
Forest Extension note by :Kebal pd.Pandey (Forestry Instructor @KTS,Jumla)

 Improvement in all aspects of the life of the rural people within the framework of the
national, economic & social policies involving the population as a whole.
 To make them aware of sustainable use of Forest products, its marketing for economic
gain.
 To create an environment for rural people so that they can show their talent, leadership
and efficiency.
 To provide latest agro forestry technical know-how to the farmers/locals with the fact
and figures in the shortest time.
 To provide appropriate solution of the villager's problems.
 To bring scientist closer to the villagers.
 To assist people to discover and analyze their problems and identify their needs.
 To develop leadership among people and help them in organizing groups to solve their
problems.
 To disseminate research information of economic and practical importance in a way
people would be able to understand and use.
 To assist people in mobilizing and utilizing the resources which they have or need from
outside.
 To collect and transmit feedback information for solving management problems.

Specific objectives of Extension Education in Forestry

An extension program in forestry has two fold benefits:
 Public information education and service to promote forest conservation.
 Bring efficiency in forest development and to accelerate improvement and the
economic condition of communities.

Specific objectives
Promote the wise use of forest resources so as to yield maximum contribution to the public
welfare.
To establish and maintain public awareness and appreciation of the importance and value of
forest resources.

To generate public respect for and support of laws and regulations to forest development and
resource utilization.
To demonstrate the knowledge on improved methods and techniques of forest resource
management and industrial technology.
To demonstrate the need for conservation of forest resources.
To encourage researchers to promote conservation of forest resources.

Principles of Extension Education

Forest Extension note by :Kebal pd.Pandey (Forestry Instructor @KTS,Jumla)

A common definition of a Principle is a fundamental truth and a settled rule of action. Principle
is a statement of policy to guide decisions and actions in a proper manner.

The extension work is based upon some working principles and the knowledge of these
principles is necessary for extension personnel. Some of these principles, as related to extension
education, are mentioned below:

Principle of peoples need and interest

Extension work must be based on the needs & interests of the people. These needs & interests
differ from individual to individual, from village to village, from block to block, from state to
state; therefore, there cannot be one programme for all people.

Principle of grass root level organization

A group of rural people in local community should sponsor extension work. The program
should fit in with the local conditions. The aim of organizing the local group is to demonstrate
the value of the new practices or programs so that more & more people would participate.

Principle of cultural difference and change

Extension work is based on the cultural background of the people with whom the work is done.
Improvement can only begin from the level of the people where they are. This means that the
Extension professionals has to know the level of the knowledge, & the skills of the people,
methods & tools used by them, their customs, traditions, beliefs, values, etc. before starting the
extension program.

Extension education starts with what the learner knows, has and thinks. With this in mind and
with an attitude of respect towards clients, the extension professionals must seek to discover
and understand the limitations, taboo and the cultural values related to each phase of program
so that an acceptable approach could be selected in the locality

Principle of cooperation and people’s participation

Extension is a co-operative venture. It is a joint democratic enterprise in which rural people co-
operate with their village, block & state officials to pursue a common cause. Ultimately without
the cooperation of people the work cannot be successful and desired result cannot be achieved.
The first task of extension education is the cooperation of people and their participation in
work. Extension helps people to help themselves. Good extension work is directed towards
assisting rural families to work out their own problems rather than giving them ready-made
solutions. Actual participation & experience of people in these programs creates self-
confidence in them and also they learn more by doing. People should realize that the task of
extension education is their own task. Participation in extension work generates confidence
among people for the work. It is not essential that all the members of the society should
participate but Extension professionals should try for maximum participation of people.

Principle of applied science and democratic approach

Forest Extension note by :Kebal pd.Pandey (Forestry Instructor @KTS,Jumla)

Extension education is based upon democratic principles. It is based on discussions and

suggestions. Discussions are held with the people on actual field conditions, so that they
participate in work. Extension professionals provide practical look to the scientific inventions
so that farmers can easily adopt them on their farm.

Principle of learning by doing

According to this principle, farmers are encouraged to learn by doing the work them self and
by participating in it. When a person does a work, he gains practical knowledge and experiences
the difficulties. Extension professionals are able to understand the problems and provide proper
guidance to the farmers and thus, they are able to receive proper information/feedback.

Principle of trained specialists

It is very difficult that extension personnel should be knowledgeable about all problems.
Therefore, it is necessary that specialists should impart training to the farmers from time to
time.

Principle of adaptability in use of extension teaching methods

People differ from each other, one group differs from another group and conditions also differ
from place to place. An extension program should be flexible, so that necessary changes can
be made whenever needed, to meet the varying conditions. Extension professionals
should have knowledge of extension methods so that they can select proper method according
to the condition. Teaching methods should be flexible so that they can be properly applied on
people according to their age groups, educational background, economic standard and gender.
In extension education, two or more methods should be applied according to the principle of
adaptability.

Principle of leadership
Extension work is based on the full utilisation of local leadership. The selection & training of
local leaders to enable them to help in carrying out extension work is essential to the success
of the programme. People have more faith in local leaders & they should be used to put across
a new idea so that it is accepted with the least resistance.
Principle of whole family
Extension work will have a better chance of success if the extension professionals have a
whole-family approach instead of piecemeal approach or separate & uninterested approach.
Extension work is, therefore, for the whole family, i.e. for male, female and children.
Principle of evaluation
Extension is based upon the methods of science, and it needs constant evaluation. The
effectiveness of the work is measured in terms of the changes brought about in the knowledge,
skill, attitude, and adoption behavior of the people, not merely in terms of achievement of
physical targets.
Principle of satisfaction
The end product of the effort of extension teaching is the satisfaction that comes to the farmer
and his family members as the result of solving a problem, meeting a need, acquiring a new
skill or some other changes in behavior. Satisfaction is the key to success in extension work. A
satisfied stakeholder is the best advertisement.

Teacher (Instructor)
Forest Extension note by :Kebal pd.Pandey (Forestry Instructor @KTS,Jumla)

A successful teacher is the one who takes into account the following important considerations:
 Understands the nature of the learner and is in a position to evaluate his motives &
ability.
 Reacts appropriately to the feelings, emotions and attitudes of the learners.
 Is conscious of the fact that the learner responds to the whole gamut of learning
situation.
 Is professionally alert.
 Is well-composed even in the adverse conditions.
 Has the ability to maintain better human relations.
 Always makes efforts for his professional growth.
 Selects those experiences, which suit to the abilities and needs of the learners.
 Should be close to masses and belong to the same groups for making dialogues
easier.

Learners
 They should have:
 Clear objectives regarding the use of the subject matter.
 Interest in the subject matter.
 Need for the subject matter.
 Ability to understand and opportunity to apply the subject matter.
 Physical and mental preparation.

Subject matter (contents)

The subject matter should fulfil the following conditions:
 Should be in the line with the needs and interests of the learners.
 Should be valid, authentic, factual and applicable.
 Should be well-organized.
 Should be at a level where it could be understood by the learners.
 Should be timely & appropriate.

Teaching methods
Subject matter cannot effectively be transferred without the help of suitable teaching
methods and aids. Proper selection and skilful handling of teaching methods and aids
facilitate creation of desirable learning situation. Teaching methods & aids should be:
 Readily available.
 In working conditions.
 Suitable to the subject-matter.
 Diversified, flexible and suited to the needs of the clients.

The following points need to be kept in mind while using extension methods for
appropriate involvement of different sense organs:
Forest Extension note by :Kebal pd.Pandey (Forestry Instructor @KTS,Jumla)

People remember the things

Ladder of Learning

For educators, to teach and not be aware of the value of Bloom’s taxonomy (original or revised)
will do injustice to our students because the taxonomy provides important perspectives that
could improve the quality of teaching and learning at all levels.

Bloom's Taxonomy was created in 1956 under the leadership of educational psychologist Dr
Benjamin Bloom in order to promote higher forms of thinking in education, such as analyzing
and evaluating concepts, processes, procedures, and principles, rather than just remembering
facts (rote learning).

The Three Domains of Learning

The committee identified three domains of educational activities or learning (Bloom, et al.
1956):

o Cognitive: mental skills (knowledge)

o Affective: growth in feelings or emotional areas (attitude or self)
o Psychomotor: manual or physical skills (skills)
Forest Extension note by :Kebal pd.Pandey (Forestry Instructor @KTS,Jumla)

In a nutshell, Bloom’s taxonomy of learning focused teachers on the educational (learning)

outcomes – what students should know and be able to do. How does the taxonomy relate
learning outcomes to teaching? For any given curriculum, knowing the intended learning
outcomes determine the what, how, and when of teaching. The focus of this article is on the
cognitive domain of Bloom’s taxonomy although affective and psychomotor domains are
equally important. The six components in the original cognitive domain are arranged in
hierarchical manner that form ‘a ladder of learning’ that moves stepwise upwards in terms of
levels of complexity, i.e., from simple to complex and from concrete to abstract. In this
hierarchy form, it is assumed that abilities or competencies needed at the lower levels are also
needed as prerequisite to the mastery of skills at higher levels.

Each step in cognitive domain involves a specific kind of competence that supposedly can be
tested with appropriate questions, each of which requires some “action” to demonstrate mastery
of the material. The six-tiered steps are:
1. Knowledge – recall of information, remembering facts and information; tested
by questions asking that a student list, define, tabulate, name or identify who, what,
when, where, and so on;
2. Comprehension – understanding of information (considered as the lowest level
of understanding), tested by questions with verbs such as summarize, contrast, interpret,
estimate, discuss, predict and the like;
3. Application – use of information to solve problems, ability to apply
information or concepts in a new situation; tested by requiring students to demonstrate,
calculate, illustrate, examine, show, modify and classify;
4. Analysis – recognition of patterns, components, organization, both manifest
and latent meanings and functions, with verbal cues such as explain, connect, compare,
separate and classify;
5. Synthesis – generalization and integration of knowledge including generation
of new ideas from old ones, relating knowledge across disciplines, drawing conclusions
and predicting, according to instructions such as combine, integrate, modify, plan,
create, design, generalize and rewrite;
6. Evaluation – assessment and decision-making in response to demands to
discriminate among ideas, test hypotheses, appraise theories, construct arguments in
support of, or in opposition to, various propositions, verify evidence and recognize bias
and subjectivity.

The first three components constitute ‘lower order thinking’ and the last three constitute ‘higher
order thinking’ abilities. The original Bloom’s taxonomy has undergone various modifications
to reflect new development in cognitive research. The new (modified) Bloom’s Taxonomy was
based on the work of Anderson and Krathwohl who incorporates knowledge from
contemporary research on learning and human cognition into its model.
Forest Extension note by :Kebal pd.Pandey (Forestry Instructor @KTS,Jumla)

The components in revised taxonomy are:

Remember, Understand, Apply, Analyse, Evaluate, and Create. The major differences are
the revised taxonomy modifies the original vocabulary to make each word more consistent with
how it should be used; the new levels are now listed as verbs. For example, the term ‘synthesis’
was changed to ‘create’ because in order to demonstrate synthesis then there need to be a new
creation.
Forest Extension note by :Kebal pd.Pandey (Forestry Instructor @KTS,Jumla)

Thoughtful application of Bloom’s taxonomy could serves as a useful structure for writing
measurable learning objectives and learning outcomes (LOs).
Forest Extension note by :Kebal pd.Pandey (Forestry Instructor @KTS,Jumla)

Role and Qualities Of Extension Workers

Extension worker can play an important role in the overall development of rural people. He/She
has a direct linkage with stakeholders (farmers, CFUGs, Forest product beneficiaries) to help
solve their problems, who brings the new technology to them and helps in adoption of new
technology. The success of any work or program basically depends upon the quality and ability
of its Extension workers. You function at the grass-roots level to address critical development
problems associated with hunger, poverty, and economics. Involvement in these activities
means involvement in the life of the community and often, an assignment with little or no
established structure or schedule. You will be continually engaged in defining your role in
response to the needs of the local people. Your creativeness, flexibility, self-motivation, and
selfdiscipline will be vigorously challenged as you establish credibility and adapt to your new
environment. You are part of a long-term development process, measuring your progress by
small successes within the warmth and sincerity of the local people’s hospitality.
A good extension worker must have the following qualities:
 Extension Personnel should not only be aware of objectives and programs but should
also be aware of prevalent conditions, problems, requirements and circumstances of
the audience
 He/She must be well acquainted with the stakeholder's problems, their culture, interest,
and need just like a boat-sailor knows all obstacles, which may come in the way of
reaching his target place of destination.
 He/She behaves with his audience as a member of a family and not as an officer of
autocratic type.
 He/She have the technical ability i.e. knowledge of different teaching methods and use
of audio-visual aids.
 He/She has the ability to develop leadership quality and cooperative nature among rural
people.
 He/She always works with the farmers and not for his carrier only.
 He/She has the ability to perform judgment of a situation to plan program and possess
communication power.
 Extension professionals help the forest products end users in changing their behavior
for development.
 He/She develops confidence among rural people about new technology.
 He/She makes the villagers understand that agriculture is a profitable business not just
a way of life.
 He/She makes them aware of what they are, and what they want to become.
 He/She helps them in their decision making process.
 He/She takes the farmers problems to scientist for their appropriate solution and again
brings the solution to them.
 He/She supervises the farmers up to that extent that they adopt the new technology
provided by them.
 He/She maintains a good linkage between villagers and allied agencies DFO, projects
and DDC etc.
 He/She assists the local leader by providing required inputs and related literature.
Forest Extension note by :Kebal pd.Pandey (Forestry Instructor @KTS,Jumla)

 He/She creates congenial atmosphere so that villagers Can adopt new technology
easily, and
 He/She helps the people in selecting and training the local leaders so that the right
person should come forward to adopt new technology.

As an Forestry Extension Volunteer, you help rural families by increasing agricultural

productivity and environmental protection, improving nutritional awareness, sustainable use of
forest products and organizing income generation activities. In collaboration with male and
female farmers, women or youth groups, schools, government or non-profit organizations, you
may be involved in the following types of projects

Unit: 2 Motivation and Perception 10 hrs

Motivation
 Motivation is the characteristic that helps you achieve your goal.
 The drive pushes you to work hard.
 It is the energy that gives you the strength to get up and keep going - even when
things are not going your way.
 The will to work is something different from the power or capacity to work.
Enthusiasms or willingness to work can be created by motivation.
 Motivation is the action that impels or urges an individual to assume an attitude
generally favourable toward his work leading him to perform satisfactorily.

Definition:
 Internal and External factors that stimulate desire and energy in people to be
continually interested and committed to a job, role or subject, or to make an effort
to attain a goal.

 A force or influence that causes someone to do something

Motivation results from the interaction of both conscious and unconscious factors such as
the

(1) Intensity of desire or need,

(2) Incentive or reward value of the goal, and
(3) Expectations of the individual and of his or her peers.

 These factors are the reasons one has for behaving a certain way.
 An example is a student that spends extra time studying for a test because he or she
wants a better grade in the class.
Forest Extension note by :Kebal pd.Pandey (Forestry Instructor @KTS,Jumla)

Motivation consists of three interacting and interdependent elements of Needs, Drives and
goals.

Goals. It is a three-step process: an internal need is expressed in terms of an action, which in

turn leads to the achievement of an external goal.

Needs: These are the deficiencies, and are created whenever there is physiological or
Psychological imbalance.

Drives or Motives: These are set to alleviate needs. These are actions oriented towards
fulfilment of needs and provides an energizing thrust toward goal accomplishment. The heart
of the motivational process.

Goals: Goal is the final achievement/accomplishment, which will alleviate a need and drives
humans towards the actions.

