Lighting Guide 21:

Lighting for the built environment — Lighting Guide 21: Protecting the night-time environment
Protecting the night-time
environment

Society of Light and Lighting

Lighting for the

built environment
The Society of Light and Lighting is part of the
The Society of
Chartered Institution of Building Services Engineers Light and Lighting
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Lighting Guide 21:

Protecting the night-time

environment

The Society of
Light and Lighting

222 Balham High Road, London SW12 9BS, UK

Tel: 020 8675 5211. Fax: 020 8673 3302. E-mail: sll@cibse.org; www.sll.org.uk

The Society of Light and Lighting is part of the Chartered Institution of Building Services Engineers
This document is based on the best knowledge available at the time of
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ISBN 978-1-914543-03-6 (book)

ISBN 978-1-914543-04-3 (PDF)

Printed in England by The Lavenham Press Ltd., Lavenham, CO10 9RN.

Cover illustration: Iron Bridge illuminated (courtesy of Ralph Bohannon)

Note from the publisher

This publication is primarily intended to provide guidance to those
responsible for the design, installation, commissioning, operation and
maintenance of building services. It is not intended to be exhaustive
or definitive and it will be necessary for users of the guidance given to
exercise their own professional judgement when deciding whether to
abide by or depart from it.

Any commercial products depicted, mentioned or described within this

publication are included for the purposes of illustration only and their
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Society.
Foreword
Liz Peck was writing this excellent Lighting Guide 21: Protecting the night-

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time environment in the months before her untimely death in January
2021, bringing it very near to completion. The text has been prepared for
publication by Benedict Cadbury.

I had the privilege to work alongside Liz on the Iron Bridge at Telford
project and on reading this guide it was good to see just how much of the
knowledge and advice set out within it were incorporated into the lighting
design of the Bridge. Liz had long expertise in mitigating the negative
effects of lighting on bats and I had long experience in delivering zero
direct upward light schemes, so this guide could almost have formed a
checklist for the project: skyglow, obtrusive light, bat flyways, fish, visitor
views, extending the economic day of Ironbridge, curfews, luminance-
based design, spectral reflectance and light source spectral radiation,
daytime appearance, glare mitigation through positioning, aiming and
louvres and finally an overall lighting impact assessment — all were
included.

Humans are naturally a diurnal species, but we have the tools to turn
night into day anywhere on a crowded planet shared with other humans,
flora and fauna. The power to use these lighting tools should be used
wisely, with care and consideration. Not every building needs lighting, not
every surface needs to be lit and we should be cognisant of the impact of
any light that escapes our projects.

Work continues in this field; additional guidance is needed and the SLL is
working towards its provision.

Bob Bohannon MSc, FSLL, MIET

President of the Society of Light and Lighting, 2020–21

Author
Liz Peck

Technical Editor
Benedict Cadbury (Lampholder Lighting Design)

SLL Secretary
Brendan Keely

CIBSE Editorial Manager

Ken Butcher

Editor
Ken Butcher
Contents 1 Introduction............................................................................................................................1
1.1 Sky glow........................................................................................................................................1

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1.2 Light nuisance........................................................................................................................2
1.3 Glare................................................................................................................................................2

2 Consequences of light pollution..............................................................................2

2.1 Human health........................................................................................................................2
2.2 Flora and fauna.....................................................................................................................4
2.3 Daytime appearance.......................................................................................................7

3 Design........................................................................................................................................8
3.1 Should it be lit?.....................................................................................................................8
3.2 Objectives..............................................................................................................................10
3.3 Considerations ...................................................................................................................11
3.4 Technology.............................................................................................................................14
3.5 Lighting impact assessments................................................................................ 16

4 Common applications...................................................................................................19
4.1 Façade lighting..................................................................................................................20
4.2 Heritage buildings............................................................................................................21
4.3 Sports lighting.....................................................................................................................23
4.4 Security lighting................................................................................................................23
4.5 Sign lighting...........................................................................................................................24
4.6 Industrial plants................................................................................................................25

5 Resolutions.......................................................................................................................... 25
5.1 Mitigation measures.....................................................................................................28

6 Summary.............................................................................................................................. 28
6.1 Should it be lit? ................................................................................................................28

Bibliography............................................................................................................................................29

References...............................................................................................................................................30

Glossary ..................................................................................................................................................... 31

Appendix: list of protected species..........................................................................................33

Index .................................................................................................................................................... 34
Introduction 1

1 Introduction Exterior lighting can make a valuable contribution to people’s work,

safety and enjoyment after dark, but it can also be obtrusive or harmful.
This is not inevitable, but it is possible and is highly dependent upon how

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the lighting scheme is designed and technology operated. This guide
outlines the causes and consequences of obtrusive light and, more
importantly, how good design can minimise these effects, not just on the
human scale, but also for the wider nocturnal environment.

Harmful effects of outdoor lighting at night have been usually divided

into three categories:
— sky glow
— light intrusion (nuisance)
— glare.
These are the visible effects for humans, but it is of equal importance to
consider the less visible effects of ill-designed lighting schemes on flora
and fauna: this Lighting Guide is intended to explore these in more detail
in order to generate a wider perspective.

The definitions of the principal forms of obtrusive light are outlined

below and, whilst they are principally associated with impact on humans,
they can also relate much more broadly.

A glossary of common terms used within the guide is included on page 31.

1.1 Sky glow Sky glow refers to the increase in the brightness of the sky at night above
that produced by natural sources such as moonlight and the stars. Sky
glow is most evident over cities and towns, but can also be a blight in less
populated areas (Figure 1.1). It is caused by light traversing the atmosphere,
scattered by air molecules, suspended water droplets and dust particles.
Where the population of an area is small, the air pollution is usually slight
and, other things being equal, this would normally mean less sky glow.
However, it is important to note that as sky glow is diffuse, it can affect
both people and wildlife over great distances.

Sky glow can cause annoyance to those who have a professional interest
in a dark sky, such as astronomers, in addition to members of the general
public who simply like to be able to see a clear night sky.

Figure 1.1 Sky glow over the city of

Canterbury, population
149 000 (image by Mick
Stevens)
2 Lighting Guide 21: Protecting the night-time environment

1.2 Light nuisance Light nuisance causes disturbance to individuals and the wider
environment.

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The classic event that provokes complaints of light nuisance is when light
from a lighting installation enters a nearby residential window or garden.
Some of the complaints may more truthfully be associated with the
activity creating the nuisance rather than the lighting itself, although
there are obviously situations where complaints are justified. The
common feature of these complaints is that a significant amount of light
crosses a property boundary and impacts on the ability of the adjacent
property owner to enjoy, in the legal sense, the use of that property
during the evening and into the night.

In the UK, light is recognised as a potential statutory nuisance in the

Clean Neighbourhoods and Environment Act 2005, although some
facilities are exempt. These include roads, airports, military facilities,
transport hubs, goods vehicle operating centres, lighthouses and prisons.

Moreover, light nuisance can have a damaging effect on flora and fauna
to a great degree. Poorly controlled or ill-thought-out lighting installations
which spill over to the natural environment, can affect the wildlife in the
area, which may include legally protected species (see 2.2).

1.3 Glare Glare from lighting is typically divided into one of two categories:
disability glare and discomfort glare.

Disability glare has an effect on visual capabilities, whereas discomfort

glare is more often as a result of being in the presence of bright luminaires.
The separation between disability and discomfort glare should not be
taken to mean that disability glare does not cause visual discomfort, nor
that discomfort glare does not diminish the capabilities of the visual
system. Whenever disability glare makes it more difficult to see what
needs to be seen, complaints are likely to occur.

The feature that separates glare from light nuisance is that glare causes
discomfort, whereas light nuisance causes disruption. Also, glare can be
associated with high-brightness luminaires at a distance far enough away
that while light nuisance is negligible, glare is still evident.

2 Consequences Sources of ecological light pollution can include illuminated building

façades and structures, street lighting, and sports and security
of light floodlighting. It can also be caused by fishing boats, bridges across rivers
pollution and estuaries, and offshore oil platforms.

Whilst most people associate ecological light pollution with sky glow,
noticing the reduction in the visibility of stars and other parts of the solar
system, there is an increasing awareness of the wider impact of all forms
of exterior lighting within the global environment, particularly on
biodiversity.

2.1 Human health Humans are diurnal animals which have evolved under bright light during
the day and negligible light at night. This pattern is one of the most potent
cues for the entrainment of circadian rhythms, the most obvious example
of which is the sleep–wake cycle.

Frequent disruption of the circadian rhythm is bad for human health. If

light intrusion interferes with sleep, this can damage health: broken or
truncated sleep can occur when light at night enters a bedroom window,
Consequences of light pollution 3

particularly if the amount of light is significant or varies suddenly. This

may happen when the source of the light is a variable high-brightness
advertising sign or when a nearby security light is triggered intermittently.

