ENERGY EFFICIENT AND GREEN BUILDINGS Course content for Module 1 Introduction to thermal comfort: Climatic factors, Classification of tropical climates, site climate, micro climate of human settlements, Ventilation, types of ventilation and requirements for health, mechanisms. Estimation of natural ventilation, airflow patterns in building. Human Comfort for the noise level, human comfort for the ventilation in the buildings. Indoor air quality, Techniques for improving indoor air qualityNGI The Earth —Sun Relationship . * Climate of earth is driven by the energy input from the Sun * For designers there are two essential aspects to understand: 1.The apparent movement of the sun (the solar geometry) and 2.The energy flows from the sun and how to handle it (exclude it or make use of it) « Earth moves around the sun on a slightly elliptical orbit «= Axis is tilted by 23.5° Angle between the earth's equatorial plane and the earth-sun line (Declination) varies +23 45° on June 22 (Norther solstice) 0° on March 21 and Sept. 22. (Equinox date -23.45¢ on December 22 ‘Southern solstice) Heliocentric view‘Sri ©2019 cena Soe Longserm average ot Annualeum <700 $00. 1100 1200 1800 17001900 2100 2300 2600 2700> Dntynm «20 25 90 35 4C 45 SD SS 60 6S 70 75> For building problems the Joco-centric view proves helpful Observer's position is at the centre of the sky hemisphere Zenith oS ‘Sun's position can be determined by two angles 2 so \ Altitude : Measured upwards from the horizon (observer q iN \ Mociron L Azimuth: measured in the horizontal plane from northSolar Geometry Sun path diagrams ¢The daily and seasonal path that the Sun appears to follow across the sky as the Earth rotates around the Sun. *Sun Path Diagram is the projection of the sun movement throughout the yearin a two- dimensional form by projecting the sun position . There are several methods of Projection of the Sun's apparent position, of which the stereographic projection method is widely used. Sun path diagrams . a Sun Path Diagram consists of the following ines: + Azimuth Lines: Azimuth angles run around the edge of the sun path diagram. + Altitude Lines: Altitude angles are represented as concentric circles that run from the centre of the diagram out. * Date Lines: Date lines start from the left _ Eastern side) of the diagram towards the right eee side) of the diagram and represent the path of the sun ona particular day of the year. * Hour lines: Hour lines are eight type lines that intersect the date lines and represent the Position of the sun at a particular hour of the day. The Intersection point is the position of the Sun.Solar radiation measured in 2 ways: * Irradiance (W/m?) : instantaneous flux or energy flow density * Irradiation (Wh/m?) : energy quantity integrated over specific time periodLarge variations in irradiation amongst different locations on the earth, for three reasons Angle of incidence : according to the cosine law Atmospheric depletion : a factor varying between 0.2 and 0.7, mainly because at lower altitude angles the radiation has to travel along a much longer path through the atmosphere Duration of sunshine : Le. the length of daylight period NGI Sol-Air Temperature Sol-air temperature (Tsol-air) is the hypothetical temperature of outdoor air which, by convection and conduction only, would result in the same rate of heat transfer to a building surface as is accomplished by the combined effects of the actual air temperature and solar radiation. Trotair = Tour + (a*I/hg Where; Tou: Outside temperature in °C a — absorptivity of the surface (taken as 0.4 in this case for a light coloured surface) 1 — global solar irradiance (W/m2) ny— heat transfer co-efficient for radiation and convection (Wim?K)2. Calculate the Sol-Air temperature for the given orientations for a location: Global Solar Irradiance (W/m?) Given, Outside Dry Bulb Temperature is 35°C; Absorptivity I — —=— of Surface is 03 and Heat Iransfer Coefficient is 19.36 North | 450 Wien South | 1100 Sol Tt, Sgt Bt ‘sol-air o To For North Orientation: 0.3 x 4504, Teot-air = 35°C + 19.36—ten Tsot-air = 35°C + 6.8°C = 41.8°CFor South Orientation: 0.3 Xx 1100% m*. w 19.3676 Tsoi-air = 35°C + ¢ Tsot-air = 35°C + 16.62°C = 51.62°C Climate * “Climate is a composite of the weather that has occurred at a given location ‘over a comparatively lang periad of time (decades or centuries, depending upon data available).” Douglas M. Considine, Van Nostrand's Scientific Encyclopaedia * “These geographical provinces of similar climatic properties, can be grouped together mostly at macro, meso and sometimes micro level.” -R. Geiger (1933) * Climate Classification can be done on 3 Levels: v Macro: Y¥ Meso: Por eg: City-Level v__ Micro: For eg: Neighborhood-LevelClimatic factors/ Elements of climate data * Dry-bulb temperature * Relative humidity * Solar radiation + Air movement * Precipitation * Cloud cover * Sunshine duration [Temperature Imonthly mean of daily maxima (deg C) Imonthly mean of daily minima (deg C) standard deviation of their distributions [Humidity learly morning relative humidity (in %) learly afternoon relative humidity (in %) Solar radiation Imonthly mean daily total (in MJ/m2 or W h/m2) Wind |prevailing wind speed (m/s) and direction Rainfall imonthly total (in mm)Climate classification * K6ppen-Geiger classification —25 different global climate types + Atkinson classification -4 types (simplified for building design) * Cold + Temperate * Hot-dry * Warm-humid 3 Parameters were considered for Koppen-Geiger Climate Classification: *Location from Equator to determine the main climates (5 divisions) «Precipitation (6 divisions) «Temperature (8 divisions)=~ * Climate Classification 1975 Current Climate Classification ‘Source: CBRI building digest, 114 ‘Source: National Building code of India Localized macro-climate We gekte leat itcsClimatic classification: NBC 2016 India Climat Classification ‘mae ‘Mean Monthy ‘ose Maximum Relative Categories | Temperature CC) | Humidity (9) 30 3 Hem 22s 375 Teapanie B30 a Told as ‘Ailvaieer “Composite | Wis simi or move do not al wn | spatter tegones Mean Max Relat Temperature Humidity . 328 3133 ‘Mess Mouiy [Mean Meaty 349, S10 eomnt =a stgeries |_Tomperstare CC)_| Hamar (06) 394 4251 30 442 4246 30 3 439 5507 2s os 407 e167 h 39 a 36 m2 = ‘Allvaioes 345 8592 Yee at wea Tee ese baa wan a = mr ofthe above cnepencs 361 3277 NC 2016 climate Cancion Cater a5 5508Ng Q. What is the climate of the given location based on NBC 2016 Climate Classification? Mean Max Temperatur Relative Humidity 5285155 349 SIO 3944231 42 4246 89 5587 407 als? 3072 3458592 3946553, 383 361 3s The climate of the location is COMPOSITE at more then 6 months do not fall under any of the other categories Warm-humid climate * Chennai, Kolkatta Design considerations in vernacular buildings * Increasing the provision for ventilation * Large P/A ratio * Sloped roof form with deep eaves * White/reflective wall surfacesIndian Examples Padmanabhapuram palace Indian Examples Chettinad Houses Kuppali, KarnatakaInternational Examples South-east Asia Hot-dry climate + Jaisalmer Design considerations in vernacular buildings * Shielding from high solar irradiation * Low P/A ratio * Protection from dust and hot winds + White/reflective roof surfacesIndian Examples Jaisalmer International Examples New MexicoCold climate * Srinagar Design considerations in vernacular buildings * Harness solar irradiation * Low P/A ratio * Protection from cold drafts * Sloped roofs Indian Examples LehInternational Examples Igius Composite climate * Delhi, Hyderabad * Design considerations in vernacular buildings * Seasonally variant strategies -summer-winter palaces of Mughals * Shield solar irradiation during summer and Harness during winter * Typically Low P/A ratio * Protection from cold drafts during winter * Compact planningModerate climate * Bengaluru * Design considerations in vernacular buildings * Lesser number of heating and cooling degree days * Typically harness solar radiation focused on winter + Shaded outdoor activity areas * Less massive construction MICRO CLIMATE * Microclimate’ can imply any local deviation from the climate of a larger area, whatever the scale maybe. + Immediate local climatic conditions such as temperature, humidity, solar radiation, wind, etc. * Climate of a small area which is different from the larger area around it.Scale of microclimate + To a botanist, Microclimate can be of a single plant leaf, with its temp erature and moisture conditions, its population of insects and = micro organisms, on the scale of a few centimetres. + It can be of a space as small as the protected inner courtyard of a building and as large as a city which have different climatic conditions of the larger area around. «To an urban geographer, micro climate may mean the climate ofa whole town. ttre ieee Cela tad Tey as other loc weer“Site climate’ establishes the scale- + whatever the size of the project, + it implies the climate of the area available & * is to