In other words, you have certain needs or wants (these terms will be used interchangeably),
and this causes you to do certain things (behavior), which satisfy those needs (satisfaction),
and this can then change which needs/wants are primary (either intensifying certain ones, or
allowing you to move on to other ones).

Importance in Forest Extension Program

 An important part of extension programming is to match the educational need with an
extension program. Motivation of people by extension worker must be a constant,
continuing program, attuned to new ideas in the society that will affect people in the
workforce.
 Maslow, a behavioural scientist, believes that man strives for higher needs only after
lower needs have been satisfied.
 The most basic of man's needs are the physical one, followed by several
psychological needs such as safety, social, self-esteem, and self-actualization.
 Needs assessment is the critical process in the development of educational programs.
Not only must needs for subject matter be identified, but also information must be
obtained about people's attitudes towards and expectations to be satisfied from
education in order to understand motivation.
Forest Extension note by :Kebal pd.Pandey (Forestry Instructor @KTS,Jumla)

Theories of Motivation
 Social scientists have been studying motivation for decades, trying to find out what
motivates our behavior, how and why.
 Dozens of theories of motivation have been proposed over the years.
 Here are 5 popular theories of motivation which are based on

Need based theory and Process based theory

A. NEED BASED THEORY

1. Herzberg’s Two Factory Theory

 Psychologist Frederick Herzberg developed the Two-Factor Theory of motivation
(otherwise known as dual-factor theory or motivation-hygiene theory) in the
1950s.
 He analysed the responses of 200 accountants and engineers about their positive
and negative feelings related to work, Herzberg found 2 factors that influence
employee motivation and satisfaction.

1. Motivator factors –

 Achievement, recognition, advancement, work itself, personal growth,

responsibility

 Simply put, these factors lead to satisfaction and motivate employees to work
harder. Examples might include enjoying your work, feeling recognised
and career progression.

2. Hygiene factors –

 Organizational policy, technical supervisions, interpersonal relation,

salary, job security, personal life, work condition, status.

 These factors can lead to dissatisfaction and a lack of motivation if they are
absent. Examples include salary, company policies, benefits, relationships
with managers and co-workers.

 According to Herzberg’s findings, while motivator and hygiene factors both

influenced motivation, they appeared to work completely independently of each
other…
 While motivator factors increased employee satisfaction and motivation, the absence
of these factors did not necessarily cause dissatisfaction. Likewise, the presence of
Forest Extension note by :Kebal pd.Pandey (Forestry Instructor @KTS,Jumla)

hygiene factors did not appear to increase satisfaction and motivation but their
absence caused an increase in dissatisfaction.
 According to Herzberg, the job should have sufficient challenge to utilize the full
ability of the employee.
 Employees who demonstrate increasing levels of ability should be given increasing
levels of responsibility.
 If a job cannot be designed to use an employee's full abilities, then the firm should
consider automating the task or replacing the employee with one who has a lower
level of skill.
 If a person cannot be fully utilized, then there will be a motivation problem.

Limitation and criticism:

 Critics consider Herzberg's two factor theory to be simplistic - what motivates me

may be a dissatisfied for someone else.
 It is for individuals, not as a homogeneous group with one set of wants and needs.
Some factors may be within your control, some may not.

2. Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs

 Psychologist Abraham Maslow in his 1943 paper “A Theory of Human
Motivation” coined the Hierarchy of Needs theory.
 The basis of the theory is that individuals’ most basic needs must be met before
they become motivated to achieve higher-level needs.
 The hierarchy is made up of 5 levels:

1. Physiological – these
needs must be met in order
for a person to survive, such
as food, water and shelter.
2. Safety – including personal
and financial security and
health and wellbeing.
3. Love/belonging – the need
for friendships, relationships
and family.
4. Esteem – the need to feel
confident and be respected by
others. Recognize
achievements, assign
Forest Extension note by :Kebal pd.Pandey (Forestry Instructor @KTS,Jumla)

important projects, and provide status to make employees feel valued and appreciated.
5. Self-actualisation – the desire to achieve everything you possibly can and become the
most that you can be. Offer challenging and meaningful work assignments, which enable
innovation, creativity, and progress according to long-term goals.

 According to the hierarchy of needs, you must be in good health, safe and secure
with meaningful relationships and confidence before you are able to be the most
that you can be.

Limitations and Criticism:

 Maslow’s hierarchy makes sense but little evidence supports its strict hierarchy.
Research has challenged the order imposed by Maslow’s pyramid.
 As an example, in some cultures, social needs are regarded higher than any others.
 Little evidence suggests that people satisfy exclusively one motivating need at a time.

Summary: Both these theories have been broadly read and despite its weaknesses, its
enduring value is that it recognizes that true motivation comes from within a person
and not from other factors.

Comparison of Maslow’s and Herzberg’s Theory

Forest Extension note by :Kebal pd.Pandey (Forestry Instructor @KTS,Jumla)

3. Carrot and Stick Theory

 This is a traditional method of bringing positive desired change in behaviour of
individuals.
 It involves the use of combination of rewards/ incentives (financial or non-financial)
and punishment (exerted to push individuals towards desired behaviour).

 The Carrot and Stick approach of motivation is based on the principles of

reinforcement and is given by a philosopher Jeremy Bentham, during the industrial
revolution.
 This theory is derived from the old story of a donkey, the best way to move him is to
put a carrot in front of him and jab him with a stick from behind.
 The carrot is a reward for moving while the stick is the punishment for not
moving and hence making him move forcefully.

Thus, an individual is given carrot i.e. reward when he performs efficiently and is jabbed
with a stick or is given a punishment in case of non-performance.

While giving the punishments, the following points need to be taken care of:
1. Punishment is said to be effective in modifying the behaviour if an individual selects a
desirable alternative behaviour.
2. If the above condition does not occur the behaviour will be temporarily suppressed
and may reappear after the punishment is over.
3. The punishment is more effective when given at the time the undesirable behaviour is
actually performed.
4. The management should make sure, that punishment is properly administered and
does not become a reward for the undesirable behaviour.

 Thus, carrot and stick

approach of motivation
should be applied
carefully such that, both
have the positive
motivational effect on
the people in the
organization.
Forest Extension note by :Kebal pd.Pandey (Forestry Instructor @KTS,Jumla)

B. PROCESS BASED THEORY

4. Equity theory (developed by J. Stacy Adams)

 People always have

perception about
how they are being
treated as compared
with others.
 Difference in
treatment hurt their
feelings and create
negativity inside.
 People will work
better if they are
treated equitably

Two forms of equity:

 Distributive fairness -- people should feel that they are rewarded in accordance with
their contribution and in comparison with others.
 Procedural fairness — perceptions of employees about fairness of company
procedures should be positive.
 The single most important thing to remember about equity theory is that if rewards are
to motivate employees, they must be perceived as being equitable and fair.

 Equity occurs when :

Person’s outcomes = Other’s outcomes
Person’s inputs Other’s inputs
where,
inputs = ability, qualification, time, effort, age, position etc.
Outputs = pay, benefits, promotions, status, growth, etc
Forest Extension note by :Kebal pd.Pandey (Forestry Instructor @KTS,Jumla)

5. Expectancy Theory

 Expectancy Theory proposes that people will choose how to behave depending on the
outcomes they expect as a result of their behavior.
 In other words, we decide what to do based on what we expect the outcome to be. At
work, it might be that we work longer hours because we expect a pay rise.
 However, Expectancy Theory also suggests that the process by which we decide our
behaviors is also influenced by how likely we perceive those rewards to be.
 In this instance, workers may be more likely to work harder if they had been
promised a pay rise (and thus perceived that outcome as very likely) than if they had
only assumed they might get one (and perceived the outcome as possible but not
likely)
Expectancy Theory is based on three elements:

1. Expectancy – the belief that your effort will result in your desired goal. This is based
on your past experience, your self-confidence and how difficult you think the goal is
to achieve.

2. Instrumentality – the belief that you will receive a reward if you meet
performance expectations.

3. Valence – the value you place on the reward.

Therefore, according to Expectancy Theory, people are most motivated if they believe that
they will receive a desired reward if they hit an achievable target. They are least motivated if
they don’t want the reward or they don’t believe that their efforts will result in the reward.

2.3 Methods of Motivation

 Education is a useful way to help achieve goals. Unless they can clearly see a benefit
stakeholders are not likely to participate.
 Need for motivation of each member of the community. Therefore, motivation must
be used in one's day to-day activities.

People can be motivated by

 improving human relations,
 developing the will to do,
 encouraging people to feel involved in their work,
 giving them an opportunity to improve their performance
 complementing or praising them (positive reinforcement).
 Ensuring successful learning;
Forest Extension note by :Kebal pd.Pandey (Forestry Instructor @KTS,Jumla)

 Making the first experience with a New Subject, Successful and Interesting;
 Stressing the Importance of the Amount and Quality of Effort Needed for Success in
Learning;
 Making the Learning Goal as Clear as Possible; measurable and acheivable objectives
 Making the Criteria of Evaluation as Clear as Possible;
 Promoting the Learners' self-determination within the Learning Experience;
 Knowing and Emphasizing the Felt Needs of the Learners throughout the
Instructional Process;
 Allowing the adults to share what they have learned and produced;
 Providing variety in the processes and materials used for learning;
 Using performance evaluation procedures.

Perception
 Definition:

◦ Perception is a physical process that affects an organism’s behavior.

◦ Perception of something is the way that you think about it or the impression
you have of it.

◦ A stimulus that is not perceived has no effect on behavior.

◦ People behave on the basis of what is perceived.

Elements of Perception
 Selectivity
 Interpretation
 Closure
1. Selectivity
o Voluminous information received and processed.

o Supportive and satisfying information are selected.

o Unwanted information are ignored.

2. Interpretation

◦ depends on the past experience and value system of each particular person.

◦ Attitudinal set or propensity to think or act in a certain way help interpretation

of different stimuli.

◦ Interpretation is done in supportive way.

Forest Extension note by :Kebal pd.Pandey (Forestry Instructor @KTS,Jumla)

3. Closure

◦ It relates to the tendency of an individuals to have a complete picture of any

given situation.

◦ Individuals add appropriate input in the information to close the system and
make it meaningful and supportive.

◦ A person may perceive more than what information seems to indicate.

◦ Closure and interpretation have a feedback to selectivity and hence affects

information processing or selectivity.

Visual Perception
 Psychologists examine issues
like the figure-ground
relationship which deals
with how we distinguish
what objects in our vision do
we want to examine (figure)
and what parts are just
background (ground).

 Look at the image above. Which line looks longer to you? A? B? Most people may
say B looks longer, simply because the points are facing in, rather than out.
 However, these lines are exactly the same length.
 If you were to take a ruler and measure them, you would see this. There is a reason
why this occurs, and that is what we will look at in this section. (Necker Cube and
Rubin Vase)
 Visual perception is the ability to see, organize, and interpret one's environment.
 In the example above, your eyes 'took in' the lines as well as the points on the ends of
the lines.
 At the same time, your brain was organizing and making sense of the image.
 This is a very important process because it gives us the ability to learn new
information.
 Without visual perception, you would not be able to make sense of words that you
read, visually recognize common objects, or have the eye-hand coordination required
for many daily tasks.
Forest Extension note by :Kebal pd.Pandey (Forestry Instructor @KTS,Jumla)

Theories of Perception
A major theoretical issue on which psychologists are divided is the extent to which
perception relies directly on the information present in the stimulus. Some argue that
perceptual processes are not direct, but depend on the perceiver's expectations and previous
knowledge as well as the information available in the stimulus itself.

Three important theories with regard to perception are:

Signal Detection Theory:

 It talks about the effect of outside stimuli on perception. It argues that we pay
attention to certain stimulus/stimuli as compared to others. This preference is
governed by internal motivation/ need, state of alertness etc (called response criteria).
 E.g.: A new mother will probably sleep through traffic but wake up from smallest
noise of her baby.
 In a cocktail party u tend to hear your name from faraway in spite of background
sound/ noise.

1. Top Down Processing Theory/ Indirect Theory (Gregory, 1970):

 Psychologist Richard Gregory (1970) argued that perception is
a constructive process which relies on top-down processing.
Perception is tempered by point of view and experience.
 This theory of perception says that we use our own knowledge
and expectations to influence what we see.
 We draw on our whole understanding of a concept in order to
make sense of the individual components.
 We use our previous knowledge, understanding, experiences
and expectations to fill in the gaps in information front of us.

Take a look at the following sentence

I _ant t_ e_t s_om_ c_tt_n ca_dy.

Forest Extension note by :Kebal pd.Pandey (Forestry Instructor @KTS,Jumla)

 For example, in the image above, you probably read that as 'the cat'. On closer
inspection, the second word is not really a word at all.
 It says 'CHT'. Because our brains have an expectation of what we will read, we
skipped right over the fact that it said CHT instead of CAT.
 The top-down model of processing explains why we are able to quickly look at new
information and understand it.
 We use our previous experiences to influence learning of new information.

Because of this, no two people see things the same way if left to their own devices. One
person might see a fancy sports car, and another might see an accident waiting to happen.
One person might see a cell phone as a necessary communications device, and another might
see the same device as a time waster. And while one person might see a random set of
paintbrush strokes, another might see a masterpiece.

2.Bottom up Processing Theory/ Direct Theory (Gibson, 1966):

 Gibson’s bottom up theory suggests that perception involves innate mechanisms
forged by evolution and that no learning is required. James Gibson (1966) argues that
perception is direct and that there is enough information in our environment to make
sense of the world in a direct way.
 This is also known as data-driven processing, because perception begins with the
stimulus itself.
 This type of perception works in absence of any prior knowledge of understanding of
the object, so we use the features of the object to decipher its meaning and
importance.

From a 5 year boy

I _ant t_ e_t s_om_ c_tt_n ca_dy.

 They would examine every line and curve because they do not have the experience to
do what you or I would do. This type of processing is slower, but also prone to fewer
errors than top-down.
Forest Extension note by :Kebal pd.Pandey (Forestry Instructor @KTS,Jumla)

Unit:3 Communication in forestry

Extension

3.1 Definition of Communication

 The word ‘communication’ is derived from Latin word ‘communis’, which means
common. It is a process of exchange of facts, ideas, opinions and a means that
individuals or organizations share the meaning and understanding with one another.

 Communication is sharing of ideas and feelings in a mood of mutuality- Edgar Dale.

 Communication is a means of persuasion to influence other so that desired effect is

achieved- Aristotle.

 Communication is a process of exchanging verbal and non verbal messages. It is a

continuous process.

 Communication is a process that involves exchange of information, thoughts, ideas

and emotions. Communication is a process that involves a sender who encodes and
sends the message, which is then carried via the communication channel to the
receiver where the receiver decodes the message, processes the information and
sends an appropriate reply via the same communication channel.

 Process of transferring idea, skill or attitude from one person to another accurately
and satisfactorily. In other words, sharing of ideas, skills or attitudes between two
or more persons.

 According to Dr. J Paul Leagans, communication is the process by which two or

more people exchange ideas, facts, feelings or impressions in such a way that each
gains a common understanding of the meaning, intent and use of the message.