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Broken or truncated sleep leads to a sleep deficit with the resulting
feelings of tiredness, poor cognitive performance, irritability and,
ultimately, potential long-term harm to mental health. Unfortunately it is
not known exactly how much light at night is sufficient to cause circadian
disruption, so it is essential to limit the amount of light intrusion to the
lowest possible level.

Figure 2.1 Bright signage shining

into neighbouring
residential building

2.1.1 Sky glow In large conurbations sky glow is evident in all directions, thus people
living in cities do not experience complete darkness. The circadian
entrainment of the light-dark cycle is less evident than in a rural area
where there is little or no sky glow. Dark skies at night enhance wellbeing,
hence control of sky glow, for example by dimming or switching off street
lighting at times when few people are about, is a benefit.

2.1.2 Glare People who are subjected to glare, whether solar or from electric lights,
for significant periods, e.g. at their place of work, frequently report
headaches and fatigue. Glare has been found to cause migraines. A study
in 2003 found that glare from windows reduced employee productivity
by up to 25%. This problem can also manifest itself in outdoor areas such
as factory yards or construction sites where floodlighting has been
installed in an ad hoc manner without any design input.

2.1.3 Flicker Flicker can be defined as a rapid repetitive change in brightness.

Depending on its frequency and modulation depth, this can affect human
health in two main areas: increased incidence of headaches and epileptic
seizures. A third area is the safety risk of moving machinery appearing to
rotate more slowly, or not at all, in flickering light. This aspect is not
confined to workplaces; it could occur in the home with DIY tools, mixers
or sewing machines.

Most flicker occurs at twice the frequency of mains electricity, i.e. 100 Hz.
Even when flicker cannot be seen it can still constitute a health hazard.
Epileptic seizures can be triggered by flicker <70 Hz above a certain
4 Lighting Guide 21: Protecting the night-time environment

amplitude. For office workers who are prone to headaches, flicker from
fluorescent tubes controlled by mains frequency magnetic ballasts was
shown to double the average incidence of headaches. Studies have

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identified that the no-observable-effect flicker level is a modulation of
3% or less (Lehman and Wilkins, 2014).

IEEE Standard 1789 (2015) sets the minimum frequency for lighting at
162 Hz with a flicker factor < 3%. Most dimmable LED drivers dim the light
source by pulse width modulation (phase cut), which frequently leads to
a progressive increase in flicker factor as the light source is dimmed. This
means that a light source which meets the standard at 100% output
frequently does not meet it when dimmed to 25% (Price et al., 2016).

An international standard for what is an acceptable level of LED flicker

will be established from 2021 by the EU Ecodesign Regulation, which is
based on IEC Technical Report 61547-1 (2020). However, this applies only
to mains-powered light sources driven at full power (i.e. not dimmed).
This test stipulates that the result should be a flicker meter reading ≤ 1,
which implies that the flicker frequency exceeds approx. 120 Hz.

Where people spend prolonged periods in one place, for example an

office with little or no daylight, a care home or a hospital, the negative
effects of flicker will be more serious and more likely to impair their
wellbeing. Where the residents or users of a place have mental health
problems, flicker is likely to be at the least upsetting and at worst harmful.
Consequently it is essential to specify lighting which, even when dimmed
to the lowest anticipated level, has a flicker factor less than 3% and/or a
flicker meter reading less than 1.

2.2 Flora and fauna It is not just humans who can be affected by exterior lighting schemes. All
wildlife needs darkness, and light does not need to be obtrusive in the
most literal sense in order to affect both plants and animals. It has been
estimated that artificial light at night may impinge upon two-thirds of the
world’s natural habitats.

There are a number of legally protected species in the United Kingdom;

the one to which lighting designers and planners can most easily relate is
bats, but there is a variety of species of both flora and fauna which are
protected (see Appendix). Creating disturbance to these species is not
only harmful, but also illegal.

2.2.1 Flora It is well known and documented that plants use light as a source of both
energy and information, generally through seasonal day length variations
and the 24-hour cycle of light and darkness, similar to the diurnal human.
The spectral distribution, timing and duration of light exposure regulates
these cycles, so interruption through the addition of artificial lighting at
night can disrupt their long-term health.

It has been estimated that there are over 250,000 hectares of road verge
in Britain and these habitats are more and more frequently being
illuminated, particularly with blue-rich-spectrum LED sources. In recent
years it has been acknowledged that colour temperature (CCT) alone is
not a useful measure when examining the effects of artificial light on
trees and verges; the spectral power distribution (SPD) needs to be
examined in greater depth and more carefully specified.

Light having a predominant content at the blue end of the spectrum

affects the cryptochromes regulating the circadian rhythm and the
Consequences of light pollution 5

phototropins in developing leaf growth. Secondly, exposure to light at

night can bring forward the spring budburst in urban settings, meaning
that the bud and flowering is not aligned with the seasonal temperature,

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causing potentially lasting damage to the health of the trees through
frost risk.

Despite growing empirical evidence of the impacts on plants, more

research on the long-term effects of exposure to artificial light is required.

2.2.2 Fauna More than half of the world’s species are nocturnal, active at night and
sleeping during the day. The behaviour of terrestrial nocturnal mammals
is influenced by moonlight. Any artificial light intervention can result in a
huge range of species having their circadian cycle interrupted, causing
disruption to foraging, breeding, and ultimately their very existence. This
is particularly true of smaller mammals, which rely on darkness to avoid
predators.

The effects are often demonstrated in terms of changes in orientation,

disorientation, and attraction or repulsion from the altered lit
environment, which may also affect migration and communication.
Orientation and disorientation are responses to the amount of light
falling on an object or building, whereas attraction or repulsion have
been demonstrated to occur as a response to the intensity and spectrum
of the light source.

Some creatures are attracted to light at night; there are many cases
recorded of birds colliding with tall floodlit buildings as they try to orient
their flight, resulting in mass deaths. Numerous insects are affected in a
number of ways by artificial light, typically referred to as the fixation/
captivity and attraction effects.
— The fixation/captivity effect occurs when insects are travelling
and either fly directly into the light source or orbit endlessly
until they are eaten by a predator or die of exhaustion. The
insect can become trapped in a lit zone which interferes with
its navigation.
— The attraction effect occurs when an insect is attracted to
a light source and is drawn from its normal habitat. On a
moonlit night the zone of attraction is as little as 50 m, but
on a dark night it can rise to 500 m.
The end effect of this is a potential reduction in diversity of species.

It is not just on land where ecological light pollution can be an issue; it

can provide harmful environments on watercourses, seas and lakes.
Creatures such as turtles can be confused by — and attracted to — light
at night, and so find their way to an illuminated road rather than the sea.
Some birds rely on bioluminescent plankton to navigate by and are
therefore drawn to light, which means they are fatally attracted to
lighthouses, lights from oil and gas platforms, and the high-intensity lights
used on fishing boats.

Ultimately, all designers and planners have a duty of care to protect the
night-time environment and to judge whether the impact of installing
exterior lighting — whether new or replacement — is justifiable and valid.
6 Lighting Guide 21: Protecting the night-time environment

Figure 2.2 Excessive upward

light resulting in an
illuminated tree canopy

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(image courtesy of
Benedict Cadbury)

Bats
It is illegal to intentionally — or recklessly — capture, injure or kill any
population of bat species or otherwise damage, destroy or obstruct
access to bat roosts. It is also illegal to cause any disturbance which may
affect a bat’s habitat or welfare. Light spill onto a roost access point will,
at a bare minimum, delay bats seeking to emerge and this shortens the
amount of time available to them each night for foraging.

Bats forage and feed on a variety of insects, often close to riverbanks,

woodland or hedgerows, but anywhere they can find food. Many, but not
all, are light-averse and will not leave a roost if there is light present,
which, if the lighting is artificial, is harmful to them. Equally, if artificial
lighting takes their food supply away from its natural habitat by drawing
insects into a new area, the bats will have to fly greater distances to forage
and are more likely to become exhausted, opening them up to become
prey themselves. Many bats use rivers, streams and tree lines as dark flight
corridors, sometimes referred to as commuter routes, to their chosen
foraging site, so in addition to the harmful effects of lighting at night close
to roost sites or drawing food away from their foraging areas, they can
Consequences of light pollution 7

also be disrupted by lighting of, for example, buildings and sports pitches
near woodland or little-used roads lined with trees. Studies have shown
that continuous lighting along roads creates barriers that some bat

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species cannot cross, in which case it is advisable to create ‘light breaks’
for bats to traverse safely.

The lighting designer must take into consideration all of these aspects
when considering an exterior lighting scheme if there is a possibility that
there may be bats present on the site or if the space is likely to be used
for foraging or commuting by bats. An ecologist can advise the best
practice required, which may be the use of a narrow-band, monochromatic
source or perhaps a warm-white LED with low blue content, which some
species of bat and other creatures will tolerate. Otherwise it may not be
practical to install the lighting at all.

2.3 Daytime Whilst this Lighting Guide is focussed on protecting the night-time
appearance environment, it is important that the daytime appearance is also
considered in the overall context of a new lighting scheme. The equipment
used and, to an extent, the location, quantity and the design of luminaires
to be utilised must be appropriate. This applies equally to a sports pitch,
car park or architectural lighting scheme.

A sports pitch, irrespective of the sport involved, will have differing

recommended lighting criteria depending upon the competitive level
being played (see SLL Lighting Guide 4: Sports (2021)). These light levels
can often be achieved in multiple ways: a larger number of columns
allows lower mounting heights and potentially a reduced visual impact in
the daytime for local residents, while taller columns often result in fewer
columns being utilised. There is, thus, a balance to be struck over which
approach has the least visual intrusion in the daytime; if the columns are
too low, it can lead to an appearance of a ‘forest’ of them, which may be
much worse than fewer, taller ones. However, there is a second trade-off,
which is that taller columns generally achieve the required spread of
light with the lanterns horizontal, whereas on shorter columns lanterns
frequently need to be tilted upwards to achieve the required spread,
thereby increasing glare and sky glow. This also applies to car parks and
other site lighting. The column height will invariably influence the
reflected sky glow and intrusive light, so should be carefully considered.
Figure 2.3 Tower floodlights at a town
football ground dominate
surrounding houses by
day (image courtesy of
Benedict Cadbury)
8 Lighting Guide 21: Protecting the night-time environment

For street lighting, the selection of columns must relate to the context in
which they stand; much like sports lighting, taller columns can utilise
more powerful lighting heads and hence fewer are required, but they are

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more likely to be visually obtrusive, especially in residential areas or in
small town centres. They are also more likely to create intrusive light into
neighbouring properties and land.

In the architectural field, especially in the heritage sector, the physical

design and appearance of the luminaires and mounting brackets are
often crucial factors in delivering a well-designed solution. It may be
relatively simple to create a beautifully lit façade at night but, if the
daytime appearance is one of a number of visually intrusive floodlights
on that façade, then the design aspirations for the scheme have been
lost.

3 Design The justification for exterior lighting varies: it can improve safety and
security; it can be used for the benefit of the economy, both to attract
customers and to advertise products. Further, it can deliver beauty to the
night-time environment. However, the only way to minimise the harmful
effects of lighting at night is through the application of good design.
Technology can obviously assist the process, but ultimately it is the
quality of design of any exterior installation which will succeed in
delivering the project ambitions and requirements, whilst also protecting
the night-time environment.
— In determining the need or desire for exterior lighting, it is
essential to consider the expected benefits.
— From there, if lighting is to be installed, where and how much
light should be used must be determined.
— Finally, when does it stop being beneficial and, therefore,
needs to be switched off.

3.1 Should it be lit? The easiest and most effective way to protect the night-time environment
is not to install any exterior lighting schemes, so the first question has to
be whether or not the lighting is necessary or justifiable.

Exterior lighting is usually provided for one or more of a number of

reasons, which can usually be broken down into two categories: need
and desire:

Need:
— enhance safety of movement, such as roads, cycle routes and
pathways
— provide security by making surveillance possible, such as a
car park
— enable work to be carried out, such as a transport hub.
Desire:
— lengthen the time that outdoor facilities can be used, such
as sports pitches
— extend the economic day of an area, such as a town centre
— illuminate landmarks or structures, such as castles or bridges.

3.1.1 How much light? If it is determined that exterior lighting is required, then the next
consideration should be how much light is needed and where. Lighting is
usually designed for the benefit of people, so whilst there are a number
of factors to consider, it is often best to start with the relatively simple
question: 'Who does what, where and when?'.
Design 9

This question is equally valid for a sports pitch, a historical façade or a

roadway. The analysis behind the question will not just identify the
activity within or around the space, but also the experiences that will be

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altered by introducing lighting, be that enjoying a civic enhancement or
an added sense of safety and security.

The SLL Lighting Handbook (2018) and Lighting Guide 6: The exterior
environment (2016) give recommended design criteria and guidance for
a variety of exterior scenarios, but it should be borne in mind that this is
offered only as guidance, which should be taken as a starting point for
further consideration. It is important to consider every scheme in its own
right and the criteria adjusted — up or down — accordingly.

The International Commission for Illumination (CIE) has a classification

system for district brightness which ranges from dark sky parks to city
centres: the lighting designer must judge the zone carefully. What may
seem like a town centre might be separated from a woodland simply by
a road or river, thus bridges which cross them will effectively fall into two
zones. There is more information on these in section 3.5, 'Lighting impact
assessments'.

The underlying question of how much light, therefore, will depend on a

number of factors, such as the district brightness of the area, the surface
reflectance of the ground or structure being illuminated and, for
pedestrian and residential areas in particular, crime levels.

3.1.2 What should be lit? In some instances this is an obvious question, for example a sports pitch,
but in other circumstances the designer may need to be more circumspect.

This has two elements; the first being common sense of only lighting
areas that need to be lit. For example, a supermarket operating 24 hours
a day needs its car park to be accessible at all times; but at 3 a.m. most
customers will park as close to the store entrance as possible, so lighting
is really only required at the entrance/exit of the car park and areas close
to the store entrance. Depending on the layout, other lighting could be
dimmed or switched off altogether. The second element is energy use: in
the same example, a significant amount of energy would be wasted if the
entire car park area were to be illuminated all night.

In the architectural field, it is relatively simple to blanket-wash a statue or

an entire façade, but it may be more coherent to reduce the amount of
lighting used to create highlights and shadow, and thereby to reveal form
and texture.

3.1.3 When should it be lit? It is crucially important to consider time, which means both the times of
day and the duration of the proposed illumination.

Whilst some roadways can justifiably be illuminated all night, this is not
necessarily the case for all roads. For example, a road may lead to an
industrial site which is not operational at night, so lighting is only required
for as long as staff and visitors are using it.

A number of local authorities are switching off street lighting during

certain parts of the night to save energy; whilst this may seem sensible
for residential estates where pedestrian and vehicular traffic is low during
certain hours, it is not suitable for major link roads which are still
frequently used, sometimes at high speeds. In these cases, it is a better
approach to maintain or dim the lighting level, rather than implement a
10 Lighting Guide 21: Protecting the night-time environment

blanket switch-off. It is important to carry out a risk assessment: switching

off lighting can increase crime — or fear of crime — and accidents can
occur in areas where regular users unexpectedly find themselves on an

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unlit road.

For architectural lighting, there is little justification for illuminating a

building façade or structure all night, so a curfew or time limit is required.
This can be imposed as a planning condition by a Local Authority (LA) or
self-imposed by the client or the design team, so it is somewhat flexible
in its nature and should be discussed both with the client at the design
stage and later with the LA at the planning stage; but common sense also
has to prevail, depending on the merits of each site and location. A useful
guide is the point at which there is no longer a public benefit in the late
evening.

When a sports club wishes to add floodlights to their courts or pitches,

curfews are often at the forefront of LA planning considerations. In these
cases, there is often less flexibility, especially if they are located close to
residential areas. Unlike architectural lighting, sports facilities involve
people and vehicles leaving the area, which can be in large numbers and
can create noise problems. For this reason, many sporting facilities have
a curfew at 10 p.m. or earlier, whereas architectural lighting in town
centres is permitted to stay on later, as long as it is still providing a public
benefit.

Figure 3.1 Nocturnal view of the

UK as seen from space
(image courtesy of
Tim Peake CMG)

3.2 Objectives Lighting design must balance a number of objectives and design criteria.
The balance and priority of these will vary depending on the nature of a
project but, as a brief overview, the three issues — function, experience,
colour — should always be considered.

3.2.1 Function The principal function of exterior lighting is to enable people to see
clearly after dark. The ability to see sufficiently well to carry out a given
task depends on the amount of light present, but also on its qualities.

After dark, light can help people to feel secure. A legible streetscape and
the ability to see others can promote feelings of safety and help to deter
crime. The technical requirements of CCTV systems should be taken into
account; whilst camera technology has progressed to the point where
cameras function well in comparatively low light levels, any requirement
for facial recognition will affect the choice of lighting solutions.
Design 11

The degree of contrast within an area is governed by the surfaces and

textures with their corresponding reflectances and consequent visual
brightness. The colour of the light and the manner in which it renders the

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colour of these surfaces and materials will affect the activity taking place
within it. Too much contrast can create problems with certain visual tasks,
whilst lack of contrast can result in a poor-quality, dreary environment.
The appropriate lighting of spaces is therefore not only about the amount
of light used but also about managing the contrast with surrounding
areas to facilitate any necessary visual adaptation.

The effect of lighting on those with sensory or physical disabilities,

including the elderly, should be taken into account. This includes the
avoidance of excessive contrast and glare, control of shadow, and the use
of upward light such that it does not cause confusion. Good design can
assist in creating a safer environment by drawing attention to and lighting
potential hazards.

In exterior areas where there is a mix of pedestrians and vehicles it is

essential that lighting enables drivers clearly to identify pedestrians.
Steps, changes of level, junctions and crossing points, and proximity to
water edges are all potential hazards, so lighting to these areas should
become an integral part of any safety and access solution.