be used for the given purpose, * both in horizontal extent & in height + The task of the designer is to take advantage of the favourable and mitigate the adverse characteristics of the site and its climatic features Local Factors + The factors governing the climate of a zone are: * Topography - slope , orientation, exposure, elevation, hills or valleys, at or near the site. * Ground surface — whether natural or man- made, its reflectance, permeatibilty and the soil temperature ( affect on vegetation) and this in turn affects the climate(woods, shrubs, grass, paving, water, etc.) * Three-dimensional objects - these includes trees , tree-belts, fences, walls & buildings, as they may influence air movement , may cast a shadow_and_may_sub-divide the area _into_smaller units with distinguishable climatic features.WHAT IS A SETTLEMENT *In simpler term we can define settlement as_any form of human habitation which ranges from a single dowelling to large city. * The word settlement has another connotation as well as this is a process of opening up and settling of a previously uninhabited area by the people. * In geography this process is also known as occupancy. + Settlements can broadly be divided into two types rural and urban. Before Types of Rural Settlements 1, Compact/clustered/nucleated settlement 2. Semi-compact/Semi-clustered/fragmented settlement 3. Helmeted settlement 4, Dispersed settlement.FACTORS INFLUFNCING THE TYPF OF RURAI NGI SETTLEMENTS * Physical Factors * Ethnic and Cultural Factors + Historical or Defence Factors TYPES OF URBAN SETTLEMENTS Classification based on Population Size * Class Population * Class | 1,00,000 and above * Class I 50,000 — 99,999 * Class III - 20,000 — 49,999 * Class IV - 10,000 - 19,999 * Class V - 5,000 - 9,999 * Class VI - less than 5,000+ There is another classification of urban settlements. * Town Places which have less than one lakh population + City Urban centres having population between one lakh to one * million. * Metropolitan Cities Cities having population in between one million to five million + Mega cities Cities having more than 5 million population NGI Functional Classification of urban places — Sector Industrial Category Promary Actray ‘Calton Agricultural labourers IIL Live stock, forestry, fishing, hunting, plantations orchards and allied activities. v.- Mining and quarrying Manufacturing, processing, servicing and repains (@) household industry () otherthanhousehold industry Construction workers VIL. Trade and commerce ‘VIII Transport, storage and communication IX Other servicesVentilation + Ventilation moves outdoor air into a building or a room, and distributes the air within the building or room. + The general purpose of ventilation in buildings is to provide healthy air for_breathing by both diluting the pollutants originating in the building and removing the pollutants from it. + Building ventilation has three basic elements: + ventilation rate — the amount of outdoor air that is provided into the space, and the quality of the outdoor air; + airflow direction — the overall airflow direction in a building, which should be from clean zones to dirty zones; and -air distribution or airflow pattern — the external air should be delivered to each part of the space in an efficient manner and the airborne pollutants generated in each part of the space should also be an efficient manner.+ Three methods that may be used to ventilate a building * natural, * mechanical and + hybrid (mixed-mode) ventilation. What is natural ventilation? + Natural forces (e.g. winds and thermal buoyancy force due to indoor and outdoor air density differences) drive outdoor air through purpose-built, building envelope openings. * Purpose-built openings include windows, doors, solar chimneys, wind towers and trickle ventilators. + This natural ventilation of buildings depends on climate, building design and human behaviour.What is mechanical ventilation? * Mechanical fans drive mechanical ventilation. + Fans can either be installed directly in windows or walls, or installed in air ducts for supplying air into, or exhausting air from, a room. The type of mechanical ventilation used depends on climate. For example, in warm and humid climates, infiltration may need tv be minimized or prevented to reduce interstitial condensation (which occurs when warm, moist air from inside a building penetrates a wall, roof or floor and meets a cold surface). In these cases, a posilive pressure mechanical ventilation system is often used. Conversely, in cold climates, exfiltration needs to be prevented to reduce interstitial condensation, and negative pressure ventilation is used. For a room with locally generated pollutants, such as a bathroom, toilet or kitchen, the negative pressure system is ofien used. SI What is hybrid or mixed-mode ventilation? * Hybrid (mixed-mode) ventilation relies an natural driving forces ta provide the desired (design) flow rate, * It uses mechanical ventilation when the natural ventilation flow rate is too low * When natural ventilation alone is not So ett te a i kU cl lanning) can be installed to increase ventilation rates in-rooms housing patients with airborne Jatection: + However, this simple type of hybrid (mixed-mode) ventilation needs to be used with care. * The fans should be installed where room air can be exhausted directly to the outdoor environment through either a wall or the roof. * The size and number of exhaust fans depends on the targeted ventilation rate, and must be measured and tested before use.Summary of advantages and disadvantages of different types of ventilation systems for hospitals Hybrid (mixed ‘Mechanical ventitation Natural ventation mode) ventilation ‘Adrentages Guta for ll climetea and weather uitable for were and tempesteclimatcs — moderately weful with Svitble fr mort ‘wih airconditioning a climate natural vention posite S0% of the time lamas and weather bette ‘Mote conuolied and comforable Lower capita operational and maintenance cost for sple manual Energy-saving ‘esironment sentation Smaller range of contol of Capable of achieving high ventilation ate Mote exible ‘environment by occupants Large sange of conto ofenvwonment by eccupants Disadvantages Expensive to install and maintin Easily affected by outdoce climate andlor occupunt's behaviour Mayrbe expensive [Reported faire rate in delivering the Mere dificult to predict cnalyse and design May be more dificult required outdoor venation rte to design Potential for noise from cauioment Reduces comfort level of ccwosnts when hot. humid or eld Inability to establish negative pressure in isolation areas, but may be provided by proper design, depends on situation Potential for noise igh ech narual venulaion shares some ofthe Limaations and disadvantages of mechanical vention Mechanical versus natural ventilation for infection NGI control waannna + The decision whether to use mechanical or natural ventilation for infection control should be based on needs, the availability of the resources and the cost of the system to provide the best control to counteract the risks. + For example, in the United Kingdom, the National Health Service policy tends to limit the adoption of mechanical ventilation to the principal medical treatment areas such as airborne infection isolation rooms, operating theatres and associated rooms. * Patient wards are usually not required to be mechanically ventilated and natural ventilation through opening windows is usually the mast common solution and one of the major energy users in hospitals is air treatment.* Primary factors that were associated with the incorrect operation of the airborne infection isolation rooms included: + ventilation systems not balanced (54% of failed rooms) + shared anterooms (14%) + turbulent airflow patterns (11%) * automated control system inaccuracies (10%). Types of natural ventilation * Wind * BuoyancyWind blows through inlet on windward side and comes out from leeward side from openings and roof. An expression for the volume of airflow induced by wind is:- Qwind = K x Ax V, (unit: m*/h) + A= area of smaller opening (m2) * V= outdoor wind speed (m/h) + K = coefficient of effectiveness WIND multiplying air velocity by the cross section area of a duct, you can determine the air volume NGI + Buoyancy occurs when there is difference in temperature of outdoor and indoor air *It can be temperature induced :- eg. Stack ventilation *Or it can be humidity induced :- eg. Cool towerTemperature differences between warm air inside and cool air outside can cause the air in the room to rise and exit at the ceiling or ridge, and enter via lower openings in the wall. NGI Humidity induced: * The cool air is heavy due to its humidity content and drops down to the indoor area . * It can be achieved properly with a cool tower or wind catcher * Cool tower ventilation is only effective where outdoor humidity is very lowDIFFERENT TECHNIQUES TO ACHIEVE NATURAL VENTILATION:- * Stack effect — * Wind tower * Courtyard effect