Importance of Communication

 Necessary for planning

 Understanding each other
 Establishment of effective leadership
 Increases Efficiency
 Basis of Decision-making
 Smooth Working of Enterprise
 Motivation
 Co-ordination
Forest Extension note by :Kebal pd.Pandey (Forestry Instructor @KTS,Jumla)

3.2 Elements of Communication

 The main components of communication process are as follows:

Context –
 Communication is affected by the context in which it takes place. This context may be
physical, social, chronological or cultural. Every communication proceeds with
context.
Sender –
 Sender is a person who sends the message. A sender makes use of symbols (words or
graphic or visual aids) to convey the message and produce the required response.
Message –
 Message is the key idea that the sender wants to communicate. It must be ensured that
the main objective of the message is clear.
Medium –
 Medium is a means used to exchange / transmit the message For instance - Written
medium is chosen when a message has to be conveyed to a small group of people,
while an oral medium is chosen when spontaneous feedback is required from the
recipient as misunderstandings are cleared then and there.
Recipient –
 Recipient is a person for whom the message is intended / aimed / targeted. The degree
to which the recipient understands the message is dependent upon various factors such
as knowledge of recipient, their responsiveness to the message

Feedback –
 Feedback is the main component of communication process as it permits the sender to
analyze the efficacy of the message. It helps the sender in confirming the correct
interpretation of message by the decoder. Feedback may be verbal (through words) or
non-verbal (in form of smiles, sighs, etc.). It may take written form also in form of
memos, reports, etc.

3.3 Types of Communication and their relative advantage and

disadvantage

Types of Communication

A. One way vs two way communication

*Types of Communication Based on Communication Channels *

Based on the channels used for communicating, the process of communication can be
broadly classified as verbal communication, non-verbal communication and Symbolic.
Forest Extension note by :Kebal pd.Pandey (Forestry Instructor @KTS,Jumla)

 Verbal communication includes written and oral communication whereas the non-
verbal communication includes body language, facial expressions and visuals
diagrams or pictures used for communication.

1. Verbal Communication
 Verbal communication is further divided into written and Spoken (oral)
communication.

1.1 Spoken Communication

 The oral communication refers to the spoken words in the communication process.
Spoken communication can either be face-to-face communication or a conversation
over the phone or on the voice chat over the Internet.
 Spoken conversations or dialogs are influenced by voice modulation, pitch, volume
and even the speed and clarity of speaking.

1.2 Written Communication

The other type of verbal communication is written communication. Written

communication can be either via snail mail, or email. The effectiveness of written
communication depends on the style of writing, vocabulary used, grammar, clarity
and precision of language.

2. Nonverbal Communication

 Non-verbal communication focuses on the overall body language of the

person who is speaking, which will include the body posture, the hand
gestures, and overall body movements, the facial expressions.
 It plays a major role during communication as the expressions on a person's
face say a lot about his/her mood. On the other hand, gestures like a
handshake, a smile or a hug can independently convey emotions.
 Non verbal communication can also be in the form of pictorial
representations, signboards, or even photographs, sketches and paintings.

2.1 Pictorial Comunication

Getting information with the use of pictures.

2.2 Gesture Communication

Communication through gesture. E.g. raising hand while saying goodmorning.

2.3 Action Communication

Communication through action such as via drama, plays, puppet show etc.
Forest Extension note by :Kebal pd.Pandey (Forestry Instructor @KTS,Jumla)

2.4 Communication through Visual Symbols

Communication by visualizing symbols like traffic light.

3. Symbolic communication:
It involves the verbal and nonverbal symbolism to convey meaning. Art and music
are forms of symbolic communication.

*Types of Communication Based on Style and Purpose *

Based on the style of communication, there can be two broad categories of communication,
which are formal and non-formal communication that have their own set of characteristic
features.

1. Formal Communication
 Formal communication includes all the instances where communication occurs in a
formal setup. Typically this can include all sorts of business communication or
corporate communication.
 The style of communication in this form is very formal and official. Official
conferences, meetings and written memos and corporate letters are used for
communication.
 Formal communication can also occur between two strangers when they meet for
the first time.
 Hence formal communication is straightforward, official and always precise and has
a stringent and rigid tone to it.

2. Informal Communication (Grapevine Communication)

 Informal communication includes instances of free unrestrained communication

between people who share a casual rapport with each other.
 Informal communication requires two people to have a similar wavelength and
hence occurs between friends and family.
 Informal communication does not have any rigid rules and guidelines.
 Informal conversations need not necessarily have boundaries of time, place or even
subjects for that matter since we all know that friendly chats with our loved ones can
simply go on and on.

*Types of Communication based on Use*

Based on use can be of three types:

1. Interpersonal Communication

 This refers to face to face communication between two people. It is personal, direct
and intimate.
Forest Extension note by :Kebal pd.Pandey (Forestry Instructor @KTS,Jumla)

 it involves understanding about individual and group psychology, empathy and and
group dynamics.
 It requires listening skills and sensitivity to needs and views of others.

2. Group Communication

 This involves exchanging ideas, information and skills with a group of people suchas
in meetings or method demoonstration.
 This is also direct but with increasing number of members, degree of participation
and feedback decreases.
 Array of teaching aids that can be used are: video, audio, cassette tape, puppet
show, etc.

3. Mass Communication

 Refers to transfer of message to a larger audience at various places at the same time.
 This involves use of technology such as radiobroadcasting, TV broadcasts, satellite
communication.

3.4 Modes of Communication

Broadcasting

 There are wide varieties of broadcasting systems, all of which have different
capabilities.
 It can vary from limited area coverage to national and can be used to transmit
signals globally too, using retransmitted towers, satellite systems, and cable
distribution.
 Satellite radio revolutionaries the entire scenario, it could cover even wider areas,
such as entire continents, and Internet channels can distribute text or streamed
music worldwide. In the late 1990s, digital transmissions began to be applied to
broadcasting.
 A broadcast may be distributed through several physical means. If coming directly
from the studio at a single radio station, then it is simply sent to the transmitter from
the antenna on the tower.
 Programming which comes through a satellite, played either live or recorded for
transmission later. Different stations may simulcast the same programming at the
same time.
 Usually analogue or digital tapes or CDs/DVDs are included in another broadcast.
The final stage of broadcasting is to get the signal to the audiences.
 It is done via radio station to a receiver or through cable. Internet also brings radio
to the recipient

Radio Broadcasting: Radio Broadcasting is the distribution of audio signals that transmit
programs to an audience.
Forest Extension note by :Kebal pd.Pandey (Forestry Instructor @KTS,Jumla)

Print- newspaper, books, articles, brochures, pamplets etc.

AudioVisual- films, documentary, lectures, plays, skits etc.

Indigenous mode of Communication

 In every society there are various forms of communication channels. Some of these
are deeply rooted in the culture and preserved traditionally from generation to
generation.
 These are called indegenous traditional folk media. They are direct, face to face and
linked with emotions and values of people.
 They are cheap and donot require external resources.
 These include social gatherings such as feasts, village, meetings, spontaneous
gathering at tea shops, festivals, fairs, losar story telling, magic shows, dances, songs,
oral narrations etc.
Folk Media:

 indinegous equivalent of mass media.

 They are used primarily for entertainment, but they can promote educational values
and mainatin cultural continuity.
 This includes festivals, dances, songs, story telling, debates, etc. Rodhighar (in
mountain, young men and women play juhari, type of debate), masked dance (Lakhe
dance in Kathmandu), Deuda (mid and farwestern part of hill), dohari (in western
Nepal, debate in form of songs).
 Peer group village elders, youth groups, market place, ceremonial occasions, are
useful for dissemination of useful information strategically. Experienced farmers can
be used as trainees.
Special Features of Indigenous Communication

 Both entertainment and informational value, popular so automatically attracts

attention od the community.
 Informal and inexpensive, people oriented (use of people as resource and audience),
credible and culturally compatible.
 Precious source of traditional wisdom, cultural knowledge on various themes suchas
vocations, natural resource, philosophy in understandable terms.
 Can raise awareness as popular and linked with emotions and aspirations. Effective
communication using local proverbs, idioms and symbols.

3.5 Barriers of Communication

 It means the hindrances, difficulties, or problems in the communication process. It

advresely affects the transmission of information from the sender to the receiver.
 They tend to distort the message and block the flow of understanding.
 There are three levels at which communication takes place
Forest Extension note by :Kebal pd.Pandey (Forestry Instructor @KTS,Jumla)

1. The physical level: Noticing is done with the senses

2. The level of intelligence: Understanding.

3. The emotional level: Acceptance

 Anything that hinders the process of communication at any of these levels is a

barrier to communication.
 Barriers to communication can be defined as the aspects or conditions that
interfere with effective exchange of ideas or thoughts.

1. Physical Barriers
Noise
• Physical noise (outside disturbance)
• Psychological noise (inattentiveness)
• Written noise (bad handwriting/typing)
• Visual noise (late arrival of participants)

Time and Distance

• Improper Time
• Defects in Medium of communication
• Network Facilities
• Mechanical Breakdowns

Information Overload
• Piling up of tasks due to improper time management.
• Excess number of people assigned for same task
• Work overload/Information duplication.

2. The level of intelligence:

Semantics
• What do you mean by SEMANTICS?
• Why is SEMANTICS required?
• When does SEMANTIC BARRIER arise?

Similar sounding words

 These words are known as Homophones Pronunciation Spelling Meaning Examples:
• pale/pail • alter/altar • buy/bye/by • rain/reign

Words have multiple pronunciations

 These words are known as Homographs Spelling Pronunciation Meaning Examples •
The bandage was wound around the wound.
 We must polish the Polish furniture.
 He could lead if he would get the lead out.
Forest Extension note by :Kebal pd.Pandey (Forestry Instructor @KTS,Jumla)

Words have multiple meaning

 These Words are also known as homonyms Spelling Pronunciation Meaning
Examples
 Never desert your friends in the desert.
 Close the window before the bee gets too close

Denotations and connotations

• Denotation: The literal meaning of a word
• Connotations: The emotions and associations connected to a word – Favourable
Connotation: 'honest', 'noble', 'sincere’ – Unfavourable Connotation: 'cowardly', 'slow',
'incompetent‘ Examples: They gave us cheap stuff. At this shop, they sell things cheap

Language barriers
• Different Languages
• No Clarity in Speech
• Using Jargons
• Not being specific

3. The emotional level:

Psychological barriers
• Attitude and opinions:
• Emotions
• Filtering and distortion of message
• Status difference
• In attention
• Closed mind •
\ Fields of experience Others include:
• Group identification
• Self-image • Premature evaluation • Distrust • Poor retention

Cross-cultural Barriers
Language
• Values
• Social Relation
• Concept of time
• Concept of space
• Gestures

Organizational Barriers
 Loss or distortion of messages as they pass from one level to another
 Filtering of information according to one’s understanding/interpretation
 Messages not read completely or not understood correctly
 Deliberate withholding of information from peers perceived as rivals
 Information gap if upper level does not know the true state of affairs
Forest Extension note by :Kebal pd.Pandey (Forestry Instructor @KTS,Jumla)

 Lack of communication policy

 Authoritarian attitude of management
 Poorly Defined Authority and Responsibility
 Too Many Levels in Organization Structure
 Insufficient Communication Training.

Overcoming Barriers of Communication


Orientation of language, good listening, clarity and clarification of the message,
feedback, interpersonal relations are different measures of overcoming barrier of
communication.

Individual Action- Active listening  Select the appropriate channel for the message 
Make a special effort to understand each other's perspective

Organizational Actions  Create a climate of trust and openness  Develop and use
formal information channels in all directions  Encourage the use of multiple channels
including formal and informal communications  The organizational structure should fit
communication needs- Simple Organizational Structure- Avoiding Information Overload-
Flexibility in Meeting Targets.

Actions for Physical Barriers- Appropriate Seating Arrangement- Ensure Visibility &
Audibility- Environmental Comfort- Minimize Visual/Oral Distractions

Actions for Semantic Barriers- Use of Simple Language- Symbols & Charts- Active
Listening/ Constructive feedback

Actions for Socio-Psychological Barriers- Calling Attention & Motivation- Assistance &
Sympathy

Actions for Cross Cultural Barriers- Understanding of Traditions & Customs Information
of all Sides of Culture.

*Different types of communication and their relative Advantage

and Disadvantage *
Communication Type Advantages Disadvantages

Forest Extension note by :Kebal pd.Pandey (Forestry Lack of immediate

AllowsInstructor @KTS,Jumla)
swift passage of
feedback and uncertainty
One way communication information without
of fate of the message
interruption

Instant interaction; Potential of conflict

immediate feedback leading to heated or
Two way Communication
and response ensures emotional conversation;
clarity of message stress or tension
Communication
Advantages Disadvantages
Type

Assists in better Lack of

understanding due to retention/documentation
non verbal gesture; ; no legal basis; Potential
Verbal 1.Spoken
facial expression; back of conflict leading to
Communication Communication
and forth discussion; heated or emotional
Instant interaction; conversation; stress or
tension

Uncertainty of message
Convenient way to
being received; space for
reach many people at
misunderstanding, lack of
one time at various
emotion/ feelings in
geographic locations;
Verbal 2. Written message; time
allows for permanent
Communication Communication consuming in terms of
record; strengthens and
production of written
clarifies spoken
message; rigid; limited to
message; value for
literate; expensive to
referencing.
print and disseminate.
Communication Type Advantages Disadvantages

Good for illiterate,

Expensive; time-
assists oral
consuming to produce;
communication for
Non Verbal/ Visual Communication limited amount of
better understanding;
information in one visual
simple presentation;
else becomes cluttered
easy explanation

Organized and
systemic; proper Inflexible; time
Formal Communication
format and permanent consuming; impersonal
record

Rumors;
Informal Communication Improved relationship
misunderstanding;
 Forest Extension note by :Kebal pd.Pandey (Forestry Instructor @KTS,Jumla)

maintaining secrecy an
issue; authenticity issue

Extremely fast; brings Since based on rumor,

sense of unity among does not give real picture
the group members of /state of affairs of the
Grapevine Communication
the organization; topic; authenticity is a
supports formal question; distortion of the
communication message

In the given table on the basis of some characteristics, interpersonal communication is

effective than other communication in this ways:
S.N. Characteristics Interpersonal Group Mass media
communication communication channels
1 Message flow Tends to be two way Tends to be one Tends to be one way
way sometimes
two way
2 Communication Face to face Interposed
context
3 Amount of feedback high medium Low
4 Speed to reach large Relatively slow Relatively medium Relatively high
audience
5 Possible effect Attitude formation and Knowledge change Knowledge change
change
6 Time Time consuming Relatively low low
7 Cost High cost Relatively low Cost effective
8 Evaluation Quick slow difficult
9

Conclusion:
 On the basis of above discussion the interpersonal communication is more effective
methods of communication with respect to other type of communication.

Question. Why communication is important in forestry extension?

What type of barriers affects the interpersonal communication?

Communication:
 It is the process of transferring an idea, skill or attitude from one person to another
accurately & satisfactory.
 It is the sharing of ideas, attitudes or skills between two or more persons.
 It is the exchange of transfer of ideas, thoughts or emotions.
 It takes place by sound, written and spoken words, symbols and gestures.
 Communication is a social process which involves the flow of information and the
circulation of knowledge and ideas in a society.
 It is tools which affects one’s thought by another.
Forest Extension note by :Kebal pd.Pandey (Forestry Instructor @KTS,Jumla)

 Communication plays a vital role in the process of social change in structure and
system.