3.2.2 Experience As well as providing the means to see, light also plays a key role in how
people experience a space after dark. Lighting plays a major part not only
in the way that people perceive a space or structure but also in how they
understand it. It reveals and conceals elements within a space or façade,
assists way-finding, and generally creates atmosphere. Light can influence
the perceived quality of a space, irrespective of its functional properties,
thus the psychological importance for users is not to be underestimated.

Lighting offers different ways in which form and volume can be revealed,
so lighting design should consider how people understand spaces and
light them accordingly. The legibility of any large or complex space after
dark can be enhanced or ruined dependent upon the approach to
illuminating the surfaces and objects within it. After dark, lighting can
‘curate’ the visual experience of architecture, landscape and city. Surfaces
and objects which are not lit are less visible, or even completely concealed,
and the image that people remember is a version of the space with
lighting applied. Lighting contributes not only to the experience but to
the memory, the ‘postcard image’, and the marketable brand.

3.2.3 Colour Typically exterior lighting is specified with CCT = 4000 K (neutral white).
This is suitable for a wide range of applications, but there will be
circumstances where a warmer or cooler white will better suit the setting.
The judicious use of colour can enhance a space or structure, but whilst
LEDs have introduced a simple method to create multi-coloured effects,
it must not be over-used. Aspects such as historical importance, the
wider setting or even what the structure or space represents must be
taken into consideration. Colour-washing may be appropriate for the
hospitality industry, but town centres, churches, and historic castles and
structures should be treated a little more sensitively.

3.3 Considerations When embarking upon any exterior lighting, it is essential to consider the
overall context in which the proposed lighting scheme will sit; this may
3.3.1 Setting include the geographical, social, environmental and cultural needs and
responses of the area and relates back to the initial question of why the
lighting should be installed.
12 Lighting Guide 21: Protecting the night-time environment

The floodlighting of a sports pitch means that people can enjoy sport
into the evenings, especially in winter months. This is obviously beneficial
to participants in physical, mental and social terms and, indeed, may be

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a crucial source of revenue for the organisation but, remembering that
sky glow can often be seen from great distances, its overall setting must
be taken into account, not just the neighbouring properties. Increasingly,
outdoor sports facilities, especially those with multiple pitches or courts,
are located in suburban or semi-rural areas to provide sufficient parking
for participants. As a result the immediate surrounding area can
sometimes be woodland or fields, which are habitats for numerous types
of wildlife. In this situation, therefore, it is the context and potential
impact on the flora and fauna which is more likely to be harmful than the
impact on human residents, so the lighting needs to be very carefully
optically controlled to allow the nocturnal patterns and routines of
nature to continue.

For architectural lighting schemes, the setting is also very important. The
design nature and brightness levels of lighting on a façade of a building in
the middle of a city centre will be quite different from an equivalent in,
or on the edge of, a smaller town, not just because of the overall district
brightness, but because it is possible that it could be seen from a distant
roadway; there is a balance to be struck between that view encouraging
people to visit that town or building and it causing a distraction to road
users.
Figure 3.2 West Riding County FA,
Leeds (image courtesy of
West Riding County FA)

3.3.2 Viewpoints In addition to the setting, it is important to consider the critical viewpoints
that may be affected — or enjoyed — by the installation. This may be an
impact on nearby residents, or, especially for architectural schemes, the
viewpoints where people will be able to appreciate the final scheme. The
close-set viewpoints may be obvious in the case of local housing, where
potential glare and intrusion must be analysed, and also in determining
the possible viewpoints where a scheme can be enjoyed, but as part of
the design considerations the distant views should also be taken into
account where relevant: can that sports pitch, car park or landmark be
seen from a nearby hill, for example, and if so, will the lighting installation
be a nuisance, a benefit or both?
Design 13

Figure 3.3 Church of Bled by night

in Slovenia; the principal
viewpoint here is from

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across the lake (© np/
shutterstock.com)

Many architectural lighting schemes are installed in order to be beneficial

to a town, or because a building’s architecture or importance merits its
illumination. On the other hand there may be a beautiful architecturally-
detailed bridge or viaduct which on first glance cries out to be illuminated,
but, if it really only serves its purpose as a vehicle crossing and there is
nobody around to see it after dark otherwise, there can be no justification
for its illumination (an example is shown in Figure 3.4). Equally, if there are
views to be enjoyed, the lighting installation should maximize those,
whilst ensuring minimal disruption to the surrounding areas.

Figure 3.4 Ribblehead Viaduct,

Yorkshire (image courtesy
of John Shippen)

3.3.3 Maintenance In order to preserve the longevity of the scheme, the luminaires must be
maintained. There is a common misconception that, with the long lifetime
of LEDs, maintenance is no longer significant or required. However, it is in
fact very important for the long-term integrity and appearance of the
scheme.

All luminaires in the external environment will get dirty over time; the
effects of this will vary, nevertheless a regular cleaning schedule is needed
to:
— ensure that the luminaires are still operating to their potential
14 Lighting Guide 21: Protecting the night-time environment

— enable inspection for any failures or other malfunctions,

such as damaged or dirty photocells on street lighting heads

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— check that any floodlights are still aimed correctly and not
causing a nuisance to neighbouring properties.

3.4 Technology Technology has evolved exponentially in recent years, not just through
the advent and popularity of LED light sources, but also in the design of
luminaires and their control systems.

3.4.1 Light sources It is common for people to consider light only in terms of illuminance
levels, which is readily understood by lighting designers, planners and
engineers. However, this ignores the biologically important information
relating to the light source. A high-pressure sodium lamp may produce
the same illuminance as a low-pressure sodium source, but the latter
contains less in the ultra-violet spectrum (which has been shown to
attract moths and flying insects). As research continues in this field it will
become essential to show measurements of radiation and spectrum-
based information relevant to the species being discussed, in addition to
the actual level of illumination.

LEDs are known to be energy-efficient with a long life, making them very
popular. They are very small light sources, making them extremely
versatile for luminaire design. They are not without their limitations and
the heavily-weighted blue light content of ‘neutral’ and ‘cool’ white LEDs
can have a very harmful impact on the night-time environment. For
example, a 4000 K LED source typically has a blue-light content of about
33%, whereas a warmer 2700 K or 3000 K source has 16% or 21%
respectively. As a general rule, blue-rich white light disturbs nocturnal
creatures more than warmer monochromatic or narrow waveband
sources, so it is essential to consider the spectral distribution of a source,
rather than just its colour temperature.

When blue light gets into the sky, the scattering is much greater than that
from the warmer end of the spectrum associated with older, traditional
light sources. The impact of this on flora and fauna can be extensive: it
can disturb, among others, bat commuter routes. For more information
on this subject see section 2.2.

Further, it has long been understood that some migratory birds navigate
by detecting the earth’s magnetic field. A number of scientific experiments
have been carried out with regard to magnetic orientation of birds under
blue and green light and it has been shown that the wavelength and
intensity of the light can affect birds’ orientation.

3.4.2 Luminaires The development of LED light sources has led to huge benefits in
luminaire design in terms of aesthetics, optical distribution and size, with
more compact, better controlled luminaires being produced. Many
current exterior luminaires are designed with flat glass finishes, i.e. the
front glass is horizontal in both planes, reducing the impact on the
environment by comparison with those which housed larger light sources
and generally had much less optical control (e.g. low-pressure sodium).

There are, however, many LED luminaires with poor optics, often in the
low-end budget sector. In general, floodlights with a LED array near the
front glass will give a wide — up to 120° — optical beam, which is likely to
light a much wider area than needed, and, if mounted in any orientation
other than completely horizontal, will create potentially vast amounts of
upward spill light (Figure 3.5).
Design 15

Figure 3.5 Poor optical design of a

floodlight (image courtesy
of Bob Bohannon)

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Most modern street lighting luminaires have a flat glass finish with well-
designed optics which, provided they are correctly installed, direct all the
light downwards only, thus the only effect in the sky derives from light
reflected off the ground. If the luminaires are tilted slightly in order to
increase the forward throw of light to meet the design criteria, it may be
necessary to add front shields to protect against stray light.

If an existing street lighting installation is being replaced, it is essential

that a complete design check is completed, as it is rare for the optical
distribution of the old and new luminaires to match exactly, and this can
lead to very poor uniformity: in the worst cases the pools of light are so
patchy that they create a ‘zebra-crossing’ effect.

There is a balance to be struck in creating the correct lighting level on the

ground and the inevitable consequence of reflected upward light. The
latter will vary depending on the type of surface; each has a different
reflection factor. Table 3.1 shows some typical values.

Table 3.1 Typical reflectance values of some

common exterior surfaces
Surface material Reflectance coefficient
Asphalt 0.05–0.10
Concrete 0.20–0.50
Brick 0.10–0.40
Soil 0.10–0.30
Sand 0.20–0.40
Grass 0.10–0.20
Gravel 0.15–0.30

3.4.3 Controls Controls can play a key role in protecting the night-time environment as
they ensure that the correct quantity of light is delivered only when it is
required and the lighting installations are either dimmed or switched off
at other times.

