Science including areas like botany, zoology,

- is a systematized body of microbiology, genetics, and

knowledge acquire through scientific physiology.
process. It is a scientific inquiry to
Physical Science
answer questions about nature that
- is a subdivision of natural science
involves processes of investigation
that focuses on non-living systems
and discovery.
and includes the study of subjects
Scientific Method such as physics, chemistry,
- involves series of systematic astronomy, and earth sciences like
procedures. These step-by-step geology and meteorology.
processes led to the development of
Social Science
bodies of knowledge such as
- is the study of human society and
scientific principles, theory and laws.
social relationships, involving
* Curiosity about the natural world disciplines like psychology, sociology,
motivates scientists to observe anthropology, economics, political
making the body of knowledge grow science, and history. It examines how
larger. This body of knowledge led to individuals and groups interact, make
the development of Divisions of decisions, and shape the world
Science that leads to the birth of around them.
many scientific disciplines.
* The Science of Biology is concern
Divisions of Science with the living things making it the
Science of life. It includes the study of
Science
microscopic structures of a single
1. Natural Science organism and the global interactions
- Biological Science of millions of organisms.
- Physical Science
* Life-forms vary greatly but they
2. Social Science
have the same characteristics.
Natural Science
Organization
- is a branch of science concerned
- All organisms are organized at both
with the description, prediction, and
molecular and cellular level. Living
understanding of natural
things are composed of cells. In
phenomena, based on empirical
multicellular organisms, some cells
evidence from observation and
are highly specialized, each having a
experimentation.
unique role in their existence.
Biological Science
- is a subdivision of natural science
that deals with the study of living
organisms and life processes,
* Plants and animals have different Development
levels of organization. These levels are - is a process by which a zygote
arranged from the simplest to the becomes a mature individual.
most complex level. Therefore, it is the formation of new
body parts from egg to adult.
Energy Use
- All organisms use energy for life * In both plants and animals,
processes. Cells use energy derived development of body parts makes
from food they get. Plants make their the adult organisms morphologically
own food through photosynthesis. different from the young ones.
While animals need to feed on plants
Reproduction
or on other animals.
- All organisms have the ability to
Metabolism reproduce. It is essential for the
- All organisms exist because of life continuity of life, because no
processes called metabolic organism lives forever. It can either be
processes. All of these processes asexual or sexual.
require energy which the
Asexual Reproduction
mitochondria supply in the form of
- produces off springs from single
adenosine triphosphate (ATP). ATP is
parent. The parent and the off springs
the main energy source that cell use
have the same set of genetic
for most of their metabolic process.
materials.
Growth
Sexual reproduction
- is the increase in height, size and
- is the formation of off springs through
weight through cell division and cell
fertilization of egg cells by the sperm
enlargement.
cells facilitated by copulation. This
* Cell division is the orderly formation produces zygote that will developed
of new cells from a parent cell. into embryo. The off springs have
different sets of genetic materials
* Cell enlargement is the increase in
from one another.
cell size. In multicellular organism,
together they result in growth. Genetic Control
- All characteristics of an organism
* Plants like other organisms grow. In
are guarded by genetic materials.
animals, youngsters look like their
Every new cell that develops in the
parents. The only difference is the
organism’s body has an exact
undeveloped reproductive system.
number of DNA as its parent cell. In
humans with 46 chromosomes, during
fertilization, a haploid sperm cell with
23 chromosomes can only fertilize
egg cell with 23 chromosomes too.
* A female dog can only begot * The thick white fur of rabbit serves as
puppies. insulator during the winter.

* Cat’s egg cell has 19 chromosomes * The deep dweller angler fish can
that can only be fertilized by the cat’s light its forehead extension to attract
sperm cell with also 19 chromosomes. mate and to lure its prey.

Homeostasis * Scientists discover and name

- All organisms require to maintain a thousands of new species every year.
steady state. It enables organisms to The science of identifying, classifying
regulate their internal environment, and naming organisms is called
despite of changes in their external TAXONOMY. In their works,
environment. taxonomists may also make
inferences about the evolutionary
* Panting evaporates moisture in the
relationships among species.
lungs of dog to cool down its body.
* Earliest attempts to classify,
* Drinking water on hot weather
categorize and name all these
maintains stable internal condition of
organisms used general appearance
the tiger.
such as anatomy and physiological
* Lizard basks in the morning sun to similarities –form, color, size. Today,
raise its internal body temperature. much more focus on molecular
similarities –proteins, DNA and genes.
Response to the Environment
- All organisms respond to the HISTORY OF TAXONOMY
environment. A response is a simple
1. ARISTOTLE
reaction to stimulus. A complex set of
- He was the first to try to name
responses is called behavior.
and classify organisms based
* The gazelle’s response to the lion is on structural similarities. He
to run away. described about 520 species
of animals, especially around
* Bird migration is a seasonal
Greece. He classified living
behavior, often north to southward in
things as either plants or
direction.
animals. He used phrases or
Adaptations single words to name
- are traits that give an organism an organisms, inconsistently.
advantage in changing
environment.
* The humps of camels serve as food
and water storage used when
traveling in the desert.
 2. THEOPHRASTUS * Linnaeus placed structurally similar
- He classified plants into herbs, organisms into a group he called
shrubs, and trees. He wrote and species. In this classification scheme
published the book "Herbals" in only “species” is a real category. The
the 1400s. This emphasized species is the basic unit of
plants with medicinal uses. classification. It is the real unit.
Species is a group of organisms
3. CAROLUS LINNAEUS capable of interbreeding.
- He developed and published
Taxonomic Ranks or Levels of
the first comprehensive and
Classification
consistent classification system
for both plants and animals. 1.Kingdom
Plants "Species Plantarum" - The highest and most general rank in
(1753) 7,300 plant species the biological classification system. It
Animals "Systema Naturae" groups together all forms of life with
(1758) fundamental similarities. The most
common kingdoms include Animalia
* Linnaeus offered the first
(animals), Plantae (plants), Fungi,
comprehensive, consistent and
Protista, and Monera (bacteria and
much simpler method of naming and
archaea).
organizing species. He emphasized
morphological characteristics as the 2.Phylum
basis for classifying specimens. He - The rank below Kingdom, Phylum
had given each species a unique groups organisms based on major
scientific name, binomial name – structural and functional differences.
Genus plus species epithet. The For example, in the Animal Kingdom,
species were arranged in an phyla include Chordata (animals with
ascending series of inclusive a backbone) and Arthropoda
categories or taxa. (insects, spiders, etc.).
Taxonomic Ranks or Levels of 3.Class
Classification - This rank groups organisms within a
phylum based on more specific
1) Kingdom
shared characteristics. For instance,
2) Phylum
within the Phylum Chordata, the class
3) Class
Mammalia includes all mammals.
4) Order
5) Family
6) Genus (Genera)
7) Species
4.Order * When Linnaeus first proposed his
- Below Class, Order further narrows system, Evolution had not yet been
down organisms into groups with formally proposed. Taxonomy was
even more specific similarities. For used to reflect evolutionary
example, in the class Mammalia, the relationships that determines
order Carnivora includes meat- phylogeny of a species. Phylogeny is
eating animals like cats, dogs, and an evolutionary relationships of
bears. organisms based on phenotypic
similarities and differences.
5.Family
-This rank groups organisms within an * Today, taxonomists modify
order that share close evolutionary Linnaeus’s seven levels of
traits. For instance, in the order classification. Botanists use the term
Carnivora, the family Felidae includes DIVISION in place of phylum when
all types of cats, both large and small. classifying plants. Other terms were
introduced in taxonomy to further
6.Genus(Genera)
classify species, subspecies is used to
-The genus is a group of closely
classify species of animals, variety for
related species. Members of a genus
plants and strain for bacterium and
are structurally similar and share a
virus.
common ancestor. For example,
Panthera is the genus that includes Domain
lions, tigers, and leopards. - is the highest taxonomic rank in the
hierarchical biological classification
7.Species
system, above the kingdom level. The
- The most specific level of
term domain was introduced by Carl
classification, species refers to a
R. Woose et al. in 1990. These include
group of organisms that can
microorganisms which had previously
interbreed and produce fertile
escaped any attempt of
offspring. For example, Panthera leo
classification based on evolutionary
is the species for lions, and Panthera
relationships.
tigris is the species for tigers.
* There are three domains of life, the
* The “type” species is a
Archaea, the Bacteria and the
representative sample of new
Eukarya. Organisms from Archaea
discovered species that is collected.
and Bacteria have a prokaryotic cell
This becomes a permanent part of a
structure. Organisms from the Eukarya
museum collection. It is described
have cells with a nucleus confining
and named. If there are any future
the genetic materials from the
questions it can be examined further.
cytoplasm.
 Examples include sac fungi, club
fungi, yeasts and molds.

3. DOMAIN KINGDOM PLANTAE

- Plants are (1) multicellular
organisms. The (2) cells have cell
walls. They are (3) autotrophic
obtaining nutrients by photosynthesis
ARCHAEA(archaebacteria) (chloroplast, chlorophyl, water-CO2-
- often live-in extreme environments sunlight) and absorption. They are the
and include methanogens, extreme producers of the world. They are
halophiles and hyperthermophiles mostly (4) terrestrial organisms. They
(5) mostly reproduce sexually.
EUBACTERIA(bacteria)
Examples include mosses, ferns,
- common in human daily life –kill
conifers and flowering plants.
thousands upon thousands of people
each year, serve as antibiotics 4. DOMAIN KINGDOM ANIMALIA
producers and food digesters in our - Animals are (1) multicellular
stomach. organisms. The (2) cells lack cell walls.
They are (3) heterotrophic obtaining
EUKARYA(eukaryotes)
nutrients primarily by ingestion. They
= has eukaryotic cells.
are (4) terrestrial or aquatic
4 Kingdoms of Eukarya organisms. They (5) mostly reproduce
sexually. Examples include sponges,
1. KINGDOM PROTISTA
worms, insects and vertebrates.
- Protista are simple, predominantly
(1)unicellular, colonial or multicellular WHITTAKER’S CLASSIFICATION
eukaryotic organisms. They can be SCHEME
(2) aquatic or be found in moist area. - In 1969, American ecologist Robert H
They (3) reproduce asexually. Whittaker proposed a five-kingdom
Examples include slime molds, classification scheme. It places
euglenoids, algae and protozoans. prokaryotes such as bacteria in the
kingdom Monera. Organisms of the
2. DOMAIN KINGDOM FUNGI
other four kingdoms all consist of
- Fungi are (1) unicellular or
eukaryotic cells. The kingdoms for
multicellular (2) plant-like organisms
plants, fungi and animals consist of
–rhizoid, stape, fruiting body. The (3)
multicellular eukaryotes.
cells have cell walls. They are (4)
heterotrophic, obtaining nutrients
through absorption. They are (5)
terrestrial organisms. They can (6)
reproduce sexually or asexually.
Zoology Omnivore
- is the scientific study of animals. It is - An animal that consumes both
a subdivision of Biology, the study of plants and animals.
all life. Zoology came from two Greek
Frugivore
words, zoon which means animal and
- An animal that primarily eats fruits.
logos which means study of.
Granivore
* The (1) panorama of animal life, (2)
- An animal that primarily eats seeds
how animal function, (3) live, (4)
and grains.
reproduce and (5) interact with their
environment are included in Zoology. Nectivore
- An animal that feeds on nectar.
* Animals are considered to be the
most adaptive organisms. (1) ANIMAL Folivore
CELL; Animals do not have tough - An animal that feeds on leaves.
cellulose cell wall and plastid but
Insectivore
they have smaller vacuoles and
- An animal that feeds on insects.
centrioles. (2) Animals have a great
variety of specialized tissues, organs Ectoparasite
and systems. (3) Animals are - A parasite that lives on the surface
heterotrophic organisms = herbivore of the host (e.g., ticks).
– frugivore, granivore, nectivore,
Endoparasite
folivore; carnivore – insectivore,
- A parasite that lives inside the host
parasite; or omnivore. Others are
(e.g., tapeworms).
decomposer –saprophyte, detritus
feeder. (4) Animal movement is Saprophyte
mostly due to muscular contraction - An organism that feeds on decaying
coordinated by nerves. Animals are organic matter.
generally active. (5) Most animals
Detritus Feeder
have Skeletal System which supports
- An animal that feeds on
and protects the body organs. (6)
decomposing organic matter.
Animals have sense organs that aid in
locating prey and to escape from * Vertebrate have varied modes of
predators. (7) Animals can reproduce locomotion; jumping for kangaroo,
sexually or asexually. Some give birth flying for bird and swimming for
alive and some are hatch from eggs. aquatic fish.
Herbivore * Spider uses hydrostatic pressure to
- An animal that feeds on plants. extend its legs and muscles to flex the
leg.
Carnivore
- An animal that eats other animals.
* Hydra showing looping movement * The simplest animals with Nervous
against it substratum to change System is the cnidarian. Hydra has
location. (Gliding Summersault) neurons arranged in nerve net.

* Millipede moves its legs in a wave-

like undulation along their body
propelling itself forward against a
substrate.

* Sea anemone has cylindrical fluid-

filled bodies that function a
hydrostatic skeleton.

* Crab is covered with a hard

exoskeleton that is made of chitin. * Sea star has a nerve net in each arm
connected by radial nerves to
* Endoskeleton is the internal support
central nerve ring.
of the animal body which is usually
composed of bones like the
endoskeleton of horse.

CELLULAR LEVEL OF COMPLEXITY

- Cellular organization is an
aggregate of cells that are
functionally differentiated. A division
of labor is evident, so that some cells
are concerned with, for example,
reproduction others with nutrition.
Such cells have little tendency to ORGAN LEVEL OF COMPLEXITY
become organized into tissues. - The aggregation of tissues into
organs is a further step in
TISSUE LEVEL OFCOMPLEXITY
advancement. Organs are usually
- A step beyond the preceding is the
aggregate of similar cells into definite made up of more than one kind of
tissue and have a more specialized
pattern or layers, thus becoming a
function than tissue. Eyespots,
tissue. An excellent example of a
proboscis and reproductive organs of
tissue in cnidarians is the nerve net, in
flatworm are well-defined organs.
which the nerve cells and their
process form a definite tissue * The eyespots of the flatworm are
structure, with the function of also known as ocelli. They are
coordination. photoreceptors and are used to
move away from the source of light.
* The flatworm uses proboscis, also of labor within body tissues. Large
known as the pharynx, to feed on body size offers advantages. (1) It is
dead or injured animals. obvious in the predator-prey contest.
Predators are almost always larger
* Flatworms are hermaphrodites. They
than their prey. Exceptions are few
have both the male and the female
and usually are related to an
sexual organs.
aggressive behavior that
* Flatworm does have nerve net but compensates for small size. (2) Larger
these are connected by long nerve animals can move about at much
cord. These cords are connected to less energy cost than small animals.
the cerebral ganglia located in the (3) Large size improved homeostasis.
head region. It accompanies greater internal
stability that is the capacity to
regulate the internal environment of
the body. The ability to maintain
internal stability despite changes in
the environment allows organisms to
invade hostile habitats.

ORGANIZATION OF ANIMAL BODY

- The body of metazoan consists of
three elements (1) cells, (2) body
fluids and (3) extracellular structural
elements.

1.Cells
- The functionally specialized cells of
ORGAN SYSTEM LEVEL OF metazoan develop into various
COMPLEXITY tissues made up of similar cells
- When organs work together to performing common function. The
perform some function, it is the basic tissue types are nervous,
highest level of organization; the connective, epithelial and muscular.
organ system. Typical of all the higher These tissues are organized into larger
forms, this level of organization such functional units called organs and
as complete Digestive System and organs are associated to form
Circulatory System, is first seen in systems.
nemertean worms. 2.Body Fluids
* Animals become more complex. - permeate all tissues and spaces in
They tend to become larger. One the body. They are naturally
reason is the increasing complexity as separated into fluid compartments.
a result of specialization and division The two major fluid compartments
are the intracellular space and the phyla that are primarily radial,
extracellular space. In vertebrates, Cnidaria and Ctenophora, are called
the extracellular space is further the Radiata.
subdivided into blood plasma and
* In bilateral symmetry, only a sagittal
interstitial fluid.
plane can divide the animal into two
3. Extracellular Structural Elements mirrored portions; right and left
- This is supportive material of the halves. Bilateral animals make up all
organism such as connective tissue, of the higher phyla and are
cartilage and bone. It provides collectively called the Bilateria. They
mechanical stability, protection and are better fitted for forward
a depot of materials for exchange directional movement than radially
and serves as a medium for symmetrical animals.
extracellular reactions.
* A sponge is asymmetrical. There is
BODY PLANS OF ANIMAL no common plane to divide the
- Every organism has an inherited animal into equal parts.
body plan. Four of the most important
* A sea star has pentamerous
determinants of multicellular body
symmetry, a modified radial. Its body
plans are (1) symmetry, (2) presence
can be divided like a pie.
or absence of body cavity, (3)
presence or absence of * A fly has bilateral symmetry. Its body
segmentation and (4) cephalization. can be divided into two equal halves.
ANIMAL SYMMETRY BODY CAVITIES
- refers to balanced proportions or - In higher forms of animal, the main
the correspondence in size and body cavity is the coelom, a fluid-
shape of parts on opposite sided of a filled space that surrounds the gut. It
median plane. provides (1) increased body
flexibility, (2) increased space for
Radial symmetry
visceral organs and (3) permits
- applies to tubular form, vase or bowl
greater size and complexity by
shapes found in some sponges and in
exposing more cells to surface
hydra, jellyfish and sea urchin in
exchange. The fluid-filled space also
which one end of the longitudinal axis
serves as a hydrostatic skeleton in
is usually the mouth.
some forms, aiding them in such
* A variant form is biradial symmetry functions as movement and
in which, only two planes passing burrowing.
through the longitudinal axis produce
mirrored halves. Radial and biradial
animals are primarily sessile, freely
floating or weakly swimming. The two
Acoelomate Bilateria
- The more primitive bilateral animals
do not have true coelom. In fact, the
flatworms and a few others have no
body cavity surrounding the gut. The
region between the ectodermal
epidermis and the endodermal
digestive tract is completely filled
with mesoderm in the form of
METAMERISM / SEGMENTATION
parenchyma.
- is the serial repetition of similar body
segments along the longitudinal axis
of the animal body. Each segment is
called metamere or somite.

* In earthworm and other annelids,

metamerism is most clearly
represented. The segmental
arrangement includes both external
and internal structures of several
systems. There is repetition of muscles,
blood vessels, nerves and the setae
of locomotion.

* True metamerism is found in three

phyla: Annelida, Arthropoda and
Chordata.
Pseudocoelomate Bilateria
* The 3 segmented phyla:
- Nematodes and several other phyla
Segmentation in annelids and
have a cavity surrounding the gut,
arthropods is homologous, but
but it is not lined with mesodermal
chordates may have derived their
peritoneum. This type of body cavity
segmentation independently.
is called a pseudocoel and its
Segmentation brings more varied
possessors also have a “tube-within-
specialization because segments,
a-tube” arrangement.
especially in arthropods, have
Eucoelomate Bilateria become modified for different
- The bilateral animal possesses a true functions.
coelom that in lined with
mesodermal peritoneum.
 much of an animal’s activity is
concerned with procuring food.
* Polarity is always accompanied by
differentiation along an antero-
posterior axis,. In simple animals,
polarity differentiates oral-aboral
end. While more complex animals
show cephalization.

* Sense organs and nervous control

are concentrated in the anterior end
of the body of the dolphin forming its
* In segmented body plan of a head and the brain.
shrimp, each segment has at least
one pair of appendages.
Appendages can be legs, antennae,
flippers, claws, etc. Some somite can
be fused together as the
cephalothorax of the shrimp. While
other are not fuse like the abdomen
of the shrimp.

CEPHALIZATION
- is the differentiation of a head end
and found chiefly in bilaterally
symmetrical animals. The
concentration of nervous tissue and
sense organs in the head bestows
obvious advantages to an animal
moving through is environment head
first. This is the most efficient
positioning of instruments for sensing
the environment and responding to it.
Usually, the mouth of the animals is
located on the head as well, since so