Securing Effective Interpersonal Communication:-

 During the effective interpersonal communication, facing the some barriers

 It is necessary to overcome the barriers for the communications. So we must have to
identify the types of barriers ant overcome it through some effective techniques or tools.
 We must overcome the following type of barriers for the effective interpersonal
communication:
 Overcoming differing perceptions
 Overcoming differences in language
 Overcoming Noise
 Overcoming Emotionality
 Overcoming inconsistent verbal and non-verbal communication
 Overcoming Distrust
o Redundancy
o Encouraging the development of an environment or organizational culture that
supports giving and receiving feedback
Forest Extension note by :Kebal pd.Pandey (Forestry Instructor @KTS,Jumla)

Unit: 4 Methods of Extension in Forestry

 The major responsibility of extension worker is to bring positive change in

behavior of learners through the extensive use of teaching methods.
 There are number of extension teaching methods and techniques from which
extension worker can choose a variety of methods to set-up learning situation
so as to maximize the effectiveness of teaching learning process (transfer of
information, knowledge and skills).
 The selection of teaching methods depends on the identification of need of the
community and should be is in accordance to the social, cultural, economic,
physical, and intellectual level of the people for effectively achieving the
learning objectives.

Definition:
 The extension teaching methods are the tools and techniques used to create situations
in which communication take place between rural people and the extension workers.
 Extension teaching methods are the teaching devices used for diffusion and adoption
of information.
 Extension teaching methods are the basic proven devices used to create situation in
which meaningful communication can take place between the instructor and the
learner-Leagans (1961).
 The results of study by shariati and others about participating in protection of forests
in northern and western forests in Iran show that there was relationship between
variables of attending in extension classes, using printed extension materials, contact
by extension agents, using educational films and using radio and television and
participation of local people in protecting forests.

4.1Types of Extension Teaching Methods

There are several bases on which extension-teaching methods are classified.

1. Classification according to use- Extension methods have been classified by Wilson

and Gallup (1955) as follows
Forest Extension note by :Kebal pd.Pandey (Forestry Instructor @KTS,Jumla)

A . Individual Contact Method:

 Interaction on individual basis. It involves individual contact by the
extension worker with the stakeholders, client or the family members
of the stakeholders.
 This method is informal and relaxed.
 It includes household surveys, home and field visits, personal letter,
office calls and telephone calls.
 Individual face-to-face contact has been found to be the most
effective way of facilitating the learning process in an individual.
 The general purpose of this method is: develop good relations with,
and create confidence in the stakeholders; to discuss individual or
village problem; to identify problems and need which they are not
aware of, to obtain or give information; to teach skills and motivate
them to participate in extension activities;

1.Home and Field visits Some of the purposes of making home visits are:

 to acquaint the extension staff (particularly new members) with the client and his
family;
 to exchange traditional courtesies, and to establish a friendly working relationship;
 to obtain first-hand knowledge of the living and working conditions of the client and
his family, and the problems faced by them;
 to supply general information on forestry matters to that family;
 to answer specific requests for help (e.g. requests for information, seeds, plants or
other materials), whenever possible;
 to explain in detail, and demonstrate where practicable, recommended forestry
practices (e.g. nursery techniques or the establishment of small woodlots);

2.Office calls and Enquiries

 It is a call made by a farmer or a group to the extension worker at his office to seek
information and assistance

3.Personal Letter

 Letter written to a community person by extension worker in relation to extension

work.

4.Telephone Calls

 Increasingly popular to share information over long distances. It is fast, valuable in

quick advice.
 Extension worker should be trained to answer phone calls politely and patiently.
Important instruction or decisions should be followed by written confirmation.
 Avoid any instant important decision as can be unwise.
Forest Extension note by :Kebal pd.Pandey (Forestry Instructor @KTS,Jumla)

5.Informal Contacts

 Based on chance meeting with the public at public places suchas tea shops, market
place etc.
 totally unplanned, provides useful oppurtunities for exchanging information,
establishing public confidence, gathering information on people’s attitude towards
forestry extension or their problems and needs; opportunities for introducing
extension ideas to the public; extra opportunity for seeking information

B . Group Contact Method:

 Direct interaction of the extension worker with a group for definite
purpose. It can reach to more number of people in less time. Provides
opportunity for greater extension coverage.
 It involves field trips/tours, group meetings (Information, Planning,
Special interest, general community), group discussion, training,
lecture, demonstrations (Result and method) conferences and
workshops.

Purpose of Group method

1. to give or receive information about a proposed extension programme;

2. to help create a favourable attitude towards a programme;
3. to focus attention on problems jointly affecting members of the group and possible
forestry solutions to them;
4. to create awareness and interest in a particular forestry practice by describing it
carefully and discussing its implications for the local community and possible
benefits from it;
5. to encourage, advise and train community leaders;
6. and, to demonstrate basic forestry skills at a convenient location.

 The advantages, however, of group methods outweigh their limitations and they play
a most important part in extension programmes.
 They usually lead to a much more rapid spread of information and change of attitudes
than could be achieved by their spread from a few isolated persons enjoying
individual contacts with extension staff.

1.Group meetings

 It is a gathering of villagers of a predetermined place and time with a specific

purpose.
 These are one of the oldest and most popular methods of contacting and
communicating with people largely because they have been, for a long time, a
Forest Extension note by :Kebal pd.Pandey (Forestry Instructor @KTS,Jumla)

familiar means of sharing and discussing information of importance, taking decisions

or strategy planning in many communities.
 They are also a very effective method of spreading new ideas in relation to their cost.

1.1 Types of group meetings

Community meetings

 open to all persons willing to take part and usually aimed at a general description and
discussion of a situation affecting the people;

Special interest meetings

 to serve the needs of a group with a particular interest in a topic, or some special need
for assistance;

Meetings limited to selected individuals

 who have accepted responsibility as leaders and need assistance in carrying out their
tasks;

Training meetings

 to encourage, advise and train community leaders on some specific topic;

Organisation meetings, and Planning meetings,

 to establish the framework and procedures for carrying out decisions.

Checklist and guidelines for improving the effectiveness of meetings

 Meetings must be systematically organized and conducted.

*Demonstration
 It is showing something practically to the one of the oldest method applicable in
different situations to build confidence in people in introducing new ideas and
persude in adoption of new techniques and skills or management approaches.
 It helps in believing by “seeing and doing”.
 It is showing proven techniques to reveal the procedure or value. It should not be
confused with experiment which is introduction of new idea under artificial condition.

Of two types:

a.Result Demonstration

b.Method Demonstration
Forest Extension note by :Kebal pd.Pandey (Forestry Instructor @KTS,Jumla)

a. Result Demonstration
 A result demonstration shows what can be expected after a particular forestry practice
has been in use for a certain period of time.
 It is intended to stimulate interest in the practice and induce people to learn more
about it and to give it a trial.
 This type of demonstration may be a single practice or series of practices that comes
in sequence in response to a problem.
 The comparison between the old practice or technique and the new one is an essential
feature of a result demonstration.
 The differences are there to be seen and discussed by the group.
 Questions can be asked and answered and additional information on the time taken,
work involved and the costs can be explained by the extension staff. Result
demonstrations in forestry involve a much longer time span and it may only be
possible to show some stages in the whole process.

Conducting the demonstration

Introduction:

 welcome the persons attending the demonstration; thank the hosts for allowing the
demonstration to take place in that particular area; explain the purpose of the
demonstration and why the practice is believed to be of value to the people; introduce
the persons who will do the demonstrations;

Action:

 explain what they will do and what the expected result will be; arrange a clear
commentary so that everyone can understand what the demonstrators are doing;

Supervise the demonstration:

 record details of what took place, anything that went wrong, comments by the audience
or other relevant observations, carefully, and use these as a means of improving future
demonstrations; prepare press and radio releases where appropriate; visit the
demonstration area as often as necessary afterwards to maintain the demonstrators'
interest in the procedure; check on the progress of the demonstration area and ensure
that any subsequent treatments are properly carried out; take photographs both during
the demonstration and at intervals afterwards to record the development of the area;
and, erect a sign to ensure continued public interest in the demonstration area.
Forest Extension note by :Kebal pd.Pandey (Forestry Instructor @KTS,Jumla)

Post action:

 invite, and answer as fully as possible, any questions from the audience; note the
names and addresses of persons who cannot be given a full answer at the time and
arrange to let them have one as soon as possible; and, distribute extension literature or
materials relevant to the situation to those attending.

Complete the demonstration (after a suitable period of time):

 call a meeting of leaders and people to examine the results achieved; summarise the
various steps taken during the demonstration and the information recorded; show
photographs of various stages in the demonstration and following development and
prepare exhibits or displays of the highlights; and, distribute literature about the
practice demonstrated.

Follow-up

 report to the relevant authorities the results and the impact of the demonstration on the
community; publicise the results, through the local press and radio, at local meetings
and during extension visits; ask influential persons and the demonstrators themselves
to speak about the results at any meetings they may attend; develop materials for
folders, charts, and visual aids (photographs, slides) to present the evidence to other
interested parties.
 Analyze and evaluate the effectiveness with the villagers; in case of failure of
demonstration analyze and present the result with reasons for failure.

b. Method demonstrations
 Method demonstration is an educational technique used by individuals or group to
apply recommended practice by learning new skills under local conditions.
 They are the oldest form of teaching.
 It has trained skilled craft-workers for many hundreds of years.
 In forestry extension, they can be used to show a person how to do a job such as
potting seedlings or planting trees, step by step until they have acquired sufficient
proficiency in the task.

Principle/ Procedure of method demonstration

Divided into three phases: Planning; conducting demonstration; Follow-up/Post

demonstration
Forest Extension note by :Kebal pd.Pandey (Forestry Instructor @KTS,Jumla)

Planning
 Decide the purpose of demonstration: defining of the objective
 Gather the necessary information:
 Understanding existing practice or skill and why
 Identify scope for new skills or modification in old skill.
 Estimate the benefits of recommended practice- economic, time saving, labor saving,
sustainable etc.
 Make a detailed plan:
 Decide on when and where.
 Arrange for materials, equipments, reference materials
 Identify key persons who are potential adopters
 Select and train the demonstrators:
 Publicize the demonstration:

Conducting the demonstration

Introduction: welcome the persons attending the demonstration; thank the hosts for allowing
the demonstration to take place in that particular area; explain the purpose of the
demonstration; introduce the persons who will do the demonstrations;

Action: ensure everyone can see and hear the demonstration; distribute written steps/
methodology of the demonstration; focus on the specific steps- how it is done; explain the
do’s and don’t’s with associated advantages and disadvantages.

Supervise the demonstration:

record details of what took place, anything that went wrong, comments by the audience or
other relevant observations, carefully, and use these as a means of improving future
demonstrations

Post action:

invite, and answer as fully as possible, any questions from the audience; note the names and
addresses of persons who cannot be given a full answer at the time and arrange to let them
have one as soon as possible.

Conclusion

 summarise the various steps taken during the demonstration and the information
recorded;
 emphasize on key steps;
 show photographs of various stages in the demonstration;
 distribute reference materials.
Forest Extension note by :Kebal pd.Pandey (Forestry Instructor @KTS,Jumla)

Follow-up/ Post Demonstration

Visit to the demo site, villagers; guide the villagers in the adoption process; assist interested
non-participants; suggest follow up actions by the villagers; make periodic visits to follow the
impact; collect feedback.

Advantages

 Suited in teaching skills many in short time.

 Arouses interest and action due to partcipation in discussion, direct contact with
extension personnels,
 Provides publicity for a new skill.
Disadvantages/ Limitations

 Suitable only for practice involving skills

 Requires great deal of preparation, skill on part of extension personnel; hence time
consuming.

C . Mass Contact Method:

 Imparting information to a larger audience at different places but at the
same time through a single source.
 It involves use of printed media, broadcasting media, Exhibitions,
Poster.

Printed Media

 Written information with or with out pictures Factors to be considered: literacy and
educational level; language Includes: newspaper, magazines, bulletins, leaflets,
circular letters, posters

Important printed materials extensively used in EP are:

 Pamphlets , Leaflets ,Folders ,Booklet/Bulletin ,Circular letters ,Newspapers/ Wall

newspapers ,Magazine ,Poster

Pamphlet:

 A single sheet of paper containing information on one particular topic.

Leaflet:

 Single sheet of paper folded 3-4 times containing information on one topic. Printed
content on one side or both sides of folded paper.

Folder:

 folded more than 4 times; else similar to leaflet

Forest Extension note by :Kebal pd.Pandey (Forestry Instructor @KTS,Jumla)

Booklet/ Bulletin:

 Contains detailed information, many pages of printed material stitched together.

 Extension bulletin is a formal means to give detail information on the practical aspect
of the problem.

Circular Letter:

 A letter, reproduced with sample information to be sent to many people by the

extension worker to publicize a extension activity or provide information related to
any other kind of common issue.
 Should have single purpose and complete information, brief, clear.

Newspaper:

 valuable channel for information sharing; for instruction and education

 To communicate more than one fact; to report results of research findings
 provide recommendations for new practice.
 Vary in purpose: ranges from international-national-regional to local information
 Published by government, private and other organizations including extension.

Magazine:

 Periodical; illustrated with stories, articles written by various writers

 Available against subscription

News article/News story:

 Contains detail story (who, what, when, where) of a real happening, which is
extraordinary/ unusual; recent or timely; of interest to community.

Poster:

 Presentation of information on a single sheet of paper / cardboard

 Focus on Illustration through picture with very limited words
 Designed with view to attract attention and give key message at a glance
 Not educative as itself but used to present idea quickly and simply
 Should be simple, clear, good combination of color; contain only one idea; placed at
a location where maximum visitors can see
 Never used alone but in combination
Forest Extension note by :Kebal pd.Pandey (Forestry Instructor @KTS,Jumla)

Broadcasting Media:

 Informs; entertains and influences behaviour of large number of people living

at distant places quickly and simultaneously
 Includes Radio and Television
Radio

 One of the most powerful and fastest medium of mass communication.

Purpose

 Plays important role as medium of

 Transmitting message quickly in most remote areas
 Entertainment, Information and distance education
 Creating awareness, helps in forming public opinion and develop interest among
people.
Advantages

 Transmitting message quickly in most remote areas

 Entertainment, Information and distance education
 Creating awareness helps in forming public opinion and develops interest among
people.
 Applicable to group and individuals
 Effective in illiterate rural communities
 Cheap, portable and convenient in use
 No problem of electricity, maintenance and repair
Limitations

 Not effective at evaluation, trial and adoption stage

 Alone cannot bring change
 Cannot reach communities where broadcasting facilities and radio receiving sets are
not available.
 No documentation
 Influence limited to those who can listen intelligently

Television

 One of the most powerful audio-visual media of mass communication which

combines all the benefits of other mass media such as radio, newspaper and motion
pictures.

Purpose

 Plays important role as medium of

 Opportunity for extension worker to demonstrate and talk at the same time
 Entertainment, Information and distance education
 Creating awareness, helps in forming public opinion and develop interest among
people.
Advantages
Forest Extension note by :Kebal pd.Pandey (Forestry Instructor @KTS,Jumla)

 Transmitting message instantly in live transmission

 Entertainment, Information and distance education
 Creating awareness helps in forming public opinion and develops interest among
people.
 Applicable to group and individuals
 Effective in illiterate rural communities
 Opportunity to see and learn
Limitations

 Not effective at evaluation, trial and adoption stage

 Alone cannot bring change
 Cannot reach communities where broadcasting facilities and signal receiving sets are
not available.
 Expensive

Exhibition

Systemic display of information with the help of variety of media of communication in order
to create interest and desire among visitors to adopt improved practices.

Can be organized in rural areas on the occasion of festivals and fairs.

Purpose

 Create public interest in new technologies and practices

 Create goodwill and gain publicity
 Use of local materials and local participation and create enthusiasm
 Create market for new product
Advantages

 Good publicity value

 Promotes creative abilities in participants
 Creates market for new products
 Can be means of communication with illiterates
Limitations

 Requires great deal of preparation and investments

 At times turns out to be of good recreation value only

Extension Campaign:

It is an intensive teaching activity by using different communication methods focusing on a

theme for a period of time.