As well as basic controls such as photocells, presence detectors and

time-clocks, the nature of LEDs means they are far easier to program
than older light sources, hence it is possible to create networks, often
wirelessly. Wireless control technology continues to advance at a rapid
rate and allows devices to communicate without costly installation of
cabling. Further advantages are two-way communication and individual
luminaire control.
16 Lighting Guide 21: Protecting the night-time environment

Two-way communication creates distinct capabilities. The system can be

calibrated, schedules changed, and modifications made from a central
point. Control systems such as these are often supported by a web-based

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interface which enables fully remote control of the settings away from
site, including the programming of special effects where desired.

Further information can be found in SLL Lighting Guide 14: Control of

electric lighting (2016).

3.5 Lighting impact Lighting impact assessments (LIA) are often considered to be relevant
assessments only as part of the planning application stage, in order to prove that there
are no adverse human impacts in the proposed scheme, but in reality
they should be accorded detailed attention from the start. An LIA should
form part of the concept design stage, even if not as a formal document,
but at least as part of a cohesive thought process.

3.5.1 Obtrusive light As discussed in chapter 1, obtrusive light is the collective term for the
unwanted effects of external lighting. Evaluating the setting, light
intrusion into properties, spill light and any upward light, directly or
indirectly, created by the potential lighting scheme from the outset can
inform a better design solution and luminaire selection, rather than
alterations after decisions have been made.

Figure 3.6 below shows the different types of obtrusive light.

Figure 3.6 Types of obtrusive

light (image courtesy
of Bob Bohannon)

The extent of permissible obtrusive light depends upon the district

brightness of the area as defined by the CIE zones (see Table 3.2). Where
a scheme straddles two zones the limits for the lower zone should
normally be respected.

Table 3.2 CIE environmental zones (source: CIE 150 (2017) Tables 2, 5 and 7; reproduced by
permission of CIE)
Zone Lighting environment Examples
E0 Intrinsically dark UNESCO Starlight Reserves, IDA Dark Sky Parks,
major optical observatories
E1 Dark National Parks, Areas of Outstanding Natural
Beauty, relatively uninhabited rural areas
E2 Low district brightness Sparsely inhabited rural areas
E3 Medium district brightness Well inhabited town and urban settlements
E4 High district brightness Town and city centres, out of town retail parks
Design 17

As outlined in Table 3.3, for each environmental zone there is a range of

criteria falling into the following categories:

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— light intrusion onto a neighbouring property,
— maximum value for upward light, and
— luminance limits for façade and sign lighting.

Table 3.3 Night-time limit values for different environmental zones (source: CIE 150 (2017)
Tables 2, 5 and 7; reproduced by permission of CIE)
Time Maximum values of vertical illuminance on properties (lux)
for stated CIE Environmental zone
E0 E1 E2 E3 E4
Pre-curfew 0 2 5 10 25
Post-curfew 0 0.1 * 1 2 5
Item Maximum permitted values of average surface luminance (cd/m2 ) for
stated maximum values of upward light ratio (ULR) of luminaires (%)
0 0 2.5 5 15
Building façade < 0.1 < 0.1 5 10 25
Signs < 0.1 50 400 800 1000
* If the installation is for public (road) lighting then this may be up to 1 lux

3.5.2 Maximum values of The maximum illuminance on property façades is designed to limit light
vertical illuminance intrusion into residential buildings. As with most requirements, meeting
on properties this criterion requires prudent selection and aiming of luminaires. If this
is not enough, the use of some form of louvre or baffle may be necessary.
It should be noted that the criterion for light intrusion has pre- and post-
curfew values and that there is a relaxation for street lighting installations.

3.5.3 Upward light ratio The upward light ratio is the percentage of luminous flux from the whole
(ULR) lighting installation that is emitted above a horizontal plane through the
luminaires. Essentially, this criterion attempts to reduce sky glow by
limiting the proportion of light emitted directly upward. In practice,
meeting this criterion requires diligent selection of luminaires and
attention to detail in how they are mounted and aimed. (Note that ULR is
not the same as a manufacturer’s figure for upward light output ratio
(ULOR), since that is calculated with the luminaire installed precisely
horizontally in both planes.)

3.5.4 Façade and sign Façade and sign lighting have a different metric: luminance, rather than
lighting illuminance, is utilised to determine the brightness of the floodlighting of
buildings, structures and signage.

The luminance (brightness) of a façade or structure will depend upon the

reflectance value of its surface material and/or colour of it, together with
the light output and spectral distribution of the light source used.

Table 3.4 shows some typical materials with an approximate reflectance

value and suggested illuminance values for differing levels of district
brightness and condition of the façade or structure. These should not be
taken as absolute values, but are offered as guidance for preliminary
designs. Wherever possible, site trials are always recommended.
18 Lighting Guide 21: Protecting the night-time environment

Table 3.4 Suggested illuminance levels for façade lighting

Approximate Typical materials Surface Illuminance (lux) for stated
reflectance condition district brightness

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Low Medium High
0.8 White brick Clean 15 25 40
Fairly clean 20 35 60
Fairly dirty 45 75 120
0.6 Portland stone Clean 20 35 60
Fairly clean 35 55 90
Fairly dirty 65 110 180
0.4 Middle stone, medium Clean 30 50 80
concrete Fairly clean 45 75 120
Fairly dirty 90 150 240
0.3 Dark stone Clean 40 60 100
Fairly clean 55 90 150
Fairly dirty 110 180 300
0.2 Granite, red brick Clean 55 90 150
Fairly clean 80 140 230
Fairly dirty 160 280 450

Most modern signage is self-luminous, using LEDs to back-light a screen.

Extra caution should be taken so that these are not a distraction to
passing motorists or create confusion with critical warning signs for
pedestrians. It is also important to note that the signs themselves, being
uncontrolled, can cause high levels of upward light and sky glow and
should be used most judiciously, i.e. only when there is a benefit in them
being illuminated. Further guidance can be found in the ILP document
PLG05: The brightness of illuminated advertisements (ILP, 2015).

3.5.5 Maximum luminous Not listed in Table 3.3, there is also a criterion for maximum luminous
intensity intensity. This represents an attempt to control glare and is applied to
fixed observation locations that are likely to suffer prolonged discomfort
or disability glare from the light sources themselves, such as a residence
or other property. There is a slightly complex formula for its calculation,
depending on the observer’s distance from the source and the size
and/or grouping of the source(s). More information can be found in the
ILP document GN01: Guidance notes for the reduction of obtrusive light
(ILP, 2021).

3.5.6 Sky glow It is important to note that limiting the upward light ratio does not limit
the absolute contribution of the installation to sky glow, which will also
depend both on the light emitted laterally at 90–120º and on the
illuminance delivered to the ground and the surface reflectance of the
ground material (section 3.4.2). Sky glow is mainly caused by light emitted
in the 85–100º zone.

It is also difficult to assess sky glow from a proposed lighting installation,

as in isolation it may create some reflected upward light, yet it may be
situated in an environment where the supplementary sky glow created
makes little contribution to the overall effect; for example, if it is situated
in an area of high district brightness or an area which already has medium
or high sky glow.
Common applications 19

However, if the lighting scheme is in relative isolation, or in a particularly

sensitive location, it is essential to make an assessment. One practical
method is the outdoor site lighting performance (OSP) method (Brons et

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al, 2008). This method, developed in conjunction with the Rensselaer
Lighting Research Centre, uses a virtual 'shoebox' surrounding the scheme.

The concept is to create a shoebox-shaped area around a property or

lighting scheme. The planes of the 'shoebox', positioned at the site
boundaries, will represent the measurement and calculation planes. The
amount of light falling onto each plane or onto a given section of each
plane will vary, depending on the luminaire type, the area and any
obstructions. The shoebox metric therefore provides a simple visual and
numeric understanding of the spill light created by the design so
measures can be put in place to reduce the level of spill light, especially
in any sensitive area of the installation. It also permits the designer, or the
local authority, to introduce zones within the internal face(s) of the
shoebox, allowing targets to be applied for those zones (see Table 3.3)
and a simple method for assessing compliance. The principles of using
this method are:
— Set up the virtual 'shoebox' around the property.
— The virtual shoebox has vertical sides at the property
boundary and a flat 'ceiling' at a fixed distance above the
highest mounted luminaire.
— If a lighting scheme crosses over two environmental zones,
the maximum allowable illuminances for each environmental
zone may specified for the relevant parts of the shoebox.
— Compliance can be determined by calculation prior to
construction. Curfews can easily be applied by adjusting the
allowed maximum illuminances at certain times of the day/
night.

Figure 3.7 A virtual ‘shoebox’ applied

to a property containing an
office block and a car park;
there is a house adjacent
to the car park where
light trespass might be of
concern (Brons et al, 2008)

The virtual shoebox provides the designer with a simple, one-calculation

method to deal with sky glow, light spill, and the glare produced by an
individual installation.

