Rohini College of Engineering and Technolog

UNIT-V
GEOLOGICAL INVESTIGATION IN CIVIL ENGINEERING

REMOTE SENSING-SITE
INVESTIGATION REMOTE SENSING
TECHNOLOGY
Definitions and Terminology:
Remote Sensing: Detecting the nature of objects without actually touching them
monitoring Earth features – environment and human activities for

REMOTE SENSING PLATFORMS AND SENSOR SYSTEM

AIRBORNE PLATFORM
(a) Balloons
They are designed and used for specific projects. Though the use of
balloons is commonly restricted by meteorological factors, such as
wind velocity, direction etc., their application in recourse mapping has
been significantly useful. Balloons are of two types (i) free balloons
(ii) tether d balloons.
(b) Aircraft
Aircraft are commonly used as remote s nsing platforms for
obtaining aerial photographs. They are considered useful for regional
coverage and large scale mapping. Flexibility of altitude in flying and
data acquisition, as per the need is the added advantage.
SPACE BORNE PLATFORM
(a) Geostationary satellites
They can be termed as Earth synchronous satellites and the orbit in
which these satellites move is called geosynchronous or geostationary
orbit. These satellites are placed in an orbit at a distance of 36,000 Km
above the equator. At this altitude the orbital speed of the satellite is
the same as that of the Earth‘s rotation speed ant therefore the satellite
appears to be stationary with respect to Earth’s movement. It is mostly
used for weather forecasting and communication purposes.
Eg. GOES, INSAT.
(b) Sun-synchronous satellites.
These satellites provide global coverage with high resolution.
Such data is primarily used for applications in resource surveys and
monitoring. These satellites are also called natural resource or polar
satellites. They move in a low earth orbit at 800- 1000 Km. altitude
over or near the north and south poles. The orbit is known as polar or
sun-synchronous orbit, coinciding with the plane of the sun, i.e., the
orbit remains in a constant plane relative to the suns position while the
earth spins below it.
Eg LANDSAT, SPOT, IRS series.

PARAMETERS OF SENSORS
Spatial resolution

The minimum detectable area on the ground by a detector

placed on a sensor is called spatial resolution.
Eg .LANDSAT MSS - 80m
TM - 30m
SPOT MSS - 20m
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SPOT PAN - 10m

LISS-I - 72.50m
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LISS-II - 36.25m
LISS-PAN - 5.8m
Spectral resolution
The smallest amount of the spectral change that can be
detected by a sensors is called the spectral resolution.
Radiometric resolution
The presence of grey levels define the radiometric
resolution Eg for LANDSAT - (0 -255)
LISS-II - (0-127)
(IV) Temporal resolution
The temporal resolution is characterized by the
smaller period of repetitive coverage.
Eg LANDSAT - 18
Days IRS -
20D
ays
SPOT - 4 Days

SENSOR SYST M
Active sensor
An active sensor operates by emitting its own energy
which is needed to detect the various phenomena. Eg
RADAR, Camera with a flash gun
Passive sensor
The operation of passive sensor is dependent on the
existing sources of energy, like sun (eg photographic
system, multispectral scanner

AERIAL PHOTOGRAPHY
Definition and terminology:
Aerial photography: Continuous photography from a chartered aircraft
flying at a constant height and speed, of the a given area or track (terrane)
below for purposes of studying ground features and mapping.
Terrance: An extent of ground, area or track under consideration in relation to
its fitness or a proposed construction or utility.
Wide areas are photographed at precisely controlled intervals in parallel
flights with 60-65% overlap and 30 -35% side lap. Like lawn mowing and linear
tracks in a straight line traverse with 60-65% overlap and optic axis of the air
camera perpendicular of the plane of the ground.
Air Photo (Aerial Photograph):

Shape and size: Air photos are either square commonly or rectangular
rarely in shape and very in size of according to different standards like.
DIN (German Standard) 7” x7”
and 9” x9” BSS (British
Standard) 7” x 9” and 9” x9”
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ASA (Americal Standard) 9”x9”

Flight and Photo Data: important and useful photographic data
like flying height, speed, type of film, serial No. of the picture
frame and filmroll, level bubble, date and time are printed on
top or one side margin.
Scale: Aerial photography is carried out to a pre-determined scale
depending upon the requirements and it is mentioned on the back
of every photograph. Scale is very important in case of vertical
photographs which exclusively are used for mapping and
stereoscopic studies. In case the scale is not given in the
photographs it can, however, be determined
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according to the principal of similar triangles on the basis of available
flight data, especially,
Flying height and
Focal length of the air cameral lens used. With the help of the equation
f
S = Rf = h
S = average scale
Rf = representative fraction
H = flight height
F = focal length air camera lens.
Solution
f
S = Rf = h
15 cm  1
S= 3000 2000
Hence Scale = 1: 20, 000
Air photo studies is a function of the scale among other things. The most
convenient scale for mapping interpretation is 1: 20,000, 1: 15,000 to 1: 60,000.
The smaller the details to be interpreted the larger must be the photo scale 1;
5000 or larger.

AIRPHOTO INTERPRETATION
Airphoto Interpretation
Defined: Identification, measurement, analysis and deduction of the
signification of natural and manmade objects registered in airphotos.
Airphoto interpretation comprises of
examination of stereo pairs in proper orientation under a stereoscope to obtain
a three dimensional view of ground features.
Identification of objects both natural and man made and
Deduction of the significance of some of the major features that suggest
ground conditions fairly well with respect to specific problems of construction
sites and water resources exploration with the help of interpretation keys.
Airphoto Elements

Defined: The major features, the characteristics of which reveal the

ground conditions and provide significant data on materials.
The important elements are:
Land form
Drainage pattern and erosion
Tone
Vegetation
Land use
Land Form
Defined: A distinctive three dimensional mappable terrane unit with characteristic
geologic parameters produced by only one set of natural geological agents.
Landforms may be simple but frequently complex and are closely related to:
Classification and Types of Land forms
Land forms are generally of three types grouped on the basis of their origin.
Constructional Landforms: Land forms composed of unconsolidated,
transported materials, deposited by various geological agents. The
important ones are:
Aeolian (Wind Laid) Land forms.
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Example: Sand dunes, Loess.
Glacial (Rice Laid) Land
forms. Example: K me, Esker.
(iii)Alluvi l (River Laid) Land
forms. Example: Flood Plains,
Fans, Delta.
Marine (Sea Laid) Land
forms. Example: Beaches
Volcanic Land forms.
Landslide areas.
Destructional Landforms: Residual features of differential weathering and erosion.
These are irregular, often extensive bedrock units with or without soil mantle (cover).
2.Drainage Pattern and
Erosion Drainage Pattern:
Defined: An arrangement of surface and subsurface natural drainage ways
covering an area, their density, orientation and uniformity and surface appearance.
Drainage pattern is best studied by tracing the drainage channels of an area on
the photographs on a separate overlay sheet.
A typical drainage pattern comprises of three components.
Gulley: Headwater channels in which the discharge of surface run off first gets
concentrated. Gulley Characteristics reveal the nature of the ground (see Gulley Erosion).
Tributaries: Channels connecting gulley to the man stream or river. There may
be only one or numerous tributaries with or without an integrated pattern.

Main or Master Stream: The main river or stream that carries the discharge to
another river or sea. The main streams do not reveal the nature of the parent
material as these build their own flood plains that conceal the underlying materials.
Classification of Drainage Pattern
Drainage patterns are classified by Parvis in to six basic types according to
the arrangement and density of the drainage channels.
Drainage pattern is controlled by climate topography, permeability and structural
characteristics of underlying soil and rock formations of a region especially slope,
tilting, folding, joints and fault or fracture pattern.
Dendritic Drainage Pattern Resembles deciduous trees in plan and is
characteristic of areas of bedrock of uniform resistance to erosion like
massive and extensive igneous, sedimentary and metamorphic or flat lying
formations. Dendritic drainage in also found is areas of hard and soft
formations, old pen plains and recently raise ocean floor.
Parallel Drainage Pattern: In this the tributaries flow in the same direction
in parallel courses and join the master (main) stream at right angles or at
steep angles. This pattern is characteristics of regional slopes with soft
materials of uniform characteristics like grain size permeability and
erodability.
Rectangular Drainage Pattern Characteristic of a eas with under lyi g
stratified bedrock crises crossed y beddi g plan s and jo t planes that are
mutually perpendicular and joints almost qually spaced forming easily
eroded weak linear tracks.
Trellis Dr in ge pattern Similar to rectangular drainage pattern but indicates
underlying lternate resistant (hard) and non-resistant (soft) sedimentary
rock formations that are titled or folded.
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Radial Drainage pattern: Consists of streams radiating outward and
downward in all directions form central high land or summit of a domal
feature like the spokes of a wheel.
Annular Drainage Pattern: A ring like drainage pattern, subsequent in
origin and in associated with dissected uplifted areas, igneous intrusive
bodies, sedimentary dome or basic structures.
Gulley Erosion
Gulley erosion usually limited to unconsolidated materials (soil) and
weathered rock material, but in some cases may extend a little to the parent material or
bedrook.
Gulley cross section, depth and gradient reveal the nature of the ground
and subsurface materials.