Purpose

Creates wide public awareness, interest and provides specific message.

Encourage emotional participation of large number of stakeholders

Forest Extension note by :Kebal pd.Pandey (Forestry Instructor @KTS,Jumla)

Foster a favorable psychological climate for quick and large adoption of an idea.

Advantages

 Quick result from comparatively low cost

 Builds trust
 Effective in situation where whole community needs encouragement for adoption of a
practice.
Limitations

 Requires thorough preparation

 Applicable to limited themes
 Needs cooperation from people of various organisation which is hard to get.

2. Classification according to form

Written Form: Dissemination of information via printed materials such as letters,

circular, newspaper etc.

Spoken Form: General and specific meetings, Discussions, Farm and home visit,
office call, radio etc.

Visual Form: Demonstrations, Exhibitions, Posters, Charts, slides, motion pictures

and visual aids etc.

Spoken and Visual Form: Meeting at result demonstration, meeting involving motion
pictures, Television etc.
Methods Advantages Disadvantages

 Gain of first-hand knowledge of  visits are expensive in

Forest Extension note by :Kebalthe
pd.Pandey (Forestry
actual problems Instructor
faced by the @KTS,Jumla)terms of time and
clients and visualize the money and can only be
circumstances in which they arise; made at times
 Develops the goodwill and convenient to the client;
confidence of the family;Most the number of people
effective as it can take place in the who can be contacted
way, and at the speed,most suited within a given period is
to the client. limited;
1.Home Visit
 Helps in identification of potential
local leaders Reaching the
community who donot participate
or not covered by mass media

2.Office Calls  Saves time, can be an additional  At discretion of learners

method

3.Personal letter  Good working relations; useful in  Not useful if illiterate or

absence of phone call facility; in absence of reliable
useful in answering requests, postal service, not a
office calls or home visits; useful standalone source of
in maintaining contact with and information in changing
encouraging local voluntary work practice
leaders in their activities.

4.Personal Calls  Good rapport building; fast information  Expensive, not useful in
sharing; prev ents travels, useful in absence of good
responding to quick query/ suggestion; network of telephone
Individual quick means of follow up and evaluation service; not for seeking/
Methods of effectiveness of radio/TV providing any lengthy
programmes. information. Any
lengthy information and
important decisions
needs to be
supplemented with
written document.
Should avoid important
decisions on phone as
quick decisions might
turn up unwise.
5.Informal  No planning needed, quick,  Not standalone, in
Contacts introduce new ideas, learn association with formal
people’s ideas, attitude, contacts
aspirations, needs; opportunity to
the members of the community for
seeking advice or information not
justified by office calls or personal
letter; assist in good relation
building.
 Forest Extension note by :Kebal pd.Pandey (Forestry Instructor @KTS,Jumla)

Group  Information to a group  Groups include, but

Contact  more people in less time they also exclude,
Methods  less expensive than individual certain people and those
methods excluded may feel
 attitudes and decisions arrived at neglected or slighted
by group discussion usually carry and adopt a very
more weight in a community than negative attitude
individual attitudes and decisions towards the objectives
and are more likely to be widely of the group.
adopted  This is a point, which
 and, - they are able to assist the requires very careful
learning or change process of consideration in
individuals by the exchange of selecting or forming
ideas and experiences between groups to promote
members of the group. extension activities.
 it may take a long
period of discussion for
a group of people to
arrive at a decision on a
matter;
 one or two people with
strongly-held divergent
opinions may deflect
the group from a wise
decision
1.Group  Serves as preparatory stage for  Place, time and facilities
Meetings other methods; immediate may not always be
feedback on the attitude towards a adequate for all; scope
program; adoption of practices at for discussion limited;
low cost; identification of local handling the subject
leaders matter and focus of
discussionmay be
difficult due to
heterogeneity.

2.Result  Helps in introducing a beneficial  Time and preparation

Demonstration new practice; convincing by required, relatively
“seeing is believing”; helps costly
develop local leadership;

3.Method  Instruct many participants at one  In larger group some

Demonstration time about basic forestry skills at may be leftout due to
one time; provides motivation due limitation of time and
to opportunity to hear, see, discuss facilities; not learn the
and participation; leads to better skill correctly and adopt
learning. wrong techniques; may
gain only superficial
knowledge of the
procedure so maynot
apply successfully
without additional
training. There are
Forest Extension note by :Kebal pd.Pandey (Forestry Instructor @KTS,Jumla)

limits to what a person

can learn at
demonstration.

CRITERIA FOR SELECTION OF EXTENSION TEACHING METHOD

Choice of teaching method will depend upon following four broad criteria:

 Objective
 Content
 Trainer/Trainees
 Resources

Objective:

 Purpose/ objective of the extension program- awareness; skill development; adoption

of a new practice; update with events etc.

Content: what is to be included in the topic

Trainer/ Trainee:

–Trainers knowledge, experience, skill

–Trainee’s education level, practical experience, age, social and cultural environment

–Size of target

Resources:

–Available funds and other resources (teaching aids, extension personnel)

-Time duration
Forest Extension note by :Kebal pd.Pandey (Forestry Instructor @KTS,Jumla)

UNIT 5
TEACHING AIDS 10 HRS

5.1 Definition and importance of teaching aids

 An object (such as a book, picture, or map) or device (such as a dvd or computer)
used by the instructor to enhance or enliven classroom instruction.
e.g. <audiovisual teaching aids>

 material used by a teacher to supplement classroom instruction or to stimulate the

interest of students.
 Educators often use “instructional materials,” “teaching aids”, “Learning resources”,
“educational resources materials” and “Instructional aids” interchangeably.

Olaitan and Onazi (1987) defined teaching aids as materials or spoken words in the
transmission of knowledge, attitude and ideas and to emphasize, clarify or visualize
instruction”.

Haas and Packer (1960) Instructional Aid is any device that assists an instructor to transmit
to learners facts, skills, attitudes, knowledge, understanding and appreciations.

 It is a teaching tool or device by which a teacher or trainer or extension worker

transfers information or knowledge to the student or trainee or villagers.
 Teaching aids are the materials used by the teacher to teach his students.
 Teaching aids are materials used by extension workers to pass message to the
villagers.
 Selection of appropriate teaching aid is very important to train or teach.
 Wrong choice of teaching aids will not attract the audience and message may not pass
properly.
 Choice of teaching aid depends upon the size and quality of the
students/trainees/villagers, physical condition of the place, availability of the resource
and time.
Forest Extension note by :Kebal pd.Pandey (Forestry Instructor @KTS,Jumla)

Importance of using teaching aids:

 Teaching aids play an very important role in Teaching- Learning process. Importance
of Teaching aids are as follows:-
 Motivation
Teaching aids motivate the students so that they can learn better.
 Clarification
Through teaching aids , the teacher clarify the subject matter more easily.
 Discouragement of Cramming
Teaching aids can facilitate the proper understanding to the students which discourage
the act of cramming.
 Convey their message to students or farmers in a simple, most convincing and practical
way.
 Saves Time and Money
 Classroom Live and active
Teaching aids make the classroom live and active.
 Avoids Dullness
 Direct Experience
 helps to retain concept permanently.
 learn better when they are motivated properly through different teaching aids.
 Teaching aids develop the proper image when the students see, hear taste and smell
properly.
 make learning permanent.

5.2 Various types of Common Teaching Aids

There are many aids available these days. We may classify these aids as follows-

*Based on senses:*
A.Visual Aids
B. Audio Aids
C. Audio - Visual Aids

A. Visual Aids

 The aids which use sense of vision to help the speaker get his or her message across to
the audience are called Visual aids.
 Example:- actual objects, models, pictures, charts, maps, leaflets, brochures, bulletin
board, chalkboard, overhead projector, slides etc.
 Out of these black board and chalk are the commonest ones.
Forest Extension note by :Kebal pd.Pandey (Forestry Instructor @KTS,Jumla)

Different Visual Aids

Printed Materials

•Textbooks •Supplemental Materials ,Study guids/ handouts ,Leaflets/

brochures/Pamphlets ,Magazines ,Newspapers etc.

Types of Visual Aid

Broad two categories:

Standard Visual Aid

Electronically enhanced Visual Aid.

OR

Real objects: specimen; seedlings, machinery, plant, animal etc.

Representational Visual Aids: pictures, posters etc.

1. Standard Visual Aids

Human body: This probably represents the most important and frequently used
visual aid of all.
Models: of actual objects.
Posters
Photographs and pictures.
Maps
Chalkboard: The chalkboard is an extremely accessible and popular visual aid. It is
available in most public-speaking and teaching environments.

2. Electronically enhanced Visual Aid

Overhead transparencies: Overhead transparencies are an effective and commonly
used visual aid. They can be used in large and small meetings that are formal or
informal.
Videotape: Videotape should be used when teachers want to present information that
entails moving video.
Computer-generated slides.

Guidelines for Visual Aids

 Show visual aids only when you are talking about them.
 Talk about the visual aid while you are showing it.
 Be sure that everyone in the audience can see the visual aid.
Forest Extension note by :Kebal pd.Pandey (Forestry Instructor @KTS,Jumla)

 Simple, visible, colorful, flexible and portable

B. Audio Aids

 The aids that involve the sense of hearing are called Audio aids. For example:- radio,
record players: tape recorder, gramophone etc.
 Extension worker can play prerecorded forestry related program or encourage
stakeholders to listen to radio broadcasts on various forestry related topics.

C.Audio - Visual Aids

 The aids which involve the sense of vision as well as hearing are called Audio- Visual
aids. For example :- television, motion pictures, video tapes etc.
 Especially useful as uses more than one senses, and widely recommended in forestry
Extension Education.

General Guidelines for Effective Utilization of Instructional Materials:

Relevance: should be relevant to the objective and subject matter content.

Trainees: size; understanding level

Trainer: should match the operational mastery of the trainer

Safety of the aid

Up to date aid: e.g. old maps, which has no relevance today is obsolete.

Portability, Reliability, Colorful, Acceptability, Flexibility

Timing of use: Introduction, body of the message and summary

General Guidelines for Effective selection of Instructional Materials:

 Objective and subject matter content

 Size of the trainees
 Skill of the trainer
 Availability of instructional material and time
 Cost effective

Evaluation of teaching aids:

1. Listening (audio) alone---70/10-- weak

2. Visual alone--- 72/20--- strong

3. Combination of both-- 85/65 ---stronger

Forest Extension note by :Kebal pd.Pandey (Forestry Instructor @KTS,Jumla)

UNIT 6 : Program planning 15 Hrs

6.1 Definition of program planning and importance

 The term program has been derived from the Latin Word Pro-graphein (Pro means
before and Graphien means to write) means a plan of procedure, a prospectus.
 Program is a systematic statement of situation, needs, problems, objectives, priorities
and what is to be done and why.
 It is relatively permanent but required constant revision. It forms the basis for extension
plan.

Planning
 The word planning has been derived from the Latin word ‘Planta’ means sole of the
foot which provides base for an organizational body to stand on.
 Planning is designing a course of action to achieve ends.
 It is the process of preparing systematic statement of the line of action for achieving
certain and specific objectives in relations to needs and resources.

Program planning

 Program planning is a procedure of working with the people in an effort to recognize

unsatisfactory situation or problems and determine possible solutions or objectives and
goals.
 This is conscious effort to meet the needs, interests and wants of the people for whom
the program is intended.
 It is also defined as a decision making process which gives direction and intensity to
extension education efforts of extension service to bring about economic, social and
technological changes.
 It is a continuous series of activities or operations leading to the development of a
definite plan of action to accomplish particular objectives.
 It refers to the art of designing and implementing a course of action to achieve an
effective program.
Forest Extension note by :Kebal pd.Pandey (Forestry Instructor @KTS,Jumla)

Importance of Program Planning

“If you have no goal, then any road is the right road”.

 Avoids wastage of resources: it helps in minimizing the wastage of time, energy and
money, and provides general efficiency.
 Provides guidance: A well planned program ensures careful consideration of what is
to be done and why, established objectives, gives directions for execution of work and
helps to evaluate results.
 Provides continuity: A written program planning gives continuity to the program even
there is a change in personnel.
 Provides reliable information: Whenever and whatever information is required about
program, situation and resources, it is easily available from the record.
 Helps in leadership development: planning aids in leadership development by
assigning specific jobs and providing them special status.
 Institutional support: Planning will help to justify the appropriation by public bodies
and to obtain the support of the government. Institutional support is essential for proper
implementation of planned program.
 Local support: Program planning provides an opportunity to all people to take part in
program planning.
 Minimize conflicts: a good program planning process will avoid unnecessary conflicts
of personalities while executing the programs.
 Provides balanced development: A good program planning determines the priorities
of the programs (keeping the view the needs of all the people).

Importance
To establish objectives towards which progress can be measured and evaluated;
To aid in the development of leadership;
To prevent mistaking the means for the end, and to develop both felt and unfelt needs;
To avoid waste of time and money, and promote general efficiency;
To co-ordinate the efforts of the different people working for rural development;
To provide evaluation of results;
To have available in written for a statement for general public use;
Forest Extension note by :Kebal pd.Pandey (Forestry Instructor @KTS,Jumla)

6.2 Planning cycle

6.3 Program Planning Process

Program planning is a continuous series of activities or operations leading to the development
of a definite plan of action to accomplish particular objectives. The program planning process
has the following steps:
Forest Extension note by :Kebal pd.Pandey (Forestry Instructor @KTS,Jumla)

1. Situation analysis
Before an extension programme can be draw up, the existing situation must first be analysed.
Farming problems and their causes must be understood and the natural, human and other
resources of the area identified.

There are several ways of collecting information for evaluation at the village level.

Agent's reports. Whether or not a formal report of each extension activity is required from
agents by their extension officers, the agent should make some notes on each activity for his
own use, concentrating on his conduct of the activity and on points to note for future
occasions.

Supervisors. It is not easy for an agent to assess how well he conducts an extension activity;
in particular, he cannot see himself through the eyes of the farmers who attend. It is useful,
therefore, to have constructive comments from a supervisor or colleague.

Discussions. Informal discussion with farmers after the extension activity will reveal their
immediate reactions. It is often useful to record such discussions using a tape recorder for
later transcription and fuller analysis.

Questionnaires. Simple check-lists and questionnaires can be used when the agent has the
time and opportunity to carry out a more formal evaluation of extension activities. Before a
result demonstration on early planting, for example, the agent could prepare a list of four or
five important facts that farmers should know after they have attended. By asking a sample of
farmers questions on the facts, before and after the demonstration, the agent can assess its
impact on farmers' knowledge.

Observation. Where changes in farming practice are concerned, observation is an accurate

source of information. The agent can see whether or not his advice is being adopted on farms
in the area.

2. Developing Questionnaire
There are nine steps involved in the developing of a questionnaire.
 Decide the information required
 Define the target respondents
 Choose the method of reaching your target respondents
 Decide on question content
 Develop the question wording (Words)
 Put wuestions into a meaningful and formate
 Check the length of the question
 Pre- test the questionnaire
 Develop the final questionnaire form.
Forest Extension note by :Kebal pd.Pandey (Forestry Instructor @KTS,Jumla)

3. Conducting interviews and survey

 An interview is a structured conversation where one participant asks questions and the
other provides answers
 In commonly the word ‘interview’ refers to a one on –one conversation between an
interviewer and as interviewee

 A survey is a way to ask a lot of people a few constructed questions.

 The survey is a series of unbiased questions that the subject must answers.
 Some advantage of surveys are that they are efficient Ways of collecting information
from a large number of people, they are relatively easy to administer, a wide variety of
information can be collected and they can be focused.