4 Common However well-intentioned, outdoor lighting can still produce obtrusive

light. For many lighting applications, the design advice given in chapter 3
applications will be sufficient to minimise the probability of this outcome. However,
there are some applications where obtrusive light is common, yet there
are often comparatively easy solutions when duly considered.
20 Lighting Guide 21: Protecting the night-time environment

There is further design advice and lighting techniques for both workplace
and architectural lighting applications in the SLL Lighting Handbook
(2018) and SLL Lighting Guide 6: The Exterior Environment (2016).

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4.1 Façade lighting The extent to which floodlighting of building façades produces sky glow
largely depends on the luminous intensity distribution of the luminaires,
where they are mounted, and how well they are aimed.

Building façades can be lit either by floodlights placed at a distance, or

mounted close-set to the building. Luminaires mounted so that they light
downward and having a distribution that confines the light to surface of
the building will create the fewest issues, although light intrusion into the
building itself may still be a problem, in which case the maintenance plan
will need to be drafted and executed in detail. Luminaires aimed upward
and having a distribution that extends beyond the building will contribute
most to sky glow and may well create light spill.

Figure 4.1 Upward lighting of a

façade (image courtesy
of Benedict Cadbury
Common applications 21

There is a trend for mounting bi-directional 'up+down' luminaires onto

building façades without proper justification, whereas a direct-only
downward version can still create the intended impact and also adds to

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the contribution of lighting on pathways and entrances at ground level,
but without the harmful effects of the indirect distribution going up into
the sky.

Figure 4.2 Bi-directional lighting on

the front of a building
(image courtesy of
Benedict Cadbury)

With the development and flexibility of LEDs, there is scope for covering
the façades of large buildings with lighting to create an impact and
beautify the nightscape (Figure 4.3). Carefully done, this can be very
effective but it undoubtedly contributes to sky glow. If strongly coloured
light is used this offers the opportunity to use lower luminance light
sources because the colour contrast will make the lit façade stand out
against its surroundings. This reduces the contribution to sky glow,
however it is crucial that the application of colour is relevant and that the
colour palette selection is appropriate to that façade in its surroundings.

Figure 4.3 Façade lighting on

a grand scale

4.2 Heritage Exterior heritage lighting can be extremely difficult as Listed Buildings
buildings and Scheduled Monuments usually have severe restrictions on mounting
luminaires and cabling onto a building or structure.

There are some non-invasive solutions, depending on the style and fabric
of the structure; the key is to do everything possible to avoid any damage
22 Lighting Guide 21: Protecting the night-time environment

to the fabric or alteration to the appearance of the building. For example,

cabling can often be run along and fixed in mortar joints of stone or brick
buildings, and cable colour can be specified to blend in or be painted to

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match if necessary. In some cases, an outer layer of new mortar may be
required to cover the cabling.

If it is not possible to utilise mortar joints, then self-adhesive cable tie

holders may be used as these cause no permanent change or damage to
the building. Mounting luminaires can also prove complicated but, for
façade lighting especially, paving slabs can be an invaluable option.
Luminaires can be slab-mounted and the slabs laid, unfixed, onto ledges
or other parts of the building, eliminating any intrusion onto the fabric
itself.

Figure 4.4 Luminaires mounted

on slabs, Ironbridge
(image courtesy of Liz
Peck Associates)

However, on occasions the restrictions mean that offset light is sometimes

the only option. As discussed previously, without tight optical control this
is likely to lead to upward light and/or increased sky glow. It may also
have an impact on the daytime appearance of the setting, so selection of
column styles and luminaire finishes is especially important.

Figure 4.5 Wooden columns with

tight-set floodlights
to minimise daytime
impact (image courtesy
of Liz Peck Associates)
Common applications 23

4.3 Sports lighting For major stadia, the lighting is usually professionally designed and
operated, and care is taken to minimise obtrusive light and to operate a
suitable curfew.

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Problems with obtrusive light are more common with smaller facilities,
such as local community and school pitches, which are often located
close to houses where light intrusion may occur. There may also be
concerns about glare in the direction of passing traffic. Minor facilities
without professional design input sometimes have inappropriate and
poorly aimed luminaires. This can usually be remedied by fitting hoods
and/or baffles on the floodlights. Proposed new installations should be
evaluated using the OSP shoebox method (or equivalent) to calculate
the illuminance levels at the site boundaries close to any adjacent
housing.

Guidance on the quantity and type of lighting to be provided for sports

facilities of different standards can be obtained from SLL Lighting Guide
4: Sports (2021).

Figure 4.6 Sports stadium lighting

4.4 Security lighting Security lighting can take many forms, from a single floodlight fixed to a
house, area lighting with floodlights mounted on columns or buildings,
through to high-mast large-scale security for prisons, for example.
Obtrusive light caused by security lighting is usually due to inappropriate
and/or poorly aimed luminaires, in particular for residential and smaller-
scale applications. Cheaper, poorly-designed wall-mounted luminaires
tend to emit a lot of upward light; many floodlights on buildings are often
aimed so that they cover the greatest area but in doing so they cause
glare to anyone approaching (Figure 4.7).

A comprehensive guide to selecting and positioning appropriate security

lighting is provided in Chapter 27 of the SLL Lighting Handbook (2018).
24 Lighting Guide 21: Protecting the night-time environment

Figure 4.7 Glare from security

lights in a car park

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4.5 Sign lighting Outdoor signs are used to provide information and to advertise businesses
and products, both during the day and at night. Illuminated signs attract
attention, especially in the hospitality sector. Such signs can take three
distinct forms: internally illuminated signs, externally illuminated signs
and self-luminous signs. All such signs used for advertising should be
switched off when there are only a few people to see them.

Internally illuminated signs are a common feature of shop fronts. The

diffuser used to form the front surface of such signs means there is little
control of light distribution. The best solution in this situation is to adopt
the luminance limits described in section 3.5 and impose an effective
curfew time.

Externally illuminated outdoor signs can be free-standing or fixed to

buildings. Whether or not these signs will produce obtrusive light depends
on whether they are illuminated from above or below. Illuminating the
sign from above means all the light will be emitted downward, but often
such signs are illuminated from below to make lighting maintenance
easier. Lighting anything from below guarantees that all the light will be
emitted upward, some of which will contribute to sky glow, thus this
method should be avoided.

Self-luminous signs are popular, especially in the advertising industry,

using neon or, increasingly, high-brightness LED sources. Such signs are
usually designed to be conspicuous in the daytime, with a very high
luminance level. Therefore, unless they are dimmed to a lower luminance
level after dark they are potential sources of high levels of glare. Further,
many of these signs are designed to change the message they show at
frequent intervals which cause different amounts of light to be emitted.
If the sign is a cause of light intrusion, the amount of light entering through
the windows affected will also change, adding flicker to the nuisance.
Frequently changing, self-luminous signs require great care in location,
shielding, and light output control to avoid light intrusion.
Resolutions 25

Figure 4.8 Excessive lighting by

internally illuminated
and self-luminous signs

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Further advice can be found in ILP PLG05: The brightness of illuminated
advertisements (ILP, 2015).

4.6 Industrial plants Some industrial plants, such as oil refineries, are so large that they have to
be lit by placing luminaires within their structure. In principle this is a
reasonable approach but, unless care is taken with the selection and
positioning of luminaires, the contribution to sky glow can be significant.
Fully shielded luminaires are required, carefully positioned on the plant
to provide the required lighting without upward glare.

Many such facilities are operated from a central control room. This should
contain systems for controlling the lighting installation to match the
activities of people working at the plant, especially if there are only a few
people working at night, ensuring the whole plant is not illuminated
unnecessarily. Any offshore plant will also need to evaluate the spill light
into the sea in addition to the effects described in section 2.2.

Further advice on lighting such plants can be found in SLL Lighting Guide
1: The industrial environment (2018).

5 Resolutions It is apparent that, despite all the guidance available, there are lighting
installations, both new and existing, that continue to cause harmful
impacts in many aspects. The framework below is intended to be a
summary of key questions and advice to offer greater protection for all in
the future.

Advice for local authorities:

— Establish environmental zones throughout the authority’s
jurisdiction.
— Set maximum average illuminance levels permitted
for different activities. These can be selected from any
combination of the relevant British Standards, the SLL
Lighting Handbook (2018) and the various SLL Lighting
Guides.
— Set maximum average illuminance levels for spill light to the
side and upwards.
26 Lighting Guide 21: Protecting the night-time environment

— Establish a curfew policy setting times by which lighting is

extinguished, or at least dimmed, when it is not needed.

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— If permission is given for new industrial premises or farm
buildings in the countryside, then some lighting will have to
be provided around those buildings to carry out the normal
operations of those types of buildings, and for their security
and the safety of the workforce.
— Consult with lighting design practices to ensure that any
Lighting Impact Assessments submitted are validated
independently.