Tone: The shade of colour of features and objects registered in airphotos.

4.Vegetation: Natural vegetative lineaments (pattern) and density suggest the
nature and composition of the ground water table elevation fractures and joint
pattern and reflect both regional and local climate.
Land use (Manmade Features) : Identification and analysis of manmade
features, such as irrigation systems, farming, roads dams and reservoirs, canals,
quarries, industrial structures and others provide information pertaining to urban
land planning and development, real estate, evaluation, soil conditions, water
resources, and social adjustments associated with construction projects.

KEYS OF IDENTIFICATION AND INTERPRETATION

Familiarity of objects on ground, both natural and manmade, and their relationship
with their surroundings called site Factor which may be genetic or spatial will be of
great help in the identification and interpretation of features in airphotos.
The following are the important keys of photo interpretation.
Shape of objects.
Size of objects – relative to known obj cts
Pattern. (a) Natural features – Irr gular patte n
Ma made features – R gular spacing and or straight-
line patterns.
Shadow – Profile of shadow reveals size and shape of objects.
Tone – Gray tones suggests relief, texture moisture content
and other soil properties.
Relationship with other objects (Site factors)
Example:
Irrigation : (a) Dead furrows - Poorly drained impervious soil
(b) Long narrow stripes – Strip farming
With dark and light tones -
Cultivation : (a) Orchards - Good sub-drainage sandy
Loamy soil -
(b) Farms - Level or sloping ground clayey
Soil
Communication : (a) A continuous line with – Road or high way
Sharp curves, right
Angle bends with lines
Of trees on both sides
(b) A continous line – with - Railroad (Railway)
Large curves, associated with
Sidings, trains, with smoke plumes,
Yards and stations.
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Streams and river -
Bridges Crossing
highway and
Railways at right angles
(d) Sudden disappearance - Tunnels
And reappearance of a
Road or railways for a relatively
Short span.
(e) Vast level areas with - Airfield
Wind cheaters, aircrafts
Hangar, runways, buildings
Developed Areas: (a) Rectangular objects in - Buildings
Line or groups surround – and
Ed by lawns, car parks, tennis courts, football or
Hockey fields, swimming pools and roads
(b) Chimneys with smoke - Industrial
Plumes, towers, large -operations
Yards, storage facility trucks.
(c) Depressions with benches - Open Cast Mining
Along or around. Or Quarry.

DAMS AND GEOLOGY OF DAM SITES

A dam may be defined as a structure constructed across a r ver or a stream, so
as to store water upstream of this obstruction.
Types of Dams and their Geological Requirements
The dams are chiefly grouped i to the followi g two categories:
Earthen dams; and
Concrete dams.
The Earthen Dams
These dams are generally trapezoidal in section, constructed of selected soil or
earth, obtained from the borrow pits of the surrounding areas. Sometimes, an earthen
dam may also contain a hard – rock fill, at its centre, called the central core

The Concrete Dams

These dams may be either a gravity dam; or a buttress dam; or an arch dam.
Such dams are preferred when height of the dam increases, to say about 60 or 70
metres, making the construction of earthen dams a difficult proposition. Out of the
three types of concrete dams, the gravity type are most commonly constructed, and
are called the concrete gravity dams.
Gravity dams. These dams are very heavy and massive, wall like
structures of concrete (or masonry), in which the whole weight acts
vertically downwards. The entire force acting on the dam wall will
be transmitted to the small area of its foundation.
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(ii) Buttress dams. An ordinary concrete gravity dam is a solid body of mass
concrete, some hat triangular in section, running across the entire width of the river
valley. A buttress dam consists of solid walls of cement concrete constructed parallel
to the flow at some suitable intervals. These walls are called buttresses.
In a buttress dam, therefore, the slab takes the entire load of water, and is
supported from behind by walls (buttresses), which may themselves be strengthened
by cross walls, called struts.
Arch dams. An arch dams is constructed in the shape of an arch in plan,
and is always convex on the upstream side.
Geological considerations involved in the selection of a dam site
The geological factors which govern the selection of a dam site can be
grouped into the following four head :
1. Existence of n rrow river valley.
Occurrence of the bed rocks at a shallow depth.
Occurrence of competent rocks, to offer stable and strong foundation.
Presence of proper geological structure.

Existence of a Narrow River Valley

A dam can be constructed economically, only when a deep narrow V-shaped
valley is available at the selected site rather than a wide U – shaped valley, because
the length of the dam spanning across the valley shall be much less in a V-shaped
valley as compared to that in a U- shaped valley. Hence, if the river valley at the dam
site is V-shaped, called a gorge, then the cost of the dam shall be lesser.
Suitability of Igneous rocks for dam sites. The massive dense igneous rocks
are the best bet for dam sites, because of their following characteristics :
They are very strong and durable due to dense character, inter – locking
texture, hard silicate mineral composition, and negligible porosity and
permeability;
They are usually free of inherent weak planes, like bedding, foliation, and
lineation;
They are quite resistant to weathering;
They have a wide occurrence, almost 20 – 30% of the Earth’s surface, and 70
– 80% of the volume of the Earth’s crust.

Suitability of sedimentary rocks for dam sites

The strength of sedimentary rocks is usually governed by various factors like;
orientation and positioning of bedding planes, thickness of beds, nature and extent of
compaction of its layers including their cementation, grain size, leaching of soluble
matter, porosity and permeability, associated geological structures, composition of
sediments and cementing material.

Suitability of metamorphic rocks for dam sites

Among the important metamorphic rocks, generally, Gneisses and Quartzite’s
are only considered to be competent rocks for a dam site; while Schists, Marbles,
Slates, Khondalites are all considered to be undesirable, for reasons pointed out
below.
Gneisses, like Granites, are generally competent rocks for dam sites, unless
they possess very high degree of foliation and are richly accompanied by
mica – like minerals.
Quartzites are very hard and durable rocks. They are neither porous nor
permeable. They may therefore, be considered to be competent rocks for a
dam site.
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Schists are considered to be undesirable rocks for a dam site, because : (i)
they are mainly composed of soft minerals – possessing well developed
cleavage; and (ii) they, are highly foliated.
Marbles, like Quartzites, are compact, non porous, non – permeable bear a
granulose structure, and are reasonably strong too.
Slates do bear typical slaty cleavage due to the presence of minute flakes of
mica, making this rock soft, weak and unsuitable for a dam site.
Khondalites are often highly weathered rocks, and contain soft graphite,
hard garnet, etc.
Dip and strike of beds;
Folds;
Faults; and
Joints.
Dip and strike of bed strata
A ideal condition for a dam site is that it should be built over a uniform formation,
consisting of only one stable and strong type of rock. In the case of horizontal
beds the load of the dam acts perpendicular to the bedding planes, putting the beds
in an advantageous position to bear the load with full competence.
In case of vertical beds, the beds will usually be dipping either in the upstream
direction or in the downstream direction.

Perfectly vertical or nearly vertical beds, through less common, if at all occurs,
will not pose problems of uplift pressure on dam, or of leakage of reservoir water
below the dam.

Folds
As already mentioned, the folded rocks are always under a considerable strain,
and the same is released when ever any kind of excavation is done through them, or
they are disturbed by some external force or stress. It is, therefore desirable that a
highly folded rock should always be avoided.
But if the fold is synclinal in nature, the foundation of the dam should rest on the downstream
limbs of the fold
Fault
It is always desir ble to avoid risk by rejecting a site on a fault, as the
movement along the existing f ult plane is much easier than along any other plane.
Even a slight disturbance may damage the structure constructed on a fault.
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Joints
A joint is always the weakest point in a structure. Similarly if the site, under
consideration for a dam, is jointed, the engineer is expected to face much of the
troubles before the construction of dam, during the construction of the dam. The
presence of joints in underlying rocks at the dam site, will cause the water to leak
through them. With the passage of time, this leakage may even endanger the structure.
Following is a brief account of the influence of more important
structural features of rocks on dam foundations

Dip and Strike

The strength of sound, un fractured stratified rock is always greater when
the stresses are acting normal to the bedding planes than if applied in
other directions.
This being so, horizontal beds should offer best support for the weight of
the dam.
But as is shown in a latter section, the resultant force is always
inclined downstream.

the most UNFAVOURABLE strike direction is the one in which the beds
strike parallel to the axis of the dam and the dip is downstream
It must be avoided as far as possible.
Therefore, other conditions being same, beds with upstream dips are
quite favorable sites for dam foundations.

GEOLOGY OF THE RESERVOIR

SITES Geological Consideration for a Successful Reservoir
Dams and reservoirs are both associated together, since a dam is constructed
across a river only to store water upstream of it, to form its associated reservoir. The
main function of the reservoir area, therefore, is to store water. If appreciable leakage
starts taking place from the reservoir’s bed or sides.
Hence a successful reservoir must fulfill, the following geological requirements :
It should be water – tight.
It should be of adequate capacity
it should have a long life; and
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It should not produce harmful after effects, like landslides, earthquakes,
etc. in the adjoining region.

Factors Affecting the Water – tightness of a Dam Reservoir

The various factors which affect the leakage from an impounding reservoir.
The extent of the submerged valley area;
The presence of the buried river channels;
The types of the rocks, forming the reservoir basin;
The types of the geological structures present in the b d ocks; a d
The position of the water – table at the reservoir site.

The Extent of the Submerged Valley Area

The ground surf ce, as we know, is covered by loose soil, and below it lies the
fractured rock, i.e. sub soil. The bed rock which is massive occurs further below.
When a natural river flows over such a loose soil, or fractured ground, some
percolation of river
ater to the under ground is bound to occur.

Presence of Buried River Channels in the Reservoir Area

The old buried channels, if occurring in the reservoir area, may prove to be serious sources of
leakage in future, since they may become active under heavy hydraulic head. Such a channel
infact, is usually covered by loose coarse sediments, which may allow the heavy leakage of
water along the course of the old channel. Such possibilities are quite common in glaciated
regions.
Suitability of igneous rocks for reservoir site
The intrusive igneous rocks like Granites are neither porous nor permeable.
These aquifuge rocks are, therefore, quite suitable for a reservoir area, since they will
not allow any leakage through them, unless they are badly fractured and suffer from
defects like joints, faults, shear zones, etc. Extrusive (i.e. volcanic) igneous rocks, like
Basalts, are generally vesicular, having interconnection of vesicles with their
associated fractures, joints.
Suitability of sedimentary rocks for reservoir sites
Sedimentary rocks are abundantly available, and hence become more
important than scarcely available igneous rocks. Even among them, Shales are in
more abundance, followed by Sandstones and Limestones.
Suitability of metamorphic rocks for reservoir sties
The most common metamorphic rocks are Gneisses, which behave like
Granites, and are hence neither porous nor permeable. The other common rocks are
Schists, which may offer leakage problems through tem, due to foliations and soft –
cleavage bearing mineral contents.

Presence of Geological Structures in Bed Rocks at the Reservoir Site

The presence of geological structures like folds, faults, and joints in the bed rocks of a
reservoir basin may affect the leakage from the reservoir to a large extent. Even non
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porous and impermeable rocks like Granites, may become porous due to the presence
of faults and joints, if traverse badly through the rocks. In terms of potential leakage
of water, folding or tilting has no relevance in igneous rocks as well as in granulose
metamorphic rocks; but faults, joints, unconformities, rock cleavages, etc. do
influence the leakage through the rocks.

Position of Water-table at the Reservoir Site

The level of the existing water-table uis-a-uis the usual water river water level
at the reservoir site, makes the river either an effluent stream or an influent stream.
Say of example, when the water-table at the reservoir site, prior to its construction is
usually higher than the lean season water level in the river, then naturally flow of
water from the under-ground will take place into the river, making the str am as an
effluent one. Such effluent rivers are thus fed by under-ground waters. On the oth
hand, if the water-table at the site is lower than the lean season river water level, then
naturally the stream water
will always outflow and eep into the u der round; and such which lea its water to the
underground are known the influent streams.

Prevention of Leakage of Reservoirs

The leakage of a reservoir is partly controlled by natural deposition of
impervious fine clayey materials, coming with the river flow and settling down on the
reservoir bed to cover and suppress the openings and weaker zones. The leakage of
reservoir may, thus, get reduced automatically with the passage of time, after its being
put into operation for some years.
In case of large sized openings, such as in fault zones, or shear zones, or
joints, where the ground is much fractured, artificial grouting shall have to be resorted
to. Grouting of fractured or cavernous Limestones in the reservoir area has been
adopted at several places.
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Silting of Reservoirs
The silting or sedimentation of a reservoir is the harmful as the leakage of the
reservoir, as both of them reduce the usefulness of the reservoir, and may in the
extremes, cause the failure of the reservoir.
Every river carried certain amount of sediment load. The sediment particles try
to settle down to the river bottom due to the gravitational force, but may be kept in
suspension due to the upward currents in the turbulent flow, which may overcome the
gravity force. Due to these reasons, the river carries find s diment in suspension as
suspended load, and larger solids along the river bad as b d load. When the silt laiden
water reaches a reservoir in the vici ity of a dam, the velocity and turbulence are
considerably reduced. The bigger suspe ded particles and most of the bed load,
therefore, gets deposited in the he d reaches of the reservoir. Finger particles may
travel some more distance and may fin lly deposit farther down in the reservoir.
ROADS AND RAILWAYS
Geological Factors Affecting Construction of Roads
Roads, highways, and railways always serve as the most important structures
of a country, in – peace as well as in war times. Their construction, maintenance and
upkeep are among the major duties assigned to civil engineers.
Such investigations are generally aimed at obtaining fullest possible details
regarding the (1) topography, (2) lithological characters, and (3) structural features of
the rocks, and (4) ground water conditions of the area.

The Topography of the Region

It is a very important factor that controls the route or alignment of a road. The
topographic maps will reveal the existence of various land features, such as valleys,
hills, plains, slopes, etc. Obviously, knowledge of the locations of all such features is
not only important but essential in deciding the right alignment. Moreover, such
investigations and
knowledge will also be required in deciding about the method of construction,
economy and stability of the highway or railway.
In hilly regions, it may sometimes become difficult to obtain necessary
topographic details in the specified time. In such cases, aerial surveys will have to be
conducted, and from that, contour maps prepared, prior to starting the alignment
work.
The Lithological Characters of the Rocks
The lithological characters of the rocks existing along the proposed road
alignment, will uniform the engineer about the type and nature of the rocks and
sediments of the area, and will thus assist him in knowing as to on what particular
type of rocks or soils he has to design the foundations of his roadway or railway, and
what type of construction material will be available in the vicinity, so as to transport it
with ease and economy.
Broadly speaking, the rock types available for laying roads, may be divided
into (a) massive consolidated types; and (b) loose unconsolidated types.
The massive group of rocks include the igneous rocks like Granite, Basalt,
etc., sedimentary rocks like Sandstones, Quartzite, etc; and metamorphic rocks like
Gneisses, Marbles, Schists, Slates, etc. Such rocks generally require extensive and
expensive blasting; though they are quite stable and hence stand well (provided the
geological
structures are favourable), with side walls and foundation slopes requiri almost il
maintenance.
The unconsolidated group of rocks, howev r, g n ally present problems.
Thorough soil investigations regarding their mode of origin, texture, structure, bearing
capacity, etc. will be required in such cases, because the stability of the foundation,
embankment slopes or cut lopes of the road section, will largely depend on these
factors. Residual soils are gener lly homogeneous and exhibit less complications, as
compared to transported soils, which may exhibit striking variations both horizontally
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as well as vertically. Presence of clay, should, however, be thoroughly investigated,
especially in residual soils.
The structural Features of the Rocks
The structural features of the rocks, i.e., the geological structures present in the
area, especially of sedimentary origin, do have a very important bearing on the design
of the cuts as well as on the stability of a road as a whole.

Dip and Strike

In the existing inclined beds, a road cut may be made (i) either parallel to the
dip direction, or (ii) parallel to the strike direction, or (iii) inclined to strike as well as
dip of the beds.
Cut made parallel to dip of beds : When a cut is made in the direction of
dip of the beds, the cut slope will have horizontal beds, and it will be the same on
either side. Hence, in such a case, there is a little danger of slippage. This condition is
thus quite safe and preferable.
Cut made parallel to the strike of beds. When cut is made parallel to the
strike of the beds, many complications do arise, because firstly, the strata plunge
steeply across the cutting; and secondly, the slope of cutting is unequal on sides.
Obviously, in such cases, the exposed slopes will require special treatment for their
stabilisation, otherwise the outward dipping character of the beds may give rise to
serious difficulties, like land – slides and slope failures, especially during rainy
season, when the bedding planes get lubricated with water.

Cut made inclined to dip and strike of beds. In such cases also, the strata will dip
across the cutting, and the cut slope will be unequal on both sides. Hence, such a
condition would also give rise to troubles, as encountered in cuts which are parallel to
the strike of the beds.
Hence, the road made parallel to the dip of the beds can be made safely
without any additional treatment, but when cuts are made either parallel or inclined to
strike, special measures will have to be taken to stabilise the cut slopes.

Joints
Joints influence the stability of the road cut in the same manner as the bedding
planes. Moreover, even the hardest rock becomes weak by the presence of enormous
joints in its body. Further, if major sets of joints are prominently inclined towards the
free side of the cut, the danger of slippage of the blocks is always imminent.

Faults
Faulting generally leads to crushing of the rocks in the immediate vicinity of
the fault. Such crushed rock zones or shear zones are specially dangerous, more
particularly when they are dipping towards the free side of the valley or the road.

The Ground Water Conditions of the Area

The ground water conditions of the area will also need to be investigated along
the proposed alignment of the roadway. These include determining the position of
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water table, as well as water bearing properties (i.e., the porosity and permeability) of
the various rocks occurring along the proposed route.
Water table investigations will help in locating those sections of the route, that
are liable to be affected by ground – water.
The ground water in many cases can reduce the bearing capacity of the
foundation soil, causing sub – grade failures, and in many cases. When there is a
condition of free flow of ground water through the soil, the bearing surface of the road
above, may fail. Swelling of clayey soils under the influence of capillary ground
water, causes still worst troubles, resulting in the formation of uneveness in the road
surface, which is very difficult to control.

Construction of Roads in Complicated

Regions Roads in Hilly Regions
The construction of roads in hilly regions is always very difficult and poses
many complications. Thus, the most important principle involved in road – alignment
i. . “connect the two visible points by the shortest route”, is very difficult to be
followed in such regions. Arial surveys will also be required to be carried out, and
steep slopes must be avoided.

Roads in Marshy Regions

At some places, the apparently stro sill is under lain by weak, saturated and
dry loose material like mud , peats, mucks, etc. In such regions, the roads may fail due
to vertical settlement or subsidence.
Geological investigations are therefore very important in such regions, to
detect the presence of unstable materials.

Roads in Water – logged Areas

In has been observed that the roads constructed in water – logged areas may
get deformed and damaged due to the water – logging effects. A simple explanation is
that due to rise of water – table in such regions, the capillary moisture wets the
subgrade soils to varying degrees, resulting in unequal reduction in the bearing
capacity of the subgrade soils, which finally leads to deformations.
There are two possible ways to overcome this problem :
to lower sown the water – table to the safe limits; or
to increase the thickness of the road crust.

Roads in Perma – frost Regions

In permafrost regions, the ground remains permanently frozen. During the
summer, however, thawing may start in the top layers. Now, if roads are constructed
in such regions, ignoring this character of the ground, their failure is sure to happen.
The reason is simple : When a road is constructed over a frozen ground, the
warm fill material acts as a blanket over the ice below, and thus facilitates melting of
ice, heading to unstable conditions.

Necessary precautions should, therefore be taken in such cases and these

should be aimed at preventing the thawing of the frozen ground under the fill
material. Vegetation should be left in place, and other material capable of providing
insulation should be provided.
BRIDGE
Defined: A structure spanning a river or a depression providing
communication providing communication across it. Bridges are integral parts of
roads and railways. They are constructed across river valleys, gorges canals and other
depressions in order to connect places separated by them for an uninterrupted flow of
traffic.
BRIDGE STRUCTURE:
 Rohini College of Engineering and Technolog
Parts and terminology
Bed: Surface of firm ledge or bedrock providing a stable foundation for bridge piers.
Abutment: the end supports of a bridge to withstand thrust.
Bridge (Road)Deck: load bearing masonry or concrete surface of a bridge carrying
and distributing the traffic loads to the main beams.
Wilngwall: A masonry or concrete wall that guides a river into a bridge.
Pier: A rectangular, oval or circular masonry or RCC column that supports the
superstructure of a bridge erected from a firm bearing bed for stability.
A bridge structure consists of two components:
A substructure and
A superstructure.
Sub-Structure: This con i ts of constructions on the banks (abutments), Piers, Wing
alls and Found tions.
Super Structure: This comprises of constructions that rest on the piers and the
abutments include girders or beams, stringers and road decking etcetera.
BRIDGE TYPES:
Basically bridges are two types:
Stationary bridges and
Movable bridges.
Stationary Bridges: These are the common bridges constructed across valleys and
depressions built of masonry or concrete accommodating roads or railways. Masonry
is used for arch bridges, Reinforced or prestressed concrete is used for medium to
long bridges.In some cases steel (steel trusses, plates and cable) is used.
Example: Suspension bridges.
There are also submersible and non-submersible bridges with the road deck between
high flood level and normal flood level and above high flood level respectively.

Movable Bridges: These are adopted across water ways that accommodate shipping .
Example: The Bascule bridge.
Movable bridges consist of one or two movable steel sections or spans – single or
double bascules. These are lifed up at either end to allow ships to pass through and
then lowered back to position providing road or railway.
Bridge Problems and Geologic Parameters:

Bridges are subjected to sudden loading due to traffic. The weight of the bridges
structure and the traffic loads are to be safely transmitted to the foundations and
abutments. Thus the stability, safety and economy of bridges depend largely on the
geologic parameters such as conditions of the foundation and abutment rock
formations and materials. Abutment conditions are of special importance in case of
suspension bridges. Only sound rock formation and material resists natural river
erosion and take the loads ensuring stability and safety of bridge structures.
The important bridge problems (risks) that lead to the failure are
Erosion of the piers and wing walls: increase in stream flow causes severe
bank erosion destroy bridges and covers the road surface with sand and
silt.
Deep scouring and collaps of bridges: as in the case of bridges in the
Himalayan this is uncommon in peninsular Indian regions because of hard
rock geology.
Washout due to flood currents.
Abutment yield.
Settlement of piers.
Earthquake effects: particularly on substructure leading to the tilting of
piers due to differential settlement as in Brihar and Assam regions.
When hard rock is found close to the bed level open foundations are adopted. In
cases where hard rock lies at depth with a thick overburden well foundations are
adopted especially when the foundation works are to be carried out under water.
 Rohini College of Engineering and Technolog
Geology of Bridge Sites: An ideal site for the construction of a bridge is the one
across a valley cut in sound rock and where the stream. Flow is free from, scour –
provoking currents due to bends, tributaries and other causes.
High stable banks, narrow stretches of water way accommodating a bridge of
minimum length with little or on effect of cross currents on the piers would be the
most desirable.
the important geological aspects and conditions are:
Bedrock at ground surface, i.e. sound hard rock profile of the bed and banks
of valleys, canals and depressions.[Fig.12.3 (a)]
The piers and abutments of bridges should be constructed on hard intact rocks
only and not on overburden such as fill, rock debris and etcetera/
Rock formations should have favoruable structure that ensure stable abnk
and firm bed.
Rock formation should be intact, strong and tough without defects and
weak planes.
The abutment conditions must be quite sound especially in case of sites for
suspension bridges.
Inconspicuous erosion potential for the piers.
Rock type
Intact in trusive igneous rocks like granite compact basalt, sedimentaries like hard
sandstone free from excessive joints and metamorphics like massive gneiss and
quartzites provide excellent foundation abutment and bearing materials.
Rock Structures:
Bedded and jointed formations especially those dipping into the river at lesser a
gle than the slope of the natural banks always are dangerous as they tend to slide and
cave in.

Faults:
Faulting brings rocks of diverse characters and stre gth together along the fault line.
Any further displacement at the fault contact may adversely affect the piers like
displacement, tilting she ring etcetera and the bridge structure.
Soluble Formations:
Soluble formations like limestone Gypsum, rock salt etcetera with enlarged joints
solution channels network of excessive cracks and fissures create serious problems
like undermining of banks.
Erosion and Scour:
River valleys in mountain tracts are subjected to rapid erosion both deeeping and
widening action. Therefore bridge piers and abutments are always exposed to
constant danger of erosion, slides and failure.
In meander belts there are chances of abandonment of the entire bridge structure due
to possible shifting of the river course and render it useless.
In plains piers if constructed within the scour and fill range are washed out by
violent flood waters.
Sections of river valleys subjected to severe periodic flood endanger the bridge
structure by total or partical submergence and its consequences such as washout of the
entire bridge or part of it.
At sea coasts steel components of bridges may be severely corroded by saline sea
water.
Report: The Report covers the following along with suitable recommendations and
suggestions for the use of the designers and executives.
Nature and profiles of valley or channel sections.
Depth to hard rock line or hard rock line profile at depth in case the site is covered
with thick overburden.
Type, composition, extent and conditions of rock formations and overburden
 Rohini College of Engineering and Technolog
characteristics at the bed and banks.
 Rohini College of Engineering and Technolog
Structure of rocks such as dip, folding, joints crack and fissure systems, unconformity
and faulting and their influence.
Seism city of the area.
Erosion potential of reiver water.
Flood-zoning.
Meandering, i.e. the river-bed characteristics and possible modification and shifting of
the course.
Ground conditions at the site that would affect working well as infiltration.
Quarry sites nearby.

LANDSLIDE
Defined: A landslide is a slow or sudden downhill movement of slope forming
rock and soil materials under the force of gravity.
PARTS OF A TYPICAL SIDE:
Definition and Terminology: A typical slide exhibits the following parts or
regions
Crown: The upper portion still in place from which solid rock and soil
materials are torn away from the rest of the slope.
Scarp: The steep wall of the undisturbed material below crown around the
periphery of the slide material.
Head: The upper part of the slide material.
Slip Plane (SS). The Shear Surface – the surface of movement down hill of
the slide material.
Flanks: Sides of a slide, Left Flank – Right Flank.
Transverse Ridges. Terrace or step like pressure or compression ridges.
Foot: The line of intersection of the lower part of the slip plane and the
original ground surface.
Toe. The lower portion in which the rock or soil material is heaped up.
Length : Horizontal distance from crown to toe.
Width : Horizontal distance from flank to flank.
Height: Vertical distance, crown to toe.
Depth: Thickness of the slide mass between crown and foot.

CLASSIFICATION AND TYPES OF LANDSLIDES:

Landslides are of many types and broadly classified according to their
characteristic parameters.
Presence or absence of a definite slip plane.
Materials involved any their water content.
Kind and rate of movement.
Important types:
Types
Slides: Sudden downhill movements of rock and or unconsolidated rock materials on a
definite identifiable water lubricate or not down slope inclined plane called a shear or
slip plane between the separating and remaining masses. The slip plane may be a
bedding plane, joint plane, fault plane, schistose or cleavage plane.
Slide Movement:Slide movements are of two kinds according to the slip plane.
Translation Movement: In which the slip plane in relatively a plane surface
characterisfied and jointed rocks rocks.
Rotational Movement: in which the slip plane is listric, i.e spoon-shaped, concave
upwards, characteristic of unconsolidated or earth materials.
Slides may occur on one or more slip planes and are of two types.
Rock Slides (Block or Planar Slides):These are typical translational slides
common in slopes with stratified and jointed rocks and involve sudden or
rapid movement of undeformed starta or block of rocks separated along joints
or downslop dipping bedding planes at critical angles where the gradient of
the slope is steeper than the dip of the beds.
 Rohini College of Engineering and Technolog

2. Slump:( arth Slide , Rotational slides): These are typical rotational slides common
in unconsolidated mateials especially mud and clay.
Example: U.S.A: (1) Tunnel Road slide (1950)
(1) Ornida Slide (1952)

3. Falls (Rock Falls):

Sudden and very rapid free fall leaping, rolling and or buncing of detached blocks
and boulders of rocks along joints and bedding planes of barren outcrops and solid bed
rock materials in very steep slopes especially cliffs, overhanging cliffs and in steep
hillsides, road and railway cuts following the laws of free falling bodies.
Example: Worlds
1. Switzerland: Elm Slide (1981-83)
2. Canada:Part of Turtle Mth slide Frank Alberta (1912)
3. U.S.A:(a) San Juan Mths, slides colo – (1909)

4. Flows: Slow to fast downhill movement of unconsolidated materials, earth (soil) sand
and rock debris,dry or wet with water or ice and in some cases bedrock itself.
Flows are of characterized by the absence of a recognizable slip plane.
1. Slow Flows:These are of two types.
soil Creep: A very slow almost imperceptible downslope plastic movement of wet or
dry surfacial materials following the laws of viscous flows of fluids and semi-fluids.
If water saturated materials are involved soil creep is called solifluxion and when it is
a wet mud without vegetation mud flow or lahar.
Mud flows are common in areas affected by wild forest fires and on slopes of
volcanic cones.
(b)Bedrock Creep or Terminal Creep: Downhill bending of the upper part of a series
of inclined or vertical beds giving them a false attitude (dip) due to plastic
deformation fo strata in response to small but long sustained stress.
(2) Fast Flows (Rapid Flows): Avalanche.
Avalanches are sudden and very fast to fast downhill slide of soil, rock debris
and boulders with large masses of ice and snow on steep slopes of snow clad
mountains.
Avalanche risks include disruption of highways, railroads, recreation facilities
(skiing) heavy damage to buildings and loss of life.
5. Complex Slides:
More often many landslides involve several types of movement within their various
parts or at different times in their development. Such slope failures are called complex
slides.
Landslide Characteristics:
Landslides are characteristized by steep scarps in their under parts and irregular
locate ridges and furrows at lower parts.
Land slides very in extent from several square metress to several square kilometers
and from less than a meters to several hundred of metres in thickness.
Landslide velocities ranges from impercetable movement to more than
100kmph. Landslide hazards – Risks
Landslides destroy agricultural fields plantations, habitation, foothill power houses,
block river valleys, create dams and reservoirs in river courses, which when breeched
destroy valuable lands,roads, railways, property and life in downstream areas by
flooding.
Landslides block or destroy hillroads, highways, railways, cannals, bridges and
communications, mines and quarries, forest productivity, tourist and winter recreation
potential (Skiing, mountaineering) and existing facilities in mountain countries besides
loss of life.
Effects on Hillside Homes and structures, Landslide Damges:
Most structures affected show characteristic forms of landslide damages:
 Rohini College of Engineering and Technolog
Differential subsidence of buildings with a roatation slewing and portions
till or undermiened.
Masonry buildings suffer more compared to steel or concrete frame
buildings.
Building sides stressed by accumulation of slide deb s.
Widening of cracks and fissures n the surrounding g ound and pavement.
Doors and windows, jam or stick.
Cracks in plaster, brick a d stone masonry, floor and foundations which
may be dilatational, parallel, intersecting or dendirtic.
Outer w ll , taircases,pulled away from buildings.
Breakage of underground untility services.
Leakage from water mains, swimming pools.
Downslope tilt of overhead tanks, boundary stone, fences and walls.
Causes of Landslides:
1. Natural Causes:
These involve topographic meteorologic and seismic factors and are divided by
Terzaghi (1950) into (a) internal factors and (b) external factors.(a)Internal Factors :
Mechanisms within the slope material which reduce its hear strength below the
magnitude of the external forces that lead to slidng without any change in the surface
conditions such as:
(b) Internal Factors:
Mechanisms within the slope material which reduce its shear strength below
the magnitude to the external forced that lead to sliding without any change in the
surface condition, such as:
increase in pore water pressure and decrease in cohesion of slope materials.
when the natural slope exceeds the critical angles of repose 35-40 of
unconsolidated slope materials.
Presence fo Kaolinite, anhydrite, serpentine swelling or expansive clays like
montmorillonite or shale, farming a slip surface or induce movement when wet.
presence of downslope dipping planner surfaces like bedding planes, joint planes,
fault planes, foliation and cleavage planes in slope forming rocks with slope dip
situation as potential slip planes when wet or lubricated.
External Factors: That are outside the mass which cause its failure by
oversteepening bases of slopes, such as:
Gravitational force – toppling blocks of rocks whose center fo gravity is beyond
their basses.
Prolonged rainfall, snowfall and rapid spring snowmelt.
2. Man Induced causes (Human Activity) :
Mining, quarrying, irrigation and Urban regional and recreational programmes
involving hillside cuttings, foothill excavations, drilling and blasting operations.
Prevention, control and correction of landslides:
Landslide Hazard Mitigation:
Landslides are prevented by controlling the state of stress of slope materials and
restore equilibrium. All proposed hill top and hillside construction sited are to be
considered potentially landslide prone.
A knowledge of landslides, their types causes and geologic mechanisms, control
correction and preventive measures help to demarcate landslide provinces and evaluate
slide susceptibility and plan, grade, design and construction of safe anti – slide structures
and communication lines in hilly regions, strengthen existing ones as well as developing new
sloping terranes.
Landslide Mitigation and Guidance Measures:
Grading: Reducing the gradient of the slope by flattering or multiple benchi g to overcome
the influence of gravity.
Blasting: Blasting and partial or complete removal of unstable slope materials.
Drainage: Providing suitable drai age, both surface and underground, horizontal drains
and intersection ditches (open tre ches)
 Rohini College of Engineering and Technolog
Vegetation Turfig: Along with jute or wire – meshing to provide good ground hold
and promote growth of gra especially for slope stability.
Asphalt –Mulching: Bitumenous emulsion covering to prevent erosion of slope
materials conserve moisture content and reaise soil – temperature promoting plant
growth.
Stabilization: Of loose materials by electro –osmosis.
wire –meshing: As close to steep rock face as possible to contain falling rock.
Use of rock block bolts: To anchor loose rocks safely to underlying sound stationary bed
rock.
Use of piles to prevent downhill movement of slope materials.
Removing weight from the head (hillside materials) and constructing crib walls
caisson,Buttresses, Bulkheads, debris barriers and retaining walls, a very effective
measure.

COASTAL EROSION
Coasts and beaches form valuable natural national resource and areas of critical
importance in most maritime (Sea or lake side) countries. Seashore or the beach is a vital
part of coastal regions where land and people meet the sea.
Coastal environment is dynamic and it changes in both national and social
contex. Shores and beaches serve a great variety of uses.
These has been an increasing population concentration, industrial, fishing,
wildlife protection resource extraction, residential and waste dispoal and more.
The region immediately landward of the shoreline is the coast and that towards
the sea is the seashore or the beach.
Rock cliffs and headland are coastal features while waves and currents advance
and retreat along the shore.

Definition
Shoreline: The line of intersection of the sea and the land.
Shore or Beach: A narrow strip of land between high and low water marks: a
transition zone between land and sea.
Coast line: Line of intersection of the coast and the store or beach.
Coastal Erosion:
Sea and lakeshores are the first onslaught of sea waves and storm surges, sudden
flooding caused by hurricaries and cyclones, ‘tsunamis and Seiches’. The coastal
region is attacked and worn out by waves and currents and the coastline retreats
Iandward. This is called coastal erosion.
 Rohini College of Engineering and Technology
The sea accomplishes normal geological processes, erosion, transportation and
deposition, the first and the last predominantly go hand in hand is called erosion and
accretion. The waves and currents are aided by byoyed up rock fragments and
suspended sand.
The chief processes of erosion are:
Hydraulic Action: Loosening
Corrasion: Undermining of coastal formations by surfs.
Abrasion: Wearing down of coastal rocks by constant impact of waves armed with
angular sand particles and rock fragments.
Attrition: Wearning down of blocks and fragments of rocks to roundness by mutual
impact and rolling.
FEATURES OF COASTAL EROSION:
Coastline may be simple, featureless or fantastically etched by sea waves. Waves
act at seas level only, i.e., between high tide mark HTM and low tide mark LTM and
limited to the height of the highest storm waves. Thus coastal features are produced by
lateral or horizontal cutting and recession of coastline.
Gulfs and Bays: The onrushing waves locate, attack and wear out coastal rocks
along cracks, joints and bedding planes, and soft and soluble formations. In
course of time on continued erosion, inlets or openings are created filled with sea
water called gulfs and bays.

Cliffs and Overhanging Cliffs: As waves first pound rocky cliffs by hydraulic
action and corrosion (undermi i g) a notch is cut at sea level. This quaickly or
gradually gets enlarged by the squeeze in (compression) and suck out action of
air. These enl rged hallows are called sea caves. When these become sufficiently
large and extend landward, overhanging cliffs are formed. On continued wave
action these loose support and collapse producing steep high walled cliffs.

Wave cut platforms: As coastal rock formations recede landward a rocky plain
gently sloping sea ward is produced at the foot of high cliffs, called wave cut
platform.
Sea Arches and Stacks: In case of projecting high lands, waves attacking
constantly on opposite sides, a passage for water is cut through gradually called a
sea arch. Eventually the roof of this arch bridge collapses. Leaving a column of
land seaward isolated or detached from the main land. This is called a sea stack or
chimney.
COASTAL EROSION HAZARDS:
 Effect of Sea Erosion on Manmade Structures: Coastal erosion destroys valuable beaches
residential areas, recreation facilities, transportation, agricultural and farm lands, industrial and
commercial establishments, harbour and dockyard facilities, navigation and fishing.

PROTECTION OF COASTS AND BEACHES:

Erosion is brought about by waves and wind and depletion of sand from beaches and
neighboring areas protective measures involve (1) construction of effective barri rs to dissipate
wave energy and preventing them reaching erodible places (coastal rocks a d installations and (2)
an artificial supply of sand to the shore to make up losses.
(1) Artifical Fill and Nourishment: Replen shm t of sand to restore and maintain
beaches obtained from nearby bays nlets or inland borrow areas without damages
to the ecology of the area.
Vegetation: To tabilize dunes and beach areas and to reduce sand losses. The dunes
prevent torm waves from over running beaches and coast line. Vegatation is also
effective in reducting shorelines in bays and estuaries.
Revetments: Placing of non-erodible materials like hard stones or concrete block called
armor stones or units along banks, banks, bluffs of escarpment and walls of harbours,
dockyards and other marine structures. These check and dissipate wave energy and
minimize erosion.
Breakwaters: Massive stone structures built as a rubble mound built in the sea parallel to
shores. These intercept waves before reaching the shore and protect water area behind.

Tribars (USA) and Tetra pods (France): These are interlocking three or four footed
concrete blocks. These being highly porous in the interlocked arrangement absorb the
dangerous wave energy and provide stable barriers.
Example: Marine drive coast, Mumbai, India.
(6) Groins: Groins are a barrier type wooden, steel, stone or concrete structures high or low,
long or short, permeable or impermeable which extend from into the littoral zone. Groins are
built perpendicular or at an angle to the shoreline individually or in a series called groin
systems.
Groins intercept and trap littoral drift (sand) moving into the area and widen the beach at
the location and thus minimize sand losses.
(7) Jetties: Jetties are similar to groins constructed at inlets to control sand movement and
improve navigation facilities. These are larger than groins and extend shoreline seawards to a
depth equivalent to the channel depth designed fro navigational purposes.

(8) Sea Walls: these are massive rigid masonry, concrete or steel sheet pile structures built to
protect land from sea erosion. Seawalls are usually built parallel to the shore at a safe distance
with wing walls. These are effective against high waves. Seawalls may be vertical (10-15 m
high) or sloping, curved or stepped permeable or impermeable.

In some cases sea walls carry roadways on their top. Sea walls (1) prevent erosion of shores
and (2) act wharf or quay wall providing sufficient depth of water at shore front.
GEOLOGICAL CONDITIONS NECESSRY FOR CONSTRUCTION OF
DAMS DEFINITION
A DAM may be defined as a solid barrier constructed at a suitable location across
a river valley with a view of impounding water flowing through that river. (1)
generation of hydropower energy;
SELECTION OF SITES
Topographically
It would be a narrow gorge or a small valley with enough catchments
area available behind so that when a dam is placed there it would easily
store a calculated volume of water in the reservoir created upstream.
This should be possible without involving significant uprooting of population,
loss of cultivable land due to submergence or loss of existing construction.

Technically
The site should be as sound as possible: strong, impermeable and stable.
Strong rocks at the site make the job of the designer much easy: he can
evolve best deigns.
Impermeable sites ensure better storage inventories.
Stability with reference to seismic shocks and slope failures around the dam,
especially upstream, are a great relief to the public in general and the engineer in
particular.
The slips, slides, and slope failures around and under the dam and
susceptibility to shocks during an earthquake could prove highly hazardous.
Constructionally
The site should not be far off from deposits of materials which would be
required for its construction.
 All types of major dams require millions of cubic meters of natural materials —
earth, sand, gravel and rock —for their construction.
Economically
The benefits arising out of a dam placed at a particular site should be realistic
and justified in terms of land irrigated or power generated or floods averted or
water stored.
Dams are invariably costly structures and cannot be placed anywhere and
everywhere without proper analysis of cost-benefit aspects.
Environmentally
The site where a dam is proposed to be placed and a reservoir created, should not
involve ecological disorder, especially in the life cycles of animals and
vegetation and man.
The fish culture in the stream is the first sector to suffer a major shock due to
construction of a dam. Its destruction may cause indirect effects on the
population.
These effects require as thorough analysis as for other objects. The dam and the
associated reservoir should become an acceptable element of the ecological set up
of the area.
Geological Characters for Investigation

Geology of the Area

Preliminary geological surveys of the entire catchments area followed by detailed
geological mapping of the reservoir area have to be conducted. These should reveal
main topographic features,
natural drainage patterns,
general characters and structures of rock formations such as their stratification,
folding and faulting and igneous intrusions, and
the trend and rate of weathering and erosion in the area.
Geology of the site
Lithology.
The single most important feature that must be known thoroughly at the
site and all around and below the valley up to a reasonable depth is the
Lithology, i.e. types of the rocks that make the area.
Surface and subsurface studies using the conventional and latest
techniques of geological and geophysical investigations are carried out.
Such studies would reveal the type, the composition and textures of the
rocks exposed along the valley floor, in the walls and up to the required
depth at the base.
Rocks are inherently anisotropic materials, showing variation in
properties in different directions.
Complex litho logy definitely poses challenging design problems.
Structures
This involves detailed mapping of planes of weakness like bedding planes,
schistosity, foliation, cleavage, joints, shear zones, faults and fault zones,
folding and the associated features.
 While mapping these features, special attention is given to recording
their attitude, spacing and nature.
Shear zones have to be searched, mapped and treated with great caution.
In some cases, these may be developed to such an extent that the rock may
necessitate extensive and intensive rock treatment (e.g. excavation, backfilling
and grouting etc.).
Following is a brief account of the influence of more important structural
features of rocks on dam foundations

Dip and Strike

The strength of sound, un fractured stratified rock is always greater when the
stresses are acting normal to the bedding planes than if applied in other
directions.
This being so, horizontal beds should offer best support for the weight of the
dam.
But as is shown in a latter section, the resultant force is always
inclined downstream.

the most UNFAVOURABLE strike direction is the one in which the beds
strike parallel to the axis of the dam and the dip is downstream
It must be avoided as far as possible.
Therefore, other conditions being same, beds with upstream dips are
quite favorable sites for dam foundations.
Faults
These structures can be source of danger to the dam in a number of ways. Thus,
The faulted rocks are generally shattered along the rupture surfaces;
Different types of rocks may be present on either side of a fault plane. Hence,
sites with fault planes require great caution in calculating the design strength
in various sections of the dam.
Dams founded on beds traversed by fault zones and on major fault planes are
more liable to shocks during an earthquake compared to dams on non-faulted
rocks.
TUNNELS
Definition
Tunnels may be defined as underground routes or passages driven through the
ground without disturbing the overlying soil or rock cover.
 Tunnels are driven for a variety of purposes and are classified accordingly.

Chief classes of tunnels are:

Traffic Tunnels
hydro-power tunnels and
public utility tunnels.
Geological Investigations
These determine to a large extent solutions to following engineering problems connected
with tunnelling:
Selection of Tunnel Route (Alignment).
There might be available many alternate alignments that could connect two
points through a tunnel.
the final choice would be greatly dependent on the geological constitution along
and around different alternatives
Selection of Excavation Method.
Tunnelling is a complicated process in any situation and involves huge costs
which would multiply manifolds if proper planning is not exercised before
starting the actual excavation.
And the excavation methods are intimately linked with the type of rocks to be
excavated.
Choice of the right method will, therefore, be possible only when the nature of the
rocks and the ground all along the alignment is fully known.
This is one of the most important aim and object of geological investigations.
Selection of Design for the Tunnel.
The ultimate dimensions and design parameters of a proposed tunnel are
controlled, besides other factors, by geological constitution of the area along the
alignment.
Whether the tunnel is to be circular, D-Shaped, horse-shoe shaped or
rectangular or combination of one or more of these outlines, is more often
dictated by the geology of the alignment than by any other single factor.
Thus, in self-supporting and strong rocks, either, D-shape or horse-shoe shape
may be conveniently adopted but these shapes would be practically unsuitable
in soft ground or even in weak rocks with unequal lateral pressure.
Assessment of Cost and Stability.
These aspects of the tunnelling projects are also closely interlinked with the first
three considerations.
Since geological investigations will determine the line of actual excavation, the
method of excavation and the dimensions of excavation as also the supporting
system (lining) of the excavation, all estimates about the cost of the project
would depend on the geological details.
Similarly tunnels passing through hard and massive rocks even when left
unsupported may be regarded as stable.
Assessment of Environmental Hazards:
 The process of tunnelling, whether through rocks or through soft ground, and for
whatsoever purpose, involves disturbing the environment of an area in more
than one way.
The tunnelling methods might involve vibrations induced through blasting or
ground cutting and drilling, producing abnormal quantities of dust and last but
not the least, interference with water supply system of the nearby areas.
A correct appreciation of geological set up of the area, especially where tunnel
alignment happens to be close to the populated zones, would enable the
engineer for planning and implementing plans aimed at minimizing the
environmental hazards in a successful manner.
Methods
These stages are:
A. Preliminary Surveys
Following geological characters are broadly established for the entire area in which the
tunnel project is to be located as a result of preliminary surveys:
The general topography
The topography of the area marking the highest and the lowest points, occurrence
of valleys, depressions, bare and covered slopes, slide areas, and in hilly regions
and cold climates, the snow-line.
The litho logy
The litho logy of the area, meaning thereby, the composition, attitude
and thickness of rock formations which constitute the area.
The hydrological conditions
The hydrological conditions in the area, such as depth of water table, possibility of
occurrence of major and minor aquifers of simple type and of artesian type and
the likely hydrostatic heads along different possible routes or alignments.
The structural condition
The structural condition of the rock, that is, extent and attitude of major
structural features such as folding, faulting, unconformities, jointing and shearing
planes, if developed.
Existence of buried valleys are also established during the preliminary surveys.

B. Detailed Surveys

Bore-Hole Drilling
bore-hole drilling along proposed alignments and up to desired depths;
the number of bore-holes may run into dozens, scores or even
hundreds, depending upon the length of the tunnel;
rock samples obtained from bore holes are analysed for their mechanical and
geo-chemical properties in the laboratories;
Drilling Exploratory
Drilling shafts and adits, which allow direct approach to the desired tunnel
for visual inspection in addition to the usual advantages of drilling;
Driving Pilot Tunnels
Driving pilot tunnels which are essentially exploratory in nature but could better
be used as a main route if found suitable by subsequent enlargement.
 The actual number of bore holes and shafts and adits and their depth and
length are decided by the length and location of the proposed tunnel.
For tunnels with little overburden, these may be driven close to the
proposed tunnel.
GEOLOGICAL CONSIDERATIONS IN TUNNELLING
Rocks may be broadly divided into two categories in relation to tunnelling:
consolidated and
unconsolidated or soft ground.
Only a brief accounts is given below.
Consolidated Rocks
Tunnel design, method of its excavation and stability are greatly influenced by following
geological conditions: lithology, geological structures and ground water conditions.
Lithology
It has already been mentioned that information regarding mineralogical composition,
textures and structures of the rocks through which the proposed tunnel is to pass is of
great importance in deciding
the method of tunneling
the strength and extent of lining and, thus
the cost of the project.
Hard and Crystalline Rocks
These are excavated by using conventional rock blasting methods and also
by tunnel boring method
In the blasting method, full face or a convenient section of the face is
selected for blasting up to a pre-selected depth
These are loaded with predetermined quantities of carefully selected
explosives of known strength.
The loaded or charged holes are ignited or triggered and the pre-
estimated rocks get loosened as a result of the blast.
The blasting round is followed by a mucking period during which the
broken rock is hauled out of the excavation so created.
The excavations in hard and crystalline rocks are very often self
supporting so that these could be left unlined and next round of blasting in
the new face created is undertaken, ensuring better advance rate.
Rocks falling in this group include granites, diorites, syenites, gabbros,
basalts and all the related igneous rocks, sandstones, limestones,
dolomites, quartzites, arkose, greywackes and the like from sedimentary
group and marbles, gneisses, quartzites, phyllites and slates from the
metamorphic groups.
When any one of these rocks is stressed, such as during folding or
fractured as during faulting, tunnelling in these rocks proves greatly
hazardous.
Rock bursts which occur due to falling of big rock blocks from roofs or
sides due to release of stresses or falling of rock block along fractures
already existing in these rocks often cause many accidents.
Soft Rocks This group includes shales, friable and poorly compacted
sandstones, chalk and porous varieties of limestones and dolomities, slates
 and phyllites with high degree of cleavage and also decomposed varieties
of igneous rocks.
Their excavation cost, volume for volume, might be lower than those
in hard rocks.
Hence, temporary and permanent lining becomes necessary that
would involve extra cost and additional time.
Rocks like clays, shales, argillaceous and ferruginous sandstones,
gypsum bands and cavernous limestones have to be viewed specially
with great caution during tunnelling
Fissured Rocks form a category in themselves and include any type of
hard and soft rock that has been deformed extensively due to secondary
fracturing as a result of folding, faulting and metamorphic changes of
shearing type.
Geological Structures
Dip and Strike
These two quantitative properties of rocks determine the attitude
(disposition in space) of the rocks and hence influence the
design of excavation (tunnel) to a great extent.
Three general cases may be considered.
Horizontal Strata
When encountered for small tunnels or for short lengths of long
tunnels, horizontally layered rocks might be considered quite
favourable.
In massive rocks, that is, when individual layers are very thick, and the
tunnel diameter not very large, the situation is especially favourable
because the layers would then over bridge flat excavations by acting as
natural beams
But when The layers are thin or fractured, they cannot be depended
upon as beams; in such cases, either the roof has to be modified to an
arch type or has to be protected by giving a lining.
Sides of tunnels, however, could be left unsupported except when
the rocks are precariously sheared and jointed.

Moderately Inclined Strata.