4. Work Plan
 A work plan is a written document designed to streamline a project.
 The purpose is to create a visual reference for the goal, objectives, tasks and team
members who are responsible for each area.
 Every member of your team should be updated based on progress and current status.
 If you have a complex project, you can create your own custom work plan.
 When you are clear about your strategy and what you need to be successful, a work
plan template can save time, as you will plug in tasks, team members, objectives and
timelines.
 A work plan includes:
 Setting goals and objectives
 Establishing team responsibilities
 Setting project timelines
 Establishing a budget

5. Calendar of operation
 It is the time schedule of program, it shall specify the how and when all significant
activities shall be performed.
 It shall be prepared on the basis of the plan of work and shall specify when a particular
work shall be done preferably mentioning date and time.

6. Implementation / Execution of plan

 plan implementation is the focal point of the program development, and affects
the change in the learner’s knowledge, skill and attitude if properly performed.
 The success of a program depends on how well it is carried out. The calendar
of activities and events should be followed as planned.
Forest Extension note by :Kebal pd.Pandey (Forestry Instructor @KTS,Jumla)

 The relative success of program implementation depends particularly on, first,

the effective investment of time and effort in the prior elements of the program
planning process, and second, the type of critical changes that take place in the
program during program implementation.
7. Monitoring and Evaluation

 Monitoring looks at the progress against a set of indicators that have been selected to
show whether the plan is implemented successfully and that it is having the intended
effect.
 Evaluation examines whether the planned activities were effective in reaching the goal
as well as finding whether the right goals have been set.

8. Review and Formulation of another plan

 A review is judgement or discussion of the quality of something. Review also means to
go over a subject again as part of study or to look at something another time.
 Review has many other senses as both a noun and a verb.
 A review is a critique of something—a look at something's good and bad points

 However, the basic elements of the program planning process, a according to Baker
(1984), Include the following:
1. Analyze the situation
2. Identify needs
3. State objectives
4. Inventory resources
5. Select methods, techniques and aids.
6. Implement the program
7. Evaluate the process and the result
Forest Extension note by :Kebal pd.Pandey (Forestry Instructor @KTS,Jumla)

1. Collection and Analysis of Data: Facts are the foundation stone upon which the
program is build and implement. Collect the information/fact about the local situation
of a community/village/district and it is the bench mark from where people should start
the process of program planning. Eg. Population, main occupation, forest condition,
facility of schooling, marketing facility etc. A through analysis of relevant facts of the
situation is necessary for the development of a sound program.
2. Identify Needs and Problems: Detailed information of the problems, the people are
confronting, are gathered and analysed in terms of the situation as it was, what is present
and what it might be in the future. The understanding of human needs is complicated
matter. Needs vary in their nature. Social, intellectual, spiritual and emotions needs,
representing higher level needs, are less tangible than lower level needs associated with
economic and material domains.
3. State Objectives: The results of situational analysis and need assessment become the
basis for the formulation of program objectives. Planning involves the prediction of a
more desirable state or condition, objectives describe that future direction. The more
clearly the objectives indicate expected outcomes, the more useful they are. Objectives
are the fundamental to program effectiveness and success.
4. Inventory Resources: although the general resources of the community may have been
described as part of the situational analysis, it can frequently be helpful, following the
identification of needs and stating of objectives, to inventory the more specific
resources that apply to these program priorities. Resources available to the individual,
organization or community may be roughly classified into internal and external.
5. Develop of Plan of Work: plan of work is a definite of procedure for solving the
selected/different problems. A plan of work is the listing of activities by which the
objectives already decided upon are to be achieved. It includes the methods executing
the program. It indicates the places, timing and persons responsible for carrying out the
programme along with method of evaluating the progress.
6. Execute Plan/Implementation: plan implementation is the focal point of the program
development, and affects the change in the learner’s knowledge, skill and attitude if
properly performed. The success of a program depends on how well it is carried out.
The calendar of activities and events should be followed as planned. The relative
success of program implementation depends particularly on, first, the effective
investment of time and effort in the prior elements of the program planning process,
and second, the type of critical changes that take place in the program during program
implementation.
7. Evaluation of Progress: the programs must be measured at regular intervals. The
program accomplishments are the changes in people and the changes in their economic
and social situations resulting from the program.
8. Reconsideration: the results of evaluation are used for planning future program. In
other words, each future program should be based on the valuation results of the
previous one.
Forest Extension note by :Kebal pd.Pandey (Forestry Instructor @KTS,Jumla)

UNIT 7: MONITORING AND EVALUATION

7.1 Definition of program monitoring and evaluation

o Monitoring and evaluation is the process of examining progress against

institution’s goals or plan.
o The term SM & E is used when an institution monitors and evaluates itself.

Monitoring looks at the progress against a set of indicators that have been selected to
show whether the plan is implemented successfully and that it is having the intended
effect.
Evaluation examines whether the planned activities were effective in reaching the goal
as well as finding whether the right goals have been set.

Monitoring

1. It is a process of regular or periodic measurement of program inputs, activities, and

outputs during the program implementation.
2. It is a management technique by which extension agents collect data on the way in
which the extension program is implemented and the problems it encountered in trying
to stay in the right track.
3. Monitoring focuses on project’s inputs, activities, management and outputs to improve
the operation of the project as designed.
4. Monitoring is concerned with day by day observation and initial effects. It focuses on
inputs and outputs often quantifiable.

Objectives of monitoring

1. To identify the problems and its solution in time during program implementation.
2. To complete program activities in time.
3. To achieve maximum out put from available resources and machineries .
4. To maintain the quality in execution of planned activities.

Evaluation

 It is the process of determining to what extent objectives or goals of the program have
been realized.
 It is the process of judging the worth or value of a program. The judgment is formed by
comparing evidences (what the program “is”) with criteria (what the program “should
be “).
 It is the process of assessing the degree through which one is achieving his objectives.
 It is the process of delineating, obtaining and providing useful information for judging
decision alternatives.
Forest Extension note by :Kebal pd.Pandey (Forestry Instructor @KTS,Jumla)

Objectives of evaluation:
 To determine how well the program objectives are being met.
 To make decisions related to program improvement and future operation.
 To meet the requirements of the sponsoring organization.
 To describe the program outcomes to other educators.
 To become and remain accountable.
 To provide learning experience for any one interested in the program.

Types of evaluation
Depending upon nature, levels, and purpose evaluation can be divided in following types:

1. Qualitative and quantitative evaluation

Extension education can be viewed both in terms of activities and results. Achievements
can be indicated in terms of numbers and traditional quantitative method and can be easily
evaluated.

2. Internal and External Evaluation

Internal Evaluation:

 Internal evaluation is conducted by the people within an organization.

 Internal evaluators have detail knowledge of the organization, program, and the
objectives of the extension works.
 They may be in better position for relating to and gaining the trust of those whose
cooperation is needed.
 Evaluation to improve the program or plan future activities it is better to have program
personnel as evaluator.

External Evaluation:

 External evaluation is conducted by the people outside of the organization.

 They may be more skilled & knowledgeable.
 Less subjected to the internal conflicts of the organization.
 Evaluation to find the worthiness of the program it is better to have external evaluators.

3. Formative and Summative Evaluation

Formative

 Formative evaluations are intended for finding how well a program is running.
Forest Extension note by :Kebal pd.Pandey (Forestry Instructor @KTS,Jumla)

 It is conducted periodically throughout the implementation of the program.

 It’s aim is to provide information for the improvement of the program while it is in
progress.
 Their target audience are usually decision makers and or policy makers.

Summative

 Summative evaluations are used for determining the effectiveness of the program.
 It focuses on the results, and hence are carried out at the end of program
implementation.
 Results may be determined by looking at objectives met, activities completed,
participant’s performance or combination of these all.
 This type of evaluation is required for taking decision on termination or continuation
or expansion or adoption of a program.
 It’s target audience are program making personnel, funding agents, participants and
professionals involved.

This formative and summative evaluation are very essential to improve and strengthen the
program during implementation and when it has been implemented to judge and decide it’s
final worth and it’s future.

7.4.4 Steps in Monitoring and Evaluation of Extension Program

Steps in Monitoring and Evaluation of Extension Program

 There are many approaches to the evaluation process.

 The evaluation approaches may vary depending upon the nature, purpose, scope,
complexity of the program and the available resource.
 Though there are several approaches applied to the evaluation process, many of these
are similar and fundamental to all evaluation processes.

1. Select and identify the program to be evaluated:

 Determine which program is to be evaluated.
2. Determine the purpose of evaluation:
 There may be many purposes, but identify the specific one for which the
evaluation is going to be done.
 Best on the most important purposes decisions should be made and evaluation
should be focused accordingly.
3. Determine the audience for evaluation:
 The audience for the evaluation should be identified carefully so that efforts can
be made to get the information required for the particular audience.
 The potential audiences may include the evaluator, fellow extension staff,
supervisors, support groups, program participants, program sponsor, and the
general public.
Forest Extension note by :Kebal pd.Pandey (Forestry Instructor @KTS,Jumla)

 The evaluator needs to select the primary audience for the specific evaluation
effort because different audiences will have different concerns about the
program
4. Determine the issues that are expected to be identified:
 The issues should be identified and prioritized depending upon the resource and
time constraints.
 These issues help to determine the appropriate information to collect to make
evaluative judgment.

5. Determine the criteria for evaluation:

 These are the instruments for measuring merit or worth of the program. They
are predetermined rules, standards, norms, or descriptive statements considered
ideal characteristics for measuring the outcomes of programs.
 Generally, a properly stated objective of a program provides a basis for criteria.
For this reason, many authorities advise against focusing solely or too heavily
on program objectives while conducting evaluations.
 The evaluator should take into consideration the criteria generally held by the
actual ad potential clienteles, the general public and the legislators, who
represent them, experts in a given fields,and the extension agency.
6. Determine resources:
 Resources are major concern for conducting evaluation.
 Consideration of resources - money, man power and time are very essential
while conducting the evaluation.
 This gives a clear understanding of whether one can accomplish the purpose of
evaluation within the limit of available resources or not.

7. Determine the form of data and the sources to collect the data:
 Data sources are the people or things that provide the information that becomes
evidence for the program.
 Evidence is an indication, or outward sign. In evaluation, evidence consists of
Acts, words, numbers, or things that provide a sign or indication.
 Proof of the extent to which the quality being examined is present in a program
and pattern, which provides a picture for judging the extent to which criteria
have been met. Only the data needed to assess the issues should be collected.

Various sources can be used to gather data:

 Observation: Which implies watching what people are doing, or what they have done.
It can be used for collecting evidence for a wide range of things.
 Documents: A number of evidence data can be generated from various types of
documents such as records, program plans, minute of meetings and so on.
 Interviews and Questionnaires: Questionnaires take less time to administer than
interviews, but take more time to get good response rate. Interviews take more time but
provide immediate feedback.
Forest Extension note by :Kebal pd.Pandey (Forestry Instructor @KTS,Jumla)

The analysis of data: The data need to be analyzed so that the meaning can be drawn to relate
the evidence with the program. Evaluation data can be analyzed in many ways depending on
the nature and purpose of the analysis.

Report the findings: The pay off of an evaluation comes when the findings are reported to the
audience. There are many ways of reporting evaluation. The report should be prepared based
on audiences and their level of understanding. Good communication techniques should be used
to make the report clear. The reporting should be made easy and understandable so that the
audience can understand the evaluation. Reporting provides an opportunity to summarize,
interpret and record the effectiveness of a program.

7.4.5 Criteria of Evaluation Process

1. Questionnaires:

 prepare according to types of evaluation u want to conduct and level of audience

to address.

2. Focus Group discussion:

 Very important in participatory evaluation and qualitative evaluation

3. Observation:

 Very important in quantitative and Important in qualitative.

4. Sampling methods :

 Required if total survey or measurement is not possible.

5. Analysis of the findings and lesson learnt:

 Collected data are grouped, if required statistically analyzed, result or

conclusion derived, findings and lesson learnt are drawn to report.

6. Reporting and recommendation of findings:

 Details of findings are reported to the appropriate audience along with

recommendations.
Forest Extension note by :Kebal pd.Pandey (Forestry Instructor @KTS,Jumla)

UNIT 8 : GENDER AND SOCIAL EQUITY

8.1 Definition /concept of gender, social equity, justice and rights,

empowerment

Gender
 Gender is a concept that deals with
the roles and relationships between
men and women, determined by the
social, political and economic context
and not by biology.
 Gender is socially constructed and
changeable whereas sex is biological
and not changeable under normal
conditions.
 Gender is a socially constructed roles
and responsibilities assigned to men
and women in a given culture and
societal structure.
Social Equity
 Social equity is an element of
sustainable development
 US president’s council on SD
Figure 1 Conceptual figure of gender and social equity
(Sustainable Development) defined
Social Equity as “equal opportunity
in a safe and healthy environment”.
 One of the triad of sustainable development: balancing economic, environmental and
social equity.

Gender equity
 arises when men and women participate as equals and have equal access to resources
and equal opportunities.
 women and men have equal condition for realizing their full human rights and for
contributing to, and benefiting from, economic, social, cultural and political
development.
 Gender equality is therefore the equal valuing of society of the similarities and the
differences of men and women, and the roles they play.
 It is based on women and men being full partners in their homes, their community and
their society.
 It is the process of being fair to men and women
 To ensure the fairness steps must be taken to compensate for the historical and social
disadvantages that prevent women and men from operating on same level.
 Forest Extension note by :Kebal pd.Pandey (Forestry Instructor @KTS,Jumla)

 Equity is a means and equality is a result.

Social Justice
 Legal or philosophical theory by which fairness is administered.
 Social justice is the justice in the distribution of wealth, opportunities and privileges.

Rights
 are legal, social, or ethical principles of freedom or entitlement.
 Rights are the fundamental normative rules about what is allowed of people or owed
to people, according to some legal system, social convention, or ethical theory.

Gender Discrimination:
 A person’s gender is the fact that they are male or female.
 Females are discriminated in all development activities right from the start of
civilization.
 Female are kept away from all kinds of development activity. Their needs and
necessities were never looked at. Neither their opinion and suggestions were
entertained.
 People has now realized that nothing can be achieved if we keep half the population
away from development mainstream.
 Discrimination based on color, gender, cast and religion is a crime.
 Without addressing the needs of female and without providing equal opportunity to the
female development becomes lame and blind. Both the gender must have equal
opportunity in every aspect of life.

8.2 Discuss issues related to gender and social equity in forestry

GENDER EQUITY IN FORESTRY:

The fact that the majority of professionals in the forestry sector are male could be overcome by linking Forestry to
other sectors and making it a broader and more inclusive sector (e.g. agro-forestry). A more cross-sectoral approach
would allow the involvement of women, with a less technical role, for instance in the planning and evaluation phase
and use the existing interdependence with other fields to strengthen the interdisciplinary aspects of forestry work. By
fostering the participation of women in forestry workshops and seminars, the Forestry Department aims also at creating
a new proactive generation of female forestry professionals who could also become facilitators in future workshops
providing an additional value to this field. The fact that women are often undervalued in the work place and do not
have equal access to promotion and recruitment opportunities in the forestry sector is also stressed by some field
officers.1
 Forest Extension note by :Kebal pd.Pandey (Forestry Instructor @KTS,Jumla)

When it comes to Forests and its resources, the role of women and gender relations should be studied to understand
the implications of access to and control over forest resource, resources management and women’s function in the
production and economic chain. Information acquired in this regard, for instance through a stakeholder analysis, will
facilitate the implementation phase and ensure the sustainability of the programmes. It should be specified that women
should be included in decision-making at all levels in a fully participatory process which involves all members of the
society, but it is commonly understood that FAO activities are not meant to change existing traditional practices.
Wherever women are traditionally engaged in a particular forest activity (e.g. collection of medicinal plants in some
regions), their role should be valued and emphasized, while women’s contribution in other possible male dominated
activities should not be forced in case this could have a negative effect in the balance of gender relations existing in
the community. This rationale it’s applicable also to particular cultures and traditions that assign different
responsibilities to individuals according not only to the sex but also to the age of the person.