Review of proposed new installations:

— Is the proposed scheme justified with the design objectives
clearly explained?
— Are appropriate levels of lighting specified in line with
guidance set out in the relevant standards?
— Does the design show attention to the choice of light source
and the type, positioning and aiming of the luminaires?
— Have possibilities for switching or dimming the installation at
different times been considered?
— Has a survey of the area surrounding the site been
completed to establish a baseline of current conditions, in
terms of: existing light levels, viewpoints and environmental
conditions?
— Has the relevant environmental zone been established from
that survey or from the local planning authority?
— Have ecologists been consulted, where appropriate?
— Has the potential for obtrusive light (i.e. spill light, light
intrusion and the contribution to sky glow) been calculated
by the OSP shoebox or other method?
— Do the tender documents clearly state to potential
contractors the need to install lights of the types and in the
positions specified, which is designed to avoid potential
harmful results?
After the installation is complete, it is recommended that a further survey
of the site and its surroundings is conducted to measure the changes that
have occurred and the extent to which the calculated performance has
been achieved. Local residents should be consulted if there are any
concerns and, if necessary, additional mitigation applied.

Figure 5.1 Car park in an urban area

(zone E3) lit to minimise
intrusion to neighbouring
dwellings (image courtesy
of Benedict Cadbury)
Resolutions 27

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Interchangeable Diffuser Spill ring Cross-bladed Visor
reflectors glass Cut-off 60° louvre

The directional flap can

be fitted individually or
with others (max. 4)
depending on lighting
design requirements
Refractor
for elliptical Protective
distribution Blade louvre louvre

The cylindrical screen increases

the definition of the spot

Figure 5.2 Floodlights can be fitted with snoots, louvres or barn doors to regulate glare (2018 Maxiwoody catalogue
image, courtesy of iGuzzini Illuminazione)

Issues with existing installations:

— If there is a reported issue with the installation, is it light
intrusion, light spill, glare, sky glow or environmental?
— For light intrusion, can it be established which luminaires are
contributing most to the light intrusion? It may be obvious
from the proximity of the luminaires, but if it is not then
switching off or masking individual luminaires and recording
the change in illuminance received at the window should
reveal which luminaire(s) are responsible.
— If the issue is glare, can the offending luminaire(s) be
identified? Ask the complainant to point them out or
otherwise establish the geometry between the offending
luminaires and the complainant’s position by determining
the relevant angles and distances. This, along with the
manufacturer’s photometry, will enable the designer to
determine if the recommended luminous intensity limits are
being exceeded.
— If the complaint is about sky glow, this has to be addressed
at a community, rather than individual, level. This means
action needs to be taken by the local authority responsible
for planning in the area, which may involve than one Local
Authority since sky glow is most often obvious when viewed
several miles away.
— If the issue is an environmental concern, then it is essential
to consult an ecologist with suitable expertise, bearing
in mind that this may be a marine or wildlife issue. The
Bat Conservation Trust (https://www.bats.org.uk) provides
excellent guidance and has many local groups who are able
to offer advice.

Figure 5.3 Three different designs

of louvre: spill ring full
comfort (left), blade
louvre (centre), cross-
bladed louvre (right) (2018
Maxiwoody catalogue
image, courtesy of
iGuzzini Illuminazione)
28 Lighting Guide 21: Protecting the night-time environment

5.1 Mitigation Not all the measures listed below will be available in all situations, but it
measures should be possible to find a solution that will mitigate the cause of the
complaints.

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— Change the mounting and aiming of any offending luminaires
so as to reduce the glare or intrusion without dramatically
worsening the lighting scheme’s primary purpose.
— Fit luminaires with louvres, baffles or snoots to reduce the
luminous intensity in the direction of the complainant
(Figures 5.2 and 5.3).
— Change the luminaires to ones with a more suitable luminous
intensity distribution.
— Fit thicker curtains or blinds to the window.
— Establish a curfew or revise existing curfew times.
— Reduce the sensitivity of any PIR sensor attached to a
problematic luminaire so that the luminaire is triggered less
frequently.
Figure 5.4 Two 1700 lumen spots
fitted with visors frame this
church portal in controlled
fashion (image courtesy
of Benedict Cadbury)

6 Summary We live in times of unprecedented change. Technology, especially in the

lighting sector, is advancing at a rate never encountered before and this
is presenting new opportunities every day. Manufacturers are producing
cleverer luminaire and control systems enabling a wider range of lit
effects to be created, especially in the architectural sector. It is crucial
that we are mindful of why we are creating those effects though; just
because we can, doesn’t mean we should. Appropriateness must be at
the forefront of decision making, whether that is respecting the history of
a building or the setting of an installation.

6.1 Should it be lit? This should remain the ultimate question when anyone is considering
commissioning a new outdoor lighting installation. If a new lighting
installation is deemed necessary or beneficial, whilst the objectives of
Bibliography 29

the design may be extensive and varied, one objective should always be
to ensure the protection of the complete night-time environment, human
and biodiverse. If this primary objective can be met, the benefits of

This publication is supplied by CIBSE for the sole use of the person making the download. The content remains the copyright property of CIBSE.
exterior lighting will be enhanced.

A great deal of emphasis in recent years has been focussed on reductions

in energy use, but there is little value in adopting energy-saving technology
if we destroy our environment in the process. There are enough tools and
guidance available to designers, local authority planners and other
stakeholders to be able to create both secure and beautiful exterior
lighting applications, whilst simultaneously being able to protect the
night-time environment in which people work, communities live, and our
natural habitats thrive.

Bibliography Society of Light and Lighting (SLL):

— The SLL Lighting Handbook (2018)
— Lighting Guide 1: The industrial environment (2018)
— Lighting Guide 4: Sports (2021) [in preparation]
— Lighting Guide 6: The exterior environment (2016)
— Lighting Guide 14: Control of electric lighting (2016)
— Guide to limiting obtrusive light (2012)
Institute of Lighting Professionals (ILP):
— PLG05: The brightness of illuminated advertisements (2015)
— GN01: Guidance notes for the reduction of obtrusive light
(2021)
International Commission for Illumination (CIE):
— CIE 150:2017: Guide on the Limitation of the Effects of
Obtrusive Light from Outdoor Lighting Installations (2nd
edn)
Legislation:
— The Wildlife and Countryside Act 1981 (with amendments)
— The Protection of Badgers Act 1992
— Clean Neighbourhoods and Environment Act 2005
Other publications:
— Mizon B Light Pollution: Responses and Remedies (London:
Springer) (2002)
30 Lighting Guide 21: Protecting the night-time environment

References Brons JA, Bullough JD and Rea MS (2008) 'Outdoor site-lighting performance: A
comprehensive and quantitative framework for assessing light pollution' Lighting
Research and Technology 40(3) 201–224 (September 1, 2008)

This publication is supplied by CIBSE for the sole use of the person making the download. The content remains the copyright property of CIBSE.
CIE (2017) CIE 150:2017: Guide on the Limitation of the Effects of Obtrusive Light
from Outdoor Lighting Installations (2nd edn) (Vienna, Austria: International
Commission for Illumination (CIE)) DOI: 10.25039/TR.150.2017 (CIE standards
may be purchased from the CIE website: https://bit.ly/2AYXciU)

IEC (2020) IEC TR 61547-1:2020: Equipment for general lighting purposes — EMC
immunity requirements — Part 1: Objective light flicker meter and voltage
fluctuation immunity test method (Geneva, Switzerland: International
Electrotechnical Commission)

IEEE (2015) IEEE 1789-2015: IEEE Recommended Practices for Modulating Current
in High-Brightness LEDs for Mitigating Health Risks to Viewers (Piscataway, NJ:
IEEE Standards Association)

ILP (2015) The brightness of illuminated advertisements PLG05 (Rugby: Institution

of Lighting Professionals)

ILP (2021) Guidance notes for the reduction of obtrusive light GN01 (Rugby:
Institution of Lighting Professionals) (available at https://theilp.org.uk/
publication/guidance-note-1-for-the-reduction-of-obtrusive-light-2021)
(accessed 23.06.21)

Lehman B and Wilkins A (2014) 'Designing to mitigate the effects of flicker in LED
lighting' IEEE Power Electronics 1(3) 18–26 (September 2014) (available at https://
www.researchgate.net/publication/265339544_Designing_to_Mitigate_Effects_
of_Flicker_in_LED_Lighting_Reducing_risks_to_health_and_safety) (accessed
23.06.21)

Price LLA, Khazova M and O’Hagan JB (2016) Human Responses to Lighting based
on LED Lighting Solutions CRCE-RDD 01-2016 (commissioned by SSL/CIBSE)
(London: Public Health England/SLL/CIBSE) (available at http://qna.files.
parliament.uk/qna-attachments/1171554/original/PHE%20CIBSE%20SLL%20
report%20-%20HL525.pdf) (accessed 23.06.21)
Glossary 31

Glossary candela
Base unit of luminous intensity in the International System of Units (SI); the
luminous power per unit solid angle emitted by a point light source in a particular

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direction.

colour rendering index (CRI) (R a )

Value intended to specify the degree to which objects illuminated by a light
source have an expected colour relative to their colour under a reference light
source. R a value 0–100, where 80 is good, 90 very good, and 100 is achieved in
daylight.

correlated colour temperature (CCT) (Tcp )

The temperature of the Planckian radiator whose perceived colour most closely
resembles that of a given stimulus at the same brightness and under specified
viewing conditions, measured in absolute temperature on the kelvin (K) scale.

curfew
The time after which stricter requirements for the control of exterior lighting will
apply; often a condition of use of such lighting imposed by a local planning
authority.

flicker
Impression of unsteadiness of visual sensation induced by a light stimulus whose
luminance or spectral distribution fluctuates with time.

flicker factor
Modulation of the output of a light source, usually expressed as a % of the average
light output.

flicker index
A measure of the cyclic variation in output of a light source, taking into account
the waveform of the light output. It is the ratio of the area under the light output
curve that is above the average light output level to the total area under the light
output curve for a single cycle.

glare (disability)
Glare that impairs the vision of objects without necessarily causing discomfort.
Disability glare can be produced directly or by reflection.

glare (discomfort)
Uncomfortable brightness of a light source due to excessive contrast between it
and a darker background in the field of view. Glare that causes discomfort without
necessarily impairing the vision of objects. Discomfort glare can be produced
directly or by reflection.

illuminance (E )
The luminous flux incident per unit area (lux = lumens/m2). E on the ground is
approx 5000 lux on an overcast day; under moonlight it is 0.1 lux.

lighting impact assessment

A method of evaluating the environmental effect of an exterior lighting scheme,
often required by the local planning authority in connection with a planning
application. This will include, inter alia: proposed hours of operation, curfew (if
any), proposed illuminance of the building/object/space, potential light spill,
effect on residential properties in line of sight, effect on nocturnal wildlife (esp.
bats), visual appearance of light fittings in daylight.

lumen
The SI derived unit of luminous flux; a measure of the total quantity of visible
light emitted by a source or received by a surface (unit: lumen).
32 Lighting Guide 21: Protecting the night-time environment

luminance (L )
The luminous intensity of the light emitted or reflected in a given direction from
an element of the surface, divided by the area of the element projected in the

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same direction (unit: cd·m–2 = lm·m–2·sr–1 ). A formula to calculate luminance is:
illuminance × reflectance
(1 candela = 3.14 lumens)
p
lux
The SI derived unit of illuminance, measuring luminous flux per unit area (1 lux =
1 lumen/m2).

obtrusive light
Spill light which because of quantitative, directional or spectral attributes in a
given context gives rise to annoyance, discomfort, distraction or reduction in the
ability to see essential information.
Note 1: in the case of outdoor sports lighting installations, obtrusive light
is considered around the perimeter of the installation and not within the
sports area.
Note 2: in the case of large tertiary buildings with predominantly glazed
facades, interior lighting may be considered as obtrusive light if it gives
rise to annoyance, discomfort, distraction or a reduction in the ability to
see essential information due to light spilling outside of the building
structure.

spill light (stray light)

Light emitted by a lighting installation which falls outside the boundaries of the
area for which the lighting installation is designed.

sky glow
The increase in diffuse illuminance of the night sky above that produced by
natural sources such as the moon and visible stars.

spectral power distribution (SPD)

The distribution of the radiant power (or energy) of a light source over a range of
wavelengths, indicating its strength in each of the various colours of the visible
light spectrum. (In the context of this Lighting Guide, the relative proportion of
light output in the blue spectrum is significant).

upward light ratio (ULR)

The percentage of luminous flux from the whole lighting installation that is
emitted above a horizontal plane through the luminaires; this includes reflected
light from the ground and any spill light.

upward light output ratio (ULOR)

The upward light ratio as often quoted by manufacturers and calculated with the
luminaire installed precisely horizontally in both planes.

vertical illuminance
Lighting of vertical surfaces such as walls, windows, statues, sculptures and
people’s faces.
Appendix: list of protected species 33

Appendix: list of protected species

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The Wildlife and Countryside Act 1981 itemises protected species, which
include the 113 vertebrates listed below, together with 68 invertebrates
(butterfles, moths, insects, and marine species) and 176 plants. (There are
some further species of which the sale/offer for sale is prohibited).
Badgers are treated separately under the Protection of Badgers Act (1992).

Animals:
— dormouse, badger, horseshoe bat, all other bat species,
wild cat, hedgehog, otter, pine marten, polecat, red
squirrel, shrew, water vole.
Marine animals:
— dolphin, turtle (seven species), walrus, whales (all)
Birds (raptors):
—  golden eagle, white-tailed eagle, honey buzzard, Gyr
falcon, peregrine falcon, goshawk, harriers (all), merlin,
barn owl, snowy owl, osprey, red kite.
Songbirds and other birds:
—  avocet, bee-eater, bittern, little bittern, bluethroat,
brambling, bunting (cirl, lapland and snow), chough,
corncrake, spotted crake, crossbills (all), stone curlew,
capercaillie, divers (all), dotterel, long-tailed duck,
fieldfare, firecrest, garganey, grebe (black-necked and
slavonian), gull (little and Mediterranean), greenshank,
black-tailed godwit, purple heron, hobby, hoopoe,
kingfisher, golden oriole, Leach’s petrel, red-necked
phalarope, plover (Kentish and little ringed), quail,
redwing, black redstart, scarlet rosefinch, ruff, sandpiper
(green, purple and wood), scaup, scoter (common and
velvet), serin, shorelark, red-backed shrike, spoonbill, stilt
(black-winged and Temminck’s), swan (Bewick’s and
hooper), tit (bearded and crested), treecreeper (short-
toed), tern (black, little and roseate), whimbrel, warbler
(Cetti’s, Dartford, marsh and Savi’s), woodlark, wryneck.
Reptiles and amphibians:
— great crested newt, natterjack toad, pool frog, sand lizard,
smooth snake.
Fish:
— burbot, Atlantic stream crayfish, goby (Couch’s and giant),
shad, allis shad, angel shark, basking shark, white skate,
sturgeon, vendace, whitefish.
Butterflies:
— 25 species.
Moths:
— 7 species.
Other land invertebrates:
— 19 species.
Marine invertebrates:
— 17 species.
Plants:
— 176 species.
34 Lighting Guide 21: Protecting the night-time environment

Index fauna 5–7

flicker 3–4
maintenance 13–14
mammals 5–7
floodlights see luminaires mitigation measures 28

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Note: page numbers in italics flora 4–5
refer to figures; page numbers in
nocturnal species 5
bold refer to tables. glare 2, 3, 18
ground reflectance 15 outdoor site lighting performance
advice for local authorities 25–26 (OSP) 19
ambience 11 health effects 2–3
architectural lighting 8, 9, 10, 12, 13 heritage lighting 8, 21–22 plants see flora
see also façade lighting see also architectural lighting post-implementation review 27
highways see road lighting psychological aspects 11
bats 6–7
birds 5, 14 illuminance reflectance 15, 17, 18
criteria 9 road lighting 4, 7, 9–10
car parks 7, 9 maximum 17, 17, 18, 25
CCTV 10 see also street lighting
and surface reflectance 18
CIE environmental zones 16, 16–17 impact assessments 16–19
circadian rhythms 2–3, 4, 5 safe environments 8, 10, 11
industrial plants 25
colour temperature (CCT) 4, 11 security lighting 23
insects 5, 6
colour-washing 11 shoebox metric 19
contrast 11 sign lighting 17, 17–18, 18, 24
LEDs 4, 11, 14
controls see lighting control sky glow 1, 3, 18–19
legibility 11
curfews 10, 17, 26 sleep disturbance 2–3
light flicker 3–4
spectral power distribution (SPD)
light nuisance 2
daytime appearance 7 4, 14
light sources 14
design considerations 8–14 sports pitches 7, 10, 12, 23
maintenance 13–14 lighting area 9
street lighting 8, 9–10, 15
objectives 10–11 lighting columns 7–8
surface luminance 17
setting 11–12 lighting control 15–16
lighting duration 9–10 surface reflectance 15, 17, 18
viewpoints 12–13
design review 26–27 lighting impact assessments (LIA)
16–19 time limits 9–10
disability glare 2
disabled people 11 lighting zones 9
luminaires upward light 15
discomfort glare 2
daytime appearance 7–8 upward light output ratio (ULOR) 17
ecological impacts 4–7 fittings 27 upward light ratio (ULR) 17, 17
environmental zones (CIE) 16, 16–17 maintenance 13–14
EU Ecodesign Regulation 4 optics 14–15 virtual shoebox 19
evaluation 26–27 slab-mounted 22 visual contrast 11
spectral power distribution (SPD) visual experience 11
façade lighting 17, 17–18, 18, 20–22 4, 14
see also architectural lighting upward light ratio (ULR) 17, 17 wild life impacts 4–7
facial recognition 10 luminance 17 wireless control 15–16