Stack effect * Stack effect depends on thermal SEES NENT STREET forces and difference in temperature x a * Reason of stack effect :- dl p= + *Pressure difference between the PAL EOOMS, TALE ROOMS ATEDGE outside air and the air inside the “oN building caused by difference in re Z, temperature Outdoor air Outdoor ¢ tt air Section ‘TALL ROOMS WITHIN STAIRS AS STACKSTACK EFFECT work well in winter Higher the cross section area greater the stack effect Stack pressure can be calculated from:- Ps = 0.0042 x h x AT Ps -stack pressure in N/M? h- height of the stack in m AT -temperature difference in deg C Principles of Air Movement Red arrows= heated air Blue arrows Air in & out T Replacement of air takes place in the Home between warm and cold airWind tower enters in wind tower through openings- cooled down- becomes heavier and sinks down ( presence of air movement) + After whole day air exchange — tower becomes warm in the evening . * Tower walls absorbs heat during daytime and releases warm cool night air at night.Courtyard Effect * Due to incident solar radiation in a courtyard, air gets warmer and rises cool air from ground level flows through the lower openings radiation to sky landscape or water body Thermal comfort “the condition of mind that expresses satisfaction with the thermal environment” Gives rise to two notions — a. Physiological b. Physio-psychological Comfort «Temperature +Air-quality “NoiseNOISE NGI Preverrs + Noise is just as vital as temperature and air quality when it comes to occupant comfort. So what produces noise and how is it transmitted? + When we think of comfort factors in buildings, we tend to think of heating, ventilation, and air- conditioning systems. * But comfort also depends on the building's acoustic qualities, and any noise that is generated internally or allowed to intrude from outside. + Noise can have a range of adverse effects on building occupants. * It can lead to anything from mild annoyance, to loss of concentration and sleep disturbance. + Legislation and design standards for buildings are constantly changing, as is the equipment installed within them. + New building designs come with their own advantages and disadvantages for various comfort factors + The way noise propagates through a space will change with the design of that space. + Trends in building design therefore lead so new acoustic challenges that need to be understood and overcome. Typical paths of noise transmission for an air-conditioning unit installed in a plant roomNoise transmission * Noise produced by a product will be transmitted through the air is is termed airborne noise. + Vibration transmitted through structures, and which may be radiated as noise by connected components, is called structure-borne noise. + Airborne noise can be transmitted through a ceiling, causing disturbance to the occupants of the offices above. * The air-conditioning unit may be supplying air to the offices and therefore airborne noise could propagate through the ductwork and into the offices. + Noise transmitted through duct systems is a common reason for crosstalk between meeting rooms, where the conversation from one room can be heard in the other. + The air-conditioning unit can also cause structure-borne_noise, as shown by the green arrows. How can noise be controlled? NGI JUNA * Noise from HVAC can be controlled by either minimising the noise at source or minimising the noise transmitted. * Reducing noise transmission can be achieved by placing silencers in ductwork, by using acoustic louvres _and_ani mounts, and by examining the building construction to identifv_rel hips between sources of ne and occupied zone: * Minimising noise at source can be achieved through product development. For example, if an air-conditioning unit has a particulary noisy compressor, this could be examined in an attempt to make it quieter * Acoustic product_is_very beneficial, as minimising the noise produced will it be reduce the amount of noise mitigation that might be needed after the product is installed.Indoor Air Quality (IAQ) * Indoor Air Quality (IAQ) refers to the air quality within and around buildings and structures, especially as it relates to the health and comfort of building occupants. + IAQ refers to the quality of the air inside buildings as represented by concentrations of pollutants and thermal conditions that affect the health and performance of Occupants. * Tt refers to the nature/ quality of the conditioned (heat/cool) air that circulates throughout