Such layers that are dipping at angles up to 45° may be said as moderately
inclined.
 The tunnel axis may be running parallel to the dip direction, at right angles to
the dip direction or inclined to both dip and strike directions.
In the first situation, that is, when the tunnel axis is parallel to the dip direction the
layers offer a uniformly distributed load on the excavation.
The arch action where the rocks at the roof act as natural arch transferring
the load on to sides comes into maximum play.
Even relatively weaker rocks might act as self-supporting in such cases.
It is a favourable condition from this aspect.
it also implies that the axis of the tunnel has to pass through a number of rocks
of the inclined sequence while going through parallel to dip

In the second case, that is, when the tunnel is driven parallel to strike of the
beds (which amounts to same thing as at right angles to the dip),
the pressure distributed to the exposed layers is unsymmetrical along the
periphery of the tunnel opening; one half would have bedding planes opening into
the tunnel and hence offer potential planes and conditions for sliding into the
opening.
The bridge action, though present in part, is weakened due to discontinuities at
the bedding planes running along the arch
Such a situation obviously requires assessment of forces liable to act on both
the sides and along the roof and might necessitate remedial measures.
In the third case, when the tunnel axis is inclined to both the dip direction and the
strike direction, weak points of both the above situations would be encountered.
Steeply Inclined Strata
In rock formations dipping at angles above 45°, quite complicated
situations would arise when the tunnel axis is parallel to dip or parallel to
strike or inclined to both dip and strike directions.
In almost vertical rocks for example, when the tunnel axis is parallel to dip
direction, the formations stand along the sides and on the roof of the tunnel as
massive girders.
An apparently favourable condition, of coarse, provided all the formations are
inherently sound and strong
Folding
Folds signify bends and curvatures and a lot of strain energy stored in the
rocks. Their influence on design and construction of tunnels is important from
at least three angles:
Firstly, folding of rocks introduces considerable variation and uncertainty in a
sequence of rocks so that entirely unexpected rocks might be encountered
along any given direction.
This situation becomes especially serious when folding is not recognized properly
in preliminary or detailed surveys due either to its being localized or to
misinterpretation.
Secondly, folding of rocks introduces peculiar rock pressures.
In anticlinal fold, loads of rocks at the crest are transferred by arch action to
a great extent on to the limbs which may be highly strained
These conditions are reversed when the folds are of synclinal types.
In such cases, rocks of core regions are greatly strained.
Again, the axial regions of folds, anticlinal or synclinal, having suffered
the maximum bending are more often heavily fractured.
The alignment of a tunnel passing through a folded region has to take these
aspects in full consideration.
When excavations are made in folded rocks, the strain energy is likely to be
released immediately, soon after or quite late to tunnelling operations, very
often causing the dreaded rock bursts.
 Thirdly, folded rocks are often best storehouses for artesian water and also
ideal as aquifers.
When encountered during tunnelling unexpectedly, these could
create uncontrollable situations.
The shattered axial regions being full of secondary joint systems are highly
permeable.
As such very effective drainage measure are often required to be in readiness
when excavations are to pass through folded zones.
Faulting
Similarly, fault zones and shear zones are highly permeable zones, likely to
form easy avenues for ground water passage.
Inclined fault planes and shear zones over the roof and along the sides introduce
additional complications in computation of rock pressure on the one hand and of
rock strengths on the other.
This discussion leads to a general conclusion:wherever tunnel is intersected by
fault planes or shear zones, it is to be considered as passing through most unsafe
situations and hence designed accordingly by providing maximum support and
drainage facilities.
Joint Systems
Joints are cracks or fractures developed in rocks due to a variety of causes.
although all types of joints tend to close with depth (due to load of overburden),
their presence and orientation, has to be investigated.
Joints are planes of weakness and must always be suspected when the rocks are
folded and faulted.
Even originally closed joints may become reactive and open up in the immediate
vicinity of tunnel excavation.
Jointed rocks cannot be considered as self-supporting although these might
belong to massive

Ground Water Conditions

Determination of ground water conditions in the region of tunnel project is not
to be under-estimated at any cost.
In fact ground water level vis-à-vis tunnel axis is a major factor governing
computations of overhead loads on tunnels and also in the choice of method of
tunnelling.
 Groundwater conditions effect the tunnel rocks in two ways
Firstly, through its physico-chemical action, it erodes and corrodes (dissolves)
the susceptible constituents from among the rocks and thereby alters their
original properties constantly with the passage of time.
It might have already done much of this type of job when the tunnel is
excavated through such water-rich rocks.
Secondly, it effects the rock strength parameters by its static and dynamic
water heads.
Such an action may become highly pronounced when an artesian acquifer is
actually intercepted by tunnel excavation.
ROADS AND HIGHWAYS
Their planning, designing, construction and maintenance are among the
major duties of civil engineers the world over.
geological investigations play important role in the design, stability and
economical construction and maintenance of the roads.
Such investigations are aimed at providing full details regarding topography of
the area, lithological characters of the rocks or soil and the ground water
conditions.
Topography
Topography or the landform of a region is single most important factor that
controls the selection of alignment of a road project.
Topographic maps would reveal the existence of various land features like
valleys and the inflowing streams, the hills and their undulations, the plateaus and
the plains with all their varying configuration from place to place.
Obviously, knowledge of all such features is not only important but very essential
for a right alignment.
Preliminary surveys, including aerial surveys followed by detailed surveys
are often necessary to obtain desired topographical
Lithological Character
Broadly speaking, ground may be divided into two types: consolidated,
massive hard rock type and soft, unconsolidated type.
The Massive groups of rocks include all varieties of igneous, sedimentary
and metamorphic rocks which can stand even with vertical slopes.
For making roads through them, however, these rocks require extensive
blasting operations.
They cannot be simply cut out or dug out, Once cut, especially if they are free
from joints and fractures and un favorably inclined bedding planes, these rocks
stand erect for year without much maintenance.
The Unconsolidated group presents the engineer many complicated problems.
Thorough soil investigations regarding their mode of origin, texture, structures,
porosity, permeability, degree of compaction, consolidation characteristics or
compressibility, etc all are requited to be known within broad limits to design
safe and stable roads over them.
Residual soils are generally homogeneous and properties evaluated from
selective bore hole samples might prove sufficient.
 Geological Structures
The structural features of rocks, especially in those of sedimentary and
metamorphic origin, have very important bearing upon the design of cuts as well
as on the stability of the road as a whole.
A given rock might be quite hard and otherwise sound for a cut as
road foundation.
But, if in the same rock some planes of weakness (such as bedding planes, joints,
foliation, cleavage) are present in such a way that these are inclined towards the
free side of the valley, the rock could likely fail along these planes.
Such structural features include dip and strike, joints, fault planes and
shear zones.
Dip and Strike.
There may be three possibilities for making a cut in the inclined beds: it can be
made parallel, at right angles or inclined to the dip direction.
The relative merits of the cut vis-a-vis its stability would be as follows assuming
other things are favourable:
Cut is parallel to the dip direction: In such a case, the layers offer a uniform behaviour
on either side of the cut and as such the risk of failure is minimal on this account.

Cut is made parallel to the strike, that is, at right angles to the dip direction.
In some cases where the layers dip into the hill rather
than in the road, the cut is considered quite stable
Road cut
Cutting Inclined to Dip and Strike:
In such cases also, the parallel to strike.
Beds strata will dip across the cutting and the slope of cutting dip into the
hill Safe. will be unequal on both sides.
Hence such a condition would give rise to similar difficulties as encountered in
cuts parallel to strike.
When there is no alternative to cuts either parallel to or inclined to strike (other
than at right angles), special measure might become necessary to ensure
stability of slopes.
Such measures would include Enlarging of the section of the cutting, particularly
on the hillside face, to stable Provision of strong, adequately high retaining walls;
Very efficient drainage system to effectively remove water from the
affected slopes.
Joints
These influence the stability of the cuts in the same way as the bedding planes
When present in great abundance, joints reduce even the hardest rock to a mass of
loosely held up blocks on the side of a cut which could tumble down on slight
vibrations.
Further, even if the joints are few, but are continuous and inclined towards the
free side of the cut, these and inclined towards the free side of the cut, these offer
potential surfaces for slips during the presence of moisture.
In major road construction programmes, therefore, jointed rocks have to be
provided artificial support by breastwalls and retaining walls for ensuring
stability.
Faults
Faulting generally leads to the crushing of the rock along the fault planes and
shear zones.
Such a condition is, of course, very unfavourable for a cut when it happens to
form upper or lower slope or even base of the cut.
It should not be left untreated in any case. These are the worst type of planes of
potential failure.
Weathering
In some cases, when the strata along or under a cut is composed of layers of rocks
of different hardness, the softer layers get weathered at a faster rate than the
overlying or underlying harder rocks.
This generally results in undermining which might cause slips or falls of
the whole face.
Sometimes, when the top layers are weathered too heavily, the slope might
experience a persistent rock fall or experience debris-fall type of situation
from above.

Ground Water Conditions

It is always- necessary to investigate thoroughly the position of water table of the
area.
It is quite likely that a water bearing zone (aquifer) might be intersecting the base
or slopes of an alignment.
Specific care and design would be required for these natural water conduits.
These are always to be taken as weak and hazardous zones in the road.
It is also known that water exerts important influence on the beating capacity of
the rocks and soil.
Hence when the ground is rich with moisture it would not bear the design loads,
unless these properties of ground have also been determined in moist conditions.
sometimes there is a condition of free flow of ground-water through the soil.
This is quite dangerous for the stability of the road surface laid above such soil.