8.3 Discuss mainstreaming gender in development. National and

international convention on gender and their agenda and
manmade-for mainstreaming issues of gender equity
The Community Forestry Development Guideline 2065 (2008A.D.)
 provides key GESI-sensitive provisions, including 50% representation of women in
forest users committees; representation of women in the post of either chairperson or
secretary; and at least 35% allocation of forest revenues and income for livelihood
promotion activities for poor women, Dalits and marginalized Janajatis based on the
findings of well-being ranking. However, there is still more to be done to ensure
effective implementation of these GESI responsive provisions.

GESI and biodiversity:

 The United Nations Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) is another
important legally binding agreement focusing on sustainable conservation with a
focus on fair and equitable sharing of genetic resource benefits. The convention
emphasizes the relationship of sustainable conservation with the rights and knowledge
of indigenous groups and local communities.
 Also, Agenda 21 (Rio Convention) recognized the need of empowering women and
men for sustainable development.
 Nepal’s Biodiversity Strategy 2002 indicated that low levels of public awareness
and participation is one of the key threats to biodiversity. The strategy recognizes the
importance of indigenous knowledge in the conservation of biodiversity, which
should be applied to conservation to provide optimum benefits to local indigenous
communities in a sustainable manner. The strategy commits Nepal to ensuring
Intellectual Property Rights (IPRs) of farmers and local communities through
appropriate strategies and legislation. The document accepts that the vital contribution
of women to the management of biological resources and to economic production has
Forest Extension note by :Kebal pd.Pandey (Forestry Instructor @KTS,Jumla)

generally been misunderstood, ignored, or under-estimated. Rural women in Nepal

are often the most knowledgeable about the patterns and uses of local biodiversity.
The biodiversity strategy commits to recognizing and strengthening the leadership
role of women in biodiversity and natural resource management.

Climate change and GESI

The United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) was
adopted in May 1992, and opened for signature at the UN Conference on Environment and
Development in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil in June 1992. Nepal signed it on 12 June 1992 and
became a Party to it in 1994. It indicates that industrialized countries have to report regularly
on their climate change polices, including submission of annual inventories of their
greenhouse gas emissions. It also indicates that developing countries should report on climate
change mitigation and adaptation actions.

In Nepal’s Climate Change Policy 2011, the section on capacity building, people’s
participation and empowerment is linked with GESI. Some key provisions in this section are:

 Ensuring the participation of poor people, Dalits, marginalized indigenous

communities, women, children and youth in the implementation of climate adaptation
and climate change related programmes;
 8.4.5 Publishing and distributing targeted knowledge-related materials, such as data,
information, and success stories related to climate change;
 8.4.7 Increasing the participation of local institutions, expertise-based federations,
NGOs and civil society in information dissemination and capacity building of
common people by involving them in awareness raising, training and empowerment-
related activities.

Some examples of such charters, conventions, treaties and policies which has improved the
status of women in the society globally and nationally are:

 the Beijing Declaration, the 35% Affirmative Action for appointment, election and
occupation of women in public offices and governance, the National Gender Policy
by Nigerian government, the Equal Pay parity Rights for both men and women in
public office in the US, improvement on the rights of women to own private
properties, the employment of women in public places, the formation of women
group towards the promotion of women rights like the National Union of Women
Journalist, Women in Nigeria, Women in Education in Nigeria, National Council for
Women Lawyers, National Council of Women in Nigeria and the deliberate creation
of the Ministry of Women Affairs in Nigeria and most other countries. The
ratification and implementation of the contents of the agreement has influenced the
participation of women in public realms

The Gender and Social Equity Vision of the Ministry of Forests and Soil Conservation
(MoFSC) identified four key change areas:
Forest Extension note by :Kebal pd.Pandey (Forestry Instructor @KTS,Jumla)

 equitable access to resources and benefits; equitable governance; gender and equity
sensitive organizational development and programming; and gender and equity
sensitive policy and strategy. Based on the vision document, the Ministry also
endorsed a Gender and Social Equity strategy in 2006. The strategy document has yet
to incorporate a climate change agenda that will include the differential impacts and
knowledge of women and socially excluded groups.

Hariyo ban Program:

The Hariyo Ban Program is funded by USAID and implemented by a consortium of World
Wildlife Fund (WWF), Cooperative for Assistance and Relief Everywhere (CARE), National
Trust for Nature Conservation (NTNC), and the Federation of Community Forestry Users in
Nepal (FECOFUN), with WWF as the lead organization. While WWF and CARE are
international NGOs, NTNC and FECOFUN are national NGOs.

The Interim Constitution of Nepal, 2007 , under the right to equality, clearly
states that all citizens shall be equal before the law and that there shall be no discrimination
against any citizen on the grounds of religion, color, sex, caste, tribe, origin, language or
ideological conviction.

The International Labor Organization, Indigenous and Tribal Peoples

Convention, 1989 (No. 169) known as ILO 169 recognizes the aspirations of these
peoples to exercise control over their own institutions, ways of life and economic
development and to maintain and develop their identities, languages and religions, within the
framework of the states in which they live. It recognizes social, cultural, religious and
spiritual values and practices. It emphasizes consulting them through appropriate procedures
and in particular through their representative institutions. It recognizes their rights of
ownership and possession of the lands which they traditionally occupy.

Nepal’s Tenth Plan/Poverty Reduction Strategy Paper (PRSP) 2002-2007

(later followed by the Three Year Interim Plan, 2007-2010) emphasized the structural
mainstreaming of excluded groups in all development programs, with special attention to
women, lower caste/ethnic groups and remote 5 districts.

The Beijing Platform for Action (BPFA)

is a commitment for signatory governments to advance the goals of equality, development and
peace for all women around the world. It is the final outcome of the

Fourth World Conference on Women held in Beijing, China in 1995.

It obliges governments to critically intervene in 12 priority areas: women and poverty; women,
education and training; women and health; violence against women; women and armed
conflict; women and the economy; women in power and decision-making institutional
mechanisms for the advancement of women; human rights of women; women and media; women
Forest Extension note by :Kebal pd.Pandey (Forestry Instructor @KTS,Jumla)

and environment; and the girl-child. As a signatory, the GoN is committed to promoting justice
in women's employment.

There is a national plan for integrating these international commitments from BPFA and
CEDAW.

However, the commitments have yet to be fully mainstreamed into the natural resource
management

sector.

8.4 Define Empowerment and discuss factors affecting women

empowerment

EMPOWERMWNT:
 Empowerment refers to increasing the spiritual, political, social, educational, gender,
or economic strength of individuals and communities.
 The term empowerment covers a vast landscape of meanings, interpretations,
definitions and disciplines ranging from psychology and philosophy to the highly
commercialized self-help industry and motivational sciences.

 Marginalized people who lack self-sufficiency become, at a minimum, dependent on

charity, or welfare. They lose their self-confidence because they cannot be fully self-
supporting. The opportunities denied them also deprive them of the pride of
accomplishment which others, who have those opportunities, can develop for
themselves. This in turn can lead to psychological, social and even mental health
problems.
 Empowerment is then the process of obtaining these basic opportunities for
marginalized people, either directly by those people, or through the help of non-
marginalized others who share their own access to these opportunities.
 It also includes actively thwarting attempts to deny those opportunities.
Empowerment also includes encouraging, and developing the skills for, self-
sufficiency, with a focus on eliminating the future need for charity or welfare in the
individuals of the group. This process can be difficult to start and to implement
effectively.

WOMEN EMPOWERMENT:

 If women were empowered to do more and be more, the possibility for economic
growth becomes apparent. Eliminating a significant part of a nation’s work force on
the sole basis of gender can have detrimental effects on the economy of that nation.
 In addition, female participation in counsels, groups, and businesses is seen to
increase efficiency.
 For a general idea on how an empowered women can impact a situation monetarily, a
study found that of fortune 500 companies, “those with more women board directors
had significantly higher financial returns, including 53 percent higher returns on
equity, 24 percent higher returns on sales and 67 percent higher returns on invested
Forest Extension note by :Kebal pd.Pandey (Forestry Instructor @KTS,Jumla)

capital (OECD, 2008).”[ This study shows the impact women can have on the overall
economic benefits of a company. If implemented on a global scale, the inclusion of
women in the formal workforce (like a fortune 500 company) can increase the
economic output of a nation.
 Gender equality is considered a critical element in achieving Decent Work for All
Women and Men, in order to effect social and institutional change that leads to
sustainable development with equity and growth. Gender equality refers to equal
rights, responsibilities and opportunities that all persons should enjoy, regardless of
whether one is born male or female.

 Timber harvesting requires physically taxing “technologies” (machetes, axes, saws)

that are commonly regarded as a male domain. In addition, forested areas are often
considered to be more unsafe for women than for men. Consequently, women can be
pushed to shorten the time spent in the forest, which may in turn limit their options to
those categories of forest products that can be quickly harvested and transported for
processing at home, such as fuelwood, forest foods, medicine, resins and dyes.
Engagement in forestry value chains is often crucial for rural women’s livelihoods
and the well-being of their households. For instance, in Ethiopia sorting and cleaning
gum and resins is the primary source of income for 96 % of the women involved,
while in Burkina Faso, women engaged in sorting gum arabic report that this is the
most important source of income for 3–4 months of the year (Shackleton et al., 2011).
Although women often make significant labour contributions to forestry value chains,
particularly with respect to the collecting, processing and marketing of non-wood
forest products (NWFPs), most of the activities they engage in tend to have rather low
returns. This is true in part because many key stakeholders (e.g. policy-makers,
market players, extension services) pay little attention to the potential of NWFPs for
local markets. This relative neglect is compounded by the paucity of data and
analytical work on gender differences in forestry value chains.
 In Gujarat, thousands of very poor women rely on gum karaya collection for their
incomes. Most do not have collection licenses and are forced to sell at very low
prices. An intervention by the Self Employed Women’s Association (SEWA) helped
female gum collectors to organize into groups. These groups secured collection
licenses for their members and were able to negotiate higher selling prices with the
Gujarat State Forest Development Corporation. Eventually, the women also won the
right to sell on the open market, where prices are higher (Carr, Chen and Jhabvala,
1994; SEWA, 2000).

Factors affecting gender inequality in participation in any development endeavor are a

complex combination of economic structure, politics, culture, society, history, and geography
specific to that country and region

Poor status of women’ education as prescribed by some culture, religion and norms of the
society deprive most women from achieving reasonable education that will enable them
Forest Extension note by :Kebal pd.Pandey (Forestry Instructor @KTS,Jumla)

participate effectively in resources management. High rates of illiteracy and low levels of
education among women have been shown to constrain women's productivity and may affect
their receptivity of new techniques and skills in conservation

Forward towards Women inclusive planning

Specifically, forestry policy-makers should concentrate on the following: ensuring that
women’s work in forestry (both paid and unpaid) is captured in national statistics, and
increasing the availability and use of sex-disaggregated data for the forest sector; improving
women’s safe access to fuelwood, supporting the use of healthier, more energy-efficient
technologies and equipment (e.g. improved stoves), and enhancing access to alternative
energy sources (e.g. solar energy, electricity); designing forestry and agroforestry
programmes that recognize women as users of forests (along with men) and acknowledge
women’s valuable knowledge, experience, and specific needs; enhancing the understanding
of gender roles along forestry value chains, supporting value chain activities performed by
women, and working with existing processing and marketing groups in which women
participate; aiming to achieve gender balance in forestry associations and forest user groups,
and enabling women to participate fully in decision-making within these associations/groups,
e.g. through formal education, training, and support for income generation; systematically
integrating gender into policy frameworks through gender-specific needs assessments, gender
audits, gender-sensitive data collection systems and budget allocations, and support to
women’s active participation in policy processes.

Participation in decision making, followed by participation in forest conservation and

economic benefits were found to be the main factors influencing participation in the forest
management program.

The exclusion of women in forest resources management is still very worrisome, as the
women are excluded from the forest management activities within the forest communities,
their interest, ideas, knowledge and situations are not always considered or taken into
consideration. It is therefore very necessary that management actions should involve women
who will represent other women’s interest thereby bringing a harmony between male and
female in the exploitation and the management of forest resources within communities. When
this is done, decision concerning management activities is collectively and jointly with the
women who bear the brunt of both positive and negative impact as integral part of such
management decisions.

Suggestions for enhancing women's benefits include: greater recognition of informal

markets, the opportunities and constraints associated with them, and their position relative to
Forest Extension note by :Kebal pd.Pandey (Forestry Instructor @KTS,Jumla)

export markets; improved support for collective action where this can provide women with
greater voice, negotiating power, and help with economies of scale; more targeted training
that addresses areas identified by women as useful and important to them; time-saving
technologies and support systems such as child care; and creating greater gender awareness
amongst stakeholders.

Changing the administrative structure of forest management groups in order to empower

members in decision-making processes can enhance participatory management program.
They also found out that, increasing women's participation and more equitable benefit-
sharing among user groups are essential in improving the success of the participatory forest
management program- policies reforms require immediate attention

8.5 Gender sensitive planning

 Gender is a critical factor that determines an individual’s role and status. Because women and
men have different roles and utilize the resources of their environment differently,
development and environmental programs affect women and men differently. The common
assumption is that the whole household or community will benefit equally from such
programs, but this is rarely the case.
 Different people have different roles and status in a household and in a community, which can
favor or hinder their capacity to access information, obtain new opportunities, and make
decisions. Hence, the needs and interests of women and men are different, but both are
important to consider in a programs in order to address development and contribute to the
improvement of people’s wellbeing. Thus, it is important to develop gender sensitive
programs, monitor their impacts with methodologies, and gender sensitive indicators.
 A gender sensitive program recognizes that women’s role is as important as men’s in
addressing development issues. It acknowledges that, because they have different roles,
women and men may have different needs, which must be addressed in order to achieve
sustainable development.
 The gender perspective is not only relevant to projects where women are the principal target
group, it must be mainstreamed in all development programs.
 A programming process is gender sensitive when the gender dimension is systematically
integrated into every step of the process, from defining the problem, to identifying potential
solutions, in the methodology and approach to implementing the project, in stakeholders
analysis and the choice of partners, in defining the objective, outcomes, outputs, and
activities, in the composition of the implementation and management team, in budgeting, in
the monitoring and evaluation (M&E) process, and in policy dialogue.
 Therefore, mainstreaming gender in development program makes sense and is becoming a
pre-requisite for their efficiency and in order to achieve program goals.
Forest Extension note by :Kebal pd.Pandey (Forestry Instructor @KTS,Jumla)

Unit 9: DEVELOPMENT

9.1 Definition
Definition: the act or process
of developing; growth; progress:
child development; economic development.

 The systematic use of scientific and

technical knowledge to meet specific
objectives or requirements.

 An extension of the theoretical or

practical aspects of a concept,
design, discovery, or invention.

 The process of economic and social

transformation that is based on
complex cultural and environmental
factors and their indicators.

 The process of adding improvements

to a parcel of land, such as grading, subdivisions, drainage, access, roads, utilities.

 Improvement in human welfare, quality of life, social well being, satisfying the
populations needs and wants. (measured using a range of socio-economic indicators).

 Sustainable development is development that meets the needs of the present without
compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs. (measured
using indicators of environmental quality).
 The process of economic and social transformation that is based on complex cultural
and environmental factors and their interactions
 Development means any improvement in quality of life.
 Development refers to a state, which is better than the preceding state in different
sectors such as agriculture, economy, health, drinking water, etc.
 Development consists of social, economic, political and cultural development .
Forest Extension note by :Kebal pd.Pandey (Forestry Instructor @KTS,Jumla)

Dimensions of Development

 Increase in income level; infant mortality; life span; literacy rate; better living condition;
political freedom; security of life; development of human resources

9.2 Various issues and challenges of development ( Economic,

political, environmental, geographical and social)

1. Environmental issues
• Environmental issues are also a major global issue.

• Humans depend on a sustainable and healthy environment, and yet we have damaged the
environment in numerous ways.

• This section introduces other issues including biodiversity, climate change, animal and nature
conservation, population, genetically modified food, sustainable development, and more.

2. Economic issues:-
• The major aims of people’s participation in the forest management are for socio-economic
development.

• Investments in Nepal are constrained by a challenging regulatory and legal framework for
foreign investment, poor governance and accounting practices, weakness in the domestic
banking sector together with lack of a swap market for the Nepali rupee, poor implementation
of property rights, and heightened political uncertainty. In addition, the country’s logistical
limitations, absence of supporting infrastructure, and the relatively smaller size of projects
constrain investments, especially in the manufacturing sector.

3. Political Issues
 The politicians define the policies, when the policies are transformed into concrete projects,
the Secretary of the Ministry of Local Development, expressed that they face practical
problems. Even though the bureaucracy functions within its own system separate from the
government, they face several problems as a result of current political affairs. Firstly, he
explained, some of the important policy-level decisions that enable them to do their work get
delayed, and secondly there is a “political vacuum” in rural areas (the Ministry’s main area of
operation), meaning that there are no elected government officials due to the lack of elections.
This results in certain responsibilities not being taken, making things even more difficult for
the MLD.
 And what of the federal system, which might not appease all of the ethnic groups in Nepal’s
complex social fabric and lead to further uprisings and instability. The aspiration to find
Forest Extension note by :Kebal pd.Pandey (Forestry Instructor @KTS,Jumla)

political stability and finally to be able to move on to developing the country is encouraging,
but for now, just as it has done for the past two decades, Nepal plays the waiting game.

Issues and challenges in Forest development in general

Community Forests
 Main challenge in CF lies in integrating CF policy and practice with democratic
governance and livelihood imperatives. Community forestry needs to be looked at
from three dimensions: Communities, Forestry and Community Forest Management.
The core issue lies on interaction between social and natural systems.
Governance
 The challenge for all societies is to create a system of governance that
promotes, supports and sustains human development - especially for the
poorest and most marginal. The goal of governance initiatives in community
forestry should be to develop capacities that are needed to realize development
that gives priority to the poor and women, sustains the environment and
creates needed opportunities for local employment.
Transparency
 In community forestry, stakeholders should have access to information in
order to understand and monitor them. More attention is needed on the
transparency in forest management, forest product flow and fund generation
and utilization.
Participation of Local stakeholders (users of CF)
 The need of the community and the condition of the community forest should
determine the forest development activities. But it is not addressed in most of
the Operational Plans (OPs). As the elite members of the CFUG and the DFO
staff make the decision on this matter, ordinary users are unaware about it.
Increased women participation, because they are the higher users of forest
products, can play important role in conservation.
Inclusiveness in participation
 An issue here is ensuring use right of genuine users and promoting equity
within the members of the CFUGs.
Sharing of income from forest products
 The executive committee takes most of the decisions regarding benefit-sharing
mechanisms. As the representation of the poor and disadvantaged groups in
the executive committee is meager, the sharing mechanism could hardly fulfill
the demands of forest products for the poor and disadvantaged groups.
 Community forest may not result in more benefits to the poor if it is poorly
executed. Many landless and occupational caste people are forced to
dependent on fuel wood from the adjoining natural forests due to the closure
of community forest in the name of protection.
Accountability of Executive Committee
Forest Extension note by :Kebal pd.Pandey (Forestry Instructor @KTS,Jumla)

 Accountability and ownership are the important variables contributing to

positive impacts of community forestry. Executive committee members should
always be accountable to the users of the CFUG. But it has not happened in
the real life in most of the CFUGs. In principle, the control over community
forest rests with CFUGs. The assembly of a CFUG makes decisions related to
community forestry. Assemblies also prepare constitution and operational
plan, define and recognize use rights and make forest management decisions
including protection, harvesting, benefit sharing, and mobilization of CFUG
funds. The assembly elects an executive committee. In reality, the executive
committee makes most of the decisions on behalf of users and committee
members. The development of an appropriate mechanism is required to avoid
dominance of committee members in decision-making and to make them
accountable towards the general users in the CFUGs.
Responsiveness
 The potentiality of sharing experiences, supports and benefits that can be
derived from
 the effective implementation of the OP remains unutilized. Generally, elites
are exercising their power, as they are more aware of legislation, have access
to information and are capable to use them for their benefits. Many user group
members are hardly aware of their own community forest constitutions and
operational plans and lack understanding of their rights and responsibilities
towards effective functioning of their FUG.
Lack of Education and Awareness
 Lack of adequate knowledge and technical skill among users might be the
reason for the formulation of poor operational plan and constitutions.
Involving people in the process of community forestry is the key step in
raising awareness on community forestry.
Limited technical capacity of the DFO in forming CFUG and handover process
Livelihood and Social Justice
 Community forestry was initiated to address the livelihoods of the people and
management of natural resources. Although some progress has been achieved
in this respect, it is often criticized for lack of positive livelihood benefits to
rural poor.

9.3 Various types of development

Infrastructure development-

• The basic facilities, services, and installations needed for the functioning of a
community or society,
• such as transportation and communications systems, water and power lines, and
public institutions including schools, post offices, and prisons.
Forest Extension note by :Kebal pd.Pandey (Forestry Instructor @KTS,Jumla)

Natural resources development-

• Naturally occurring materials such as coal, fertile land, etc., that can be used by man
in a sustainable manner without depletion of the resources.

Eco-tourism development-
• Tourism involving travel to areas of natural or ecological interest, typically under the
guidance of a naturalist, for the purpose of observing wildlife and learning about the
environment.
• Tourism which is designed to contribute to the protection of the environment or at
least minimize damage to it, often involving travel to areas of natural interest in
developing countries or participation in environmental projects.
• Tourism is major business of the Nepal, so there should be high development in Eco-
tourism.
Forest Extension note by :Kebal pd.Pandey (Forestry Instructor @KTS,Jumla)

Unit 10 :- PEOPLES’S PARTICIPATION

10.1 Definition of participation; its characteristics
• Participation is a process in which information on a planned project is made available
to the public.

• This type of participation often involves only community leaders. These people are
consulted but decision-making power rests
with external planners and project
implementers

• Participation means that a project is a

direct outcome of people's initiatives.

• A famous example of this is the Chipko

movement, which began in the
Himalayas in the 1970s when local
women mobilized themselves to protect
trees that were vital to the local economy
(Shiva 1988).

 The concept of participation originally grew out of radical criticism of mainstream

development projects in the 1960s and
1970s. Critics who asked why development
projects often failed to meet their objectives
came to the conclusion that a lack of
participation was the reason.
 Too many projects, they argued, were
designed and implemented without
consultation or cooperation with the people
whose lives they affected.
 Since then, participation has become one of
the buzz words of development.
 It now seems that every project description
or plan adopts a 'participatory approach',
often because this is required by donor
organizations for political reasons.
Unfortunately, project planners and
implementers frequently use the word
'participation' while continuing a traditional
style of management that does not involve
Forest Extension note by :Kebal pd.Pandey (Forestry Instructor @KTS,Jumla)

local people (Wily 1997). Nevertheless, true participation may lead to more effective
conservation of forest resources.

10.2 Importance of participation in social development and

program planning
• Are particularly useful in providing feedback to policy-makers.
• Economics of scale
• Higher productivity
• Reduced costs and increased efficiency
• Building of democratic organization
• Sustainability
• People organize best around problems they consider most important
• Local people tend to make better economic decisions and judgments in the context
of their own environment and circumstances
• Voluntary provision of labor, time, money and materials to a project is a
necessary condition for breaking patterns of dependency and passivity
• The local control over the amount, quality and benefits of development activities
helps make the process self-sustaining

 The benefits of public participation are many and it is not easy to categorise
them. It is important to note that public participation
suggests direct involvement of the public and takes place, preferably, in an
open discussion with decision makers.

10.3 Case studies of participation

CBC approach in Annapurna Conservation Area:
 To overcome the lacunas of the conventional conservation approach, CBC has been
developed.
 CBC involves local communities in planning, decision-making, implementation and
monitoring of conservation efforts.
 The operational plan of ACA makes provision for the formation of a village-level
nonpolitical conservation and development committee (CDC) to explore and decide
local issues.
 This provision has drastically reduced people’s burden to get permission for timber
and forest products for construction of houses and livestock shelters.
 Gradually, the CDCs enriched their experience, and developed rules to protect the
village development committee’s (VDC) forests.
 They even started to fine rule breakers (KMTNC-ACAP 1997).
 The Conservation Area Management Regulations 1996 and The Conservation Area
Management Directives 1999 empower the CDC and have renamed it as conservation
Forest Extension note by :Kebal pd.Pandey (Forestry Instructor @KTS,Jumla)

area management committee (CAMC).

 The CAMC prepares a VDC-level conservation and development plan, which it implements
in collaboration with local government and other line agencies.
 Although CAMC and its subcommittees are authorised to collect fees and use them for the
conservation and development of the area, they were not authorised to exercise judicial
power.

Activities carried out by ACAP

 ACA adopted the Integrated Conservation and Development Programme (ICDP) approach to
address the problem of conserving the fragile environment while improving the
socioeconomic conditions of the local people.
 In ICDP, community participation in PA management is the primary criterion, which has the
dual goal of conserving the biodiversity and improving the socioeconomic conditions of the
local people (Kothari et al. 1998).
 The fundamental principle of ICDP is that the protection of delicately balanced habitat and
maintenance of its biodiversity can be achieved only with the support of local communities.
Although ICDP has been critically challenged (Wells et al. 2004), it has indeed contributed to
sustainable development (WCED 1987).
 Conservation of environment, development of human resources, economy and infrastructure,
and promotion of alternative energy are some of the effective components of the ICDP in
ACA.

CF in Tanahun District

 Determinants of people's participation in community forestry activities in Tanahun district,

Nepal were investigated through a survey of 304 households across ten community forest user
groups, key informant interviews, and informal group discussions.
 Data were analysed through an ordered probit model as well as through the marginal effects
of socio-economic factors on the probability of households' participation. Of the 12 variables
considered in this study, only gender, caste, household size, livestock holding, network, and
amount of firewood extraction proved statistically significant.
 In all household wealth categories, a moderate level of participation was by far the most
common. Further, the results indicate that users participating more in community forestry
activities have extracted higher amounts of firewood, fodder and timber although this relation
was not statistically significant.
 Female headed and low caste households, however, participated significantly less than other
household categories.

Biodiversity conservation by indigenous people.

 Local Dayak communities and WWF Indonesia have worked together for some years
in the Kayan Mentarang National Park in Kalimantan, Indonesia.
Forest Extension note by :Kebal pd.Pandey (Forestry Instructor @KTS,Jumla)

 Their aim has been to develop a plan for community-based management of the park.
This plan has now been submitted to the Indonesian government, and it is hoped that
it will be endorsed and implemented in the near future.In 1992, the Dayak people of
Kayan Mentarang began to map their communities on an experimental basis, aided by
WWF Indonesia. In 1996, the Indonesian government agreed to change the status of
the Kayan Mentarang area from a strict nature reserve to a national park.
Subsequently, the status of the Dayaks was changed from illegal settlers to
communities that could be legally involved in the management of the area.
 Encouraged by the government decision and the support from WWF Indonesia and
the Indonesian Agency for Nature Conservation, the Dayaks conducted an extensive
mapping of their natural resources in 1997-98.
 They drew detailed maps of the flora and fauna in their area, showing where they
collected plants or used trees, which areas they cultivated and where their traditional
hunting grounds were located.
 Using participatory rural appraisal (PRA) techniques, WWF personnel helped the
communities to document information about their land-use systems, historical trends
in resources, traditional forest regulations and knowledge on forest resources.
 All of this information was used in the development of the management plan for the
national park.

Kayan Mentarang provides a good example of participation as a continuing process in which

each party is obliged by circumstances to be flexible and accept new ideas. The Indonesian
government accepted changes to create an enabling environment. The boundaries of the
national park were redefined to accommodate the Dayak villages and their rice fields outside
the park. It is hoped that the Dayak's traditional rules of forest management will eventually be
recognized.

Sources: Worm and Morris (1997); Eghenter (2000); WWF (2000).

10.4 Types of participation

Social Participation
The collective activities that individuals are involved in, including being involved in formal
voluntary organizations eg. Volunteering for a charity shows.

Public participation
The engagement of individuals with various structures and institution of campaigning and
taking part in consultation and demonstration.

Individual Participation
People’s individual actions and choices that reflect the kind of society they want to live in,
including buying fair trade or green products.
Forest Extension note by :Kebal pd.Pandey (Forestry Instructor @KTS,Jumla)

10.5 Various level of participation

There are different levels of participation. Participation depends upon the capacity of the
people according to their age, sex, education, occupation etc.

Typology Characteristics of Each Type

1. Passive People participate by being told what is going to happen or has already
Participation happened. It is a unilateral announcement by an administration or
project management without any listening to people's responses. The
information being shared belongs only to external professionals.
2. Participation People participate by answering questions posed by extractive
in Information researches using questionnaire surveys or similar approaches. People
Giving do not have the opportunity to influence proceedings, as the findings of
the research are neither shared nor checked for accuracy.
3. Participation People participate by being consulted, and external agents listen to
by Consultation views. These external agents define both problems and solutions and
may modify these in the light of people's responses. Such a
consultative process does not concede any share in decision making,
and professionals are under no obligation to take on board people's
views.
4. Participation People participate by providing resources, for example labour, in return
for Material for food, cash, or other material incentives. Much on-farm research
Incentive falls in this category, as faermers provide the fields but are not
involved in the experimentation or the process of learning. It is very
common to see this called participation, yet people have no stake in
prolonging activities when the incentives end.
5. Functional People participate by forming groups to meet predetermined objectives
Participation related to the project, which can involve the development or promotion
of externally initiated social organization. Such involvement does not
tend to be at early stages of project cycles or planning, but rather after
major decisions have been made. These instructions tend to be
dependent on external initiators and facilitators, but may become self-
dependent.
6. Interactive People participate in joint analysis, which leads to action plans and the
Participation formation of new local institutions or the strengthening of existing
ones. It tends to involve interdisciplinary methodologies that seek
multiple perspectives and make use of systemic and structured learning
processes. These groups take control over local decisions, and so
people have a stake in maintaining structures or practices.
7. Self- People participate by taking initiative independent of external
Mobilization institution to change systems. They develop contacts with external
institutions for resources and technical advice they need, but retain
control over how resources are used. Such self-initiated mobilization
Forest Extension note by :Kebal pd.Pandey (Forestry Instructor @KTS,Jumla)

and collective action may or may not challenge existing inequitable

distribution of wealth and power.

Levels of Participation

1. Planning
2. Management
3. Implementation
4. People’s Empowerment
5. Monitoring
6. Evaluation
7. Decision and Policy making

The -End