closed space/ area, where we work and live and breath the air. Primary Causes of Indoor Air Problems + Indoor pollution sources that release gases ur particles into the air ave the primary cause of indoor air quality problems. * Inadequate ventilation can increase indoor pollutant levels by not bringing in enough outdoor air to dilute emissions from indoor sources and by not carrying indoor air pollutants out of the area. * High temperature and humidity levels can also increase concentrations of some pollutants.Pollutant Sources * There are many sources of indoor air pollution. These can include: + Fuel-burning combustion appliances + Tobacco products * Building materials and furnishings as diverse as: + Deteriorated asbestos-containing insulation + Newly installed flooring or carpet + Cabinetry or furniture made of certain pressed wood products Pollutant Sources NAGAR * Products for household cleaning and maintenance, personal care, or hobbies = * Central heating and cooling systems and humidification devices + Excess moisture * Outdoor sources such as: * Radon + Pesticides * Outdoor air pollution.Techniques for improving indoor air quality Know Your Enemy The first step towards improving air quality is understanding what makes for poor air quality. These will be the parameters you measure and look to continuously reduce, including: + Particulate matter _- air pollution that can be present both in and outdoors due to smog, cooking, and cigarette smoke + Volatile organic compounds - chemicals emitted by everyday items such as building material, cleaning products and furniture + High carbon dioxide levels in crowded and poorly ventilated spaces * Mould forming due to humidity and plumbing issues * Radon, and dust mites Measure Continuously, Not Sporadically * You need to view indoor air quality as an on-going process rather than a one-off project with a predefined start and end date. * The state of your IAQ can depend on many factors that change over time - from poorly maintained HVAC filters to changes in occupancy rates to worsening outdoor air quality.Ventilation and demand-controlled ventilation (DCV): Ventilation is the process of bringing fresh air from the outside into the building. It’s critical for maintaining indoor air quality, as well as ensuring the air doesn’t feel stuffy and overbearing. Since many contemporary office buildings don’t really allow for opening windows, and because air typically needs to be heated, cooled, or dehumidified, offices are often ventilated using HVAC systems. Tip: Implementing demand-controlled ventilation (DCV) will allow to reduce energy waste by adapting to occupancy levels in real-time and adjusting HVAC performance accordingly. NGI JUNA Maintain Your HVAC Systems and Air Filters Air filters in HVAC systems are first line of defence against pollutants, chemicals, and harmful particles. These accumulate dust and become less effective over time, so you need to ensure they’re regularly maintained and cleaned. Take Outdoor Air Quality Into Account By implementing air quality monitors both indoors and outdoors, they could control filtration and ventilation to ensure the building was only drawing in fresh air during periods of low pollution.NGI Keep Clean Nobody wants to work in a grimy, dirty office, so this really shouldn’t warrant any further explanation; but need another good reason to make sure office is being cleaned properly, cleaning reduces the levels of mould, dust, allergens and contaminants, which will improve air quality. Control Pollution Sources ‘The very first recommendation that the EPA provides for improving indoor air quality is to eliminate or reduce emissions from common indoor pollution sources. This can be as simple as adjusting gas stoves, properly storing cleaning agents and disinfectants, or sectioning off office equipment such as printers and photocopiers. Go VOC-free Building materials and furnishings can also worsen indoor air quality. This isn’t always an easy fix, but you should strive to use green and sustainable materials, and avoid known VOC emitters such as formaldehyde. Greener materials with low or no-VOC versions of paints, coatings, and wood treatments.UV Lights and Air Purifiers Ultraviolet lights and air purifiers can help remove mould and mildew - with purifiers installed inside the ductwork to target the bacteria that can form there and prevent it from contaminating the air inside the office, and lights used to prevent mould from forming in the first place.