GROUND IMPROVEMENT TECHNIQUE

BY STONE COLUMN & PRESSURE GROUTING

ST4111 – TECHNICAL SEMINAR REPORT

Submitted by

M. YOHINI
Register Number : 952324413009

In partial fulfilment for the award of the degree of

MASTER OF ENGINEERING
IN
STRUCTURAL ENGINEERING

PSN ENGINEERING COLLEGE

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

ANNA UNIVERSITY :: 600 025

MAY 2024
 BONAFIDE CERTIFICATE

Certified that this project report “GROUND IMPROVEMENT TECHNIQUE BY

STONE COLUMN” is the bonafide work of “M. YOHINI (952324413009)” who
carried out the project undermy supervision. Certified Further that to the test of my
knowledge , the work reported here in does not form part of any other thesis or
sertation on the basis of which in degree or an award as conferred on an earlier
occasion on this or any other candidate.

SIGNATURE SUPERVISOR

Mrs. S.MISPA BROWN M.E., Ms. A. ABISHA M.E,

HEAD OF THE DEPARTMENT ASSISTANT PROFESSOR

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

PSN ENGINEERING COLLEGE PSN ENGINEERING COLLEGE

MELATHEDIYOOR MELATHEDIYOOR
TIRUNELVELI TIRUNELVELI

Submitted for the Technical Seminar Viva-Voce held at PSN Engineering College,

Melathediyoor on

INTERNAL EXAMINER EXTERNAL EXAMINER

 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I express my earned gratitude to our Honourable Chairman, Dr. P. SUYAMBU Ph.D.,

PSN Group of Institutions. I am very much indebted to Principal Dr. M.S.RAVIKUMAR
Ph.D.,
PSN Engineering College, Melathediyoor, Tirunelveli.

I would like to thank and express my gratitude to our Vice-Principal Dr.N.PRABHU, M.E.,
Ph.D., PSN Engineering College, Melathediyoor, Tirunelveli for providing me the kindly
Advice

I express my sincere thanks to Mrs. S. MISPA BROWN M.E., Assistant Professor &
Head of the Department, Department of Civil Engineering, PSN Engineering College,
Melathediyoor, Tirunelveli for allowing me to use the facilities in the college

I record my sincere thanks to Mrs. A. ABISHA M.E., Assistant Professor , Department of

Civil Engineering, PSN Engineering College, Melathediyoor, Tirunelveli for her
Encouragement and Valuable Guidance

I extend my heartfelt tanks to all my Staff Members and friends those who are contributed
moral support and encouragement to do this work, I also thank all those who have directly
or indirectly helped for the successful completion of this practical training.

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 Table of Contents

1. Introduction

1.1. Background

1.2. Ground Improvement Techniques

1.3. Scope and Objectives

2. Stone Column Technique

2.1. Concept and History

2.2. Mechanism of Stone Columns

2.3. Types of Stone Columns

2.4. Stone Column Installation Process

2.5. Applications of Stone Columns

2.6. Design Considerations

2.7. Advantages and Limitations

2.8. Case Studies

3. Pressure Grouting Technique

3.1. Concept and History

3.2. Mechanism of Pressure Grouting

3.3. Types of Grouting Materials

3.4. Grouting Process

3.5. Applications of Pressure Grouting

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 3.6. Design Considerations

3.7. Advantages and Limitations

3.8. Case Studies

4. Comparative Analysis of Stone Column and Pressure Grouting

4.1. Suitability for Different Soil Types

4.2. Cost-Effectiveness

4.3. Environmental Impact

4.4. Performance and Durability

5. Future Trends and Innovations

5.1. Technological Advances in Stone Columns

5.2. Innovations in Grouting Materials and Techniques

5.3. Sustainable Practices in Ground Improvement

6. Conclusion

6.1. Summary of Findings

6.2. Recommendations

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 1. Introduction

1.1 Background

Ground improvement techniques are essential in civil engineering to increase the load-

bearing capacity and reduce settlement in weak or compressible soils. This report explores

two common ground improvement methods: Stone Columns and Pressure Grouting.

Both techniques enhance the strength and stability of soil, making them ideal for

foundation support, road stabilization, and various other civil engineering applications.

1.2 Ground Improvement Techniques

Ground improvement involves methods that improve the physical properties of soil,

including its strength, stability, and load-bearing capacity. Stone column and pressure

grouting are two of the most widely used techniques. While stone columns are used for

soil densification and improved drainage, pressure grouting is employed to fill voids in

soil, stabilize loose sands, and improve soil structure.

1.3 Scope and Objectives

This report provides a detailed technical analysis of stone column and pressure grouting

techniques, including their mechanisms, installation processes, applications, advantages,

limitations, and case studies. Additionally, it offers a comparative analysis of both

techniques and discusses emerging trends in ground improvement.

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 2. Stone Column Technique

2.1 Concept and History

The stone column technique, also known as vibro-replacement, involves the insertion of

columns of compacted granular material (such as crushed stone or gravel) into soft or

weak soils. The technique has been in use since the early 20th century and gained

popularity due to its ability to increase soil strength, reduce settlement, and enhance

drainage properties.

2.2 Mechanism of Stone Columns

Stone columns improve the soil’s load-bearing capacity by replacing weak soil with high-

strength granular materials. The columns distribute the load applied to the ground over a

wider area, reducing settlement and preventing failure. Additionally, the technique

improves the drainage characteristics of the soil, allowing for quicker consolidation.

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2.3 Types of Stone Columns

• Vibro-Replacement Stone Columns: The most common type, involving the

replacement of soft soil with granular material using a vibroflotation technique.

• Vibro-Displacement Stone Columns: Displace soil to form a stone column, used

primarily in granular soils.

• Bored Stone Columns: Suitable for areas with high groundwater levels where

vibro-replacement may not be feasible.

2.4 Stone Column Installation Process

The installation of stone columns typically follows the following steps:

1. Site Preparation: Before installing stone columns, comprehensive site

investigations are required to gather essential data on the soil characteristics and
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 groundwater conditions. This helps in determining the design parameters for stone

column installation.

2. Soil Investigation:

• Boreholes or test pits are drilled at strategic locations to determine soil composition,

strength, and depth of soft or weak layers.

• Laboratory testing is carried out on soil samples to determine parameters like shear

strength, soil stiffness, permeability, and consolidation characteristics.

• Groundwater table levels are also measured to assess potential installation

challenges.

3. Vibroflotation: A vibrating probe is used to displace the soil and create space for

the stone to be inserted.

4. Stone Insertion: The probe is withdrawn, and stone or gravel is added to form the

column.

5. Compaction: The material is compacted using vibrations, increasing the density

and strength of the surrounding soil.

The installation of stone columns involves a series of mechanical processes designed to

create compacted columns of stone within the soil. The general installation process

consists of the following steps:

• Vibroflotation Equipment:

o A vibroflotation probe, which is a large, heavy-duty steel tube with a

vibrator, is inserted into the ground. The vibrator produces intense vertical
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 vibrations to displace the surrounding soil while creating a cavity into which

granular material (usually crushed stone) will be placed.

• Vibrating Probe Insertion:

o The vibroflotation probe is lowered to the required depth in the soil, where

the vibrations cause soil particles to rearrange and compact. The compaction

process increases the soil’s shear strength and density.

• Stone Insertion:

o Once the probe reaches the required depth, it is withdrawn, and crushed

stone or gravel is introduced into the created cavity. The vibrator is

reinserted to compact the stone as it fills the cavity, forming a stone column.

• Compaction:

o The granular material is compacted through further vibration, ensuring that

the stone column is dense and stable. This process is repeated at various

intervals to create a network of stone columns within the soil.

Column Formation and Testing

• Column Quality Control:

o Once the stone columns are formed, their quality is checked using

geotechnical methods such as sound testing or penetration tests to ensure

uniformity and strength.

o In some cases, the columns may be tested by applying a test load to verify

that they meet the design requirements for settlement reduction and load

distribution.

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 • Final Compaction and Finishing:

o After the column installation, the area is compacted further to ensure uniform

load distribution across all columns. The surface level is adjusted and leveled

to match the surrounding terrain.

2.3 Site Monitoring and Final Inspection

• During and after installation, the site undergoes thorough monitoring. Vibration

levels, column depth, and material density are all checked.

• Regular site inspections and post-installation tests ensure the effectiveness of the

stone columns in improving soil stability.

2.5 Applications of Stone Columns

Stone columns are used in a variety of applications, including:

• Foundation Support for Buildings: Used for structures on soft, compressible soils.

• Road and Embankment Stabilization: Stabilizing roads, embankments, and other

infrastructure in weak soils.

• Seismic Liquefaction Mitigation: Stone columns are used to reduce the risk of

liquefaction in earthquake-prone areas.

• Landslide Stabilization: Used for reinforcing slopes and preventing landslides.

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2.6 Design Considerations

Design considerations for stone columns include:

• Soil Investigation: Geotechnical site investigations to determine soil type and

groundwater conditions.

• Column Spacing and Diameter: Typically spaced between 2 to 4 meters, with

diameters depending on the load-bearing capacity required.

• Depth: Stone columns can be installed to depths of up to 20 meters.

2.7 Advantages and Limitations

Advantages:

• Increases load-bearing capacity.

• Reduces settlement and accelerates consolidation.

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 • Cost-effective compared to deep foundation methods.

• Minimal disruption to the surrounding environment.

Limitations:

• Not effective in highly cohesive soils.

• Performance can be affected by high groundwater levels.

• Higher initial costs for deep installations.

2.8 Case Studies

1. High-Rise Building Foundations: Stone columns used for a skyscraper foundation

in soft clay, resulting in reduced settlement.

2. Seismic Improvement: Stone columns used in coastal areas to reduce liquefaction

risks during seismic events.

3. Pressure Grouting Technique

3.1 Concept and History

Pressure grouting involves injecting a grout material under high pressure into the ground

to fill voids, improve soil cohesion, and increase the soil's overall strength. The technique

has been used for several decades, especially in areas with loose or granular soils, to

stabilize foundations and prevent soil settlement.

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3.2 Mechanism of Pressure Grouting

Pressure grouting works by injecting grout materials, typically a mixture of cement, water,

and sometimes additives, into the soil. The grout fills voids and fractures, increasing the

strength and density of the surrounding soil. This process can also reduce permeability,

prevent soil erosion, and improve the soil's shear strength.

3.3 Types of Grouting Materials

• Cementitious Grout: Most common, used for soil stabilization and consolidation.

• Chemical Grout: Used for specialized applications, such as soil waterproofing or

corrosion protection.

• Polymer Grout: Used in cases where more flexibility is required in the soil.

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3.4 Grouting Process

Site Assessment and Preliminary Studies

Before implementing pressure grouting, a detailed soil assessment is crucial to understand

the soil properties and decide the appropriate grouting material and injection process.

• Soil Investigation:

o Similar to stone columns, boreholes are drilled to gather data about soil type,

strength, and permeability. These results help determine the need for grouting

and select the right grout material (cement-based, chemical, or polymer).

• Determination of Injection Points:

o Based on the soil investigation results, engineers identify the locations where

grout injection is most effective. This includes areas with loose sands,

cavities, or weak strata that need to be filled or reinforced.

• Grout Selection:

o Depending on the soil type and the required strength, various grout materials

can be selected. Common materials include cement-based grouts for

consolidating granular soils and chemical grouts for reducing permeability in

cohesive soils.

Drilling and Injection Point Preparation

• Borehole Drilling:

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 o Boreholes are drilled at predefined locations based on the design, which

correspond to areas that need stabilization or filling. These holes range in

depth depending on the soil layer and the intended depth of grout injection.

o The drill hole diameter is typically small (10-20 cm) to minimize soil

disturbance and ensure precise grout placement.

• Placement of Injection Pipes:

o Injection pipes or tubes are installed at the drilling site. These pipes are

connected to a grouting machine that will pump grout into the soil at high

pressure.

Grout Injection

• Injection Procedure:

o Pressure Grouting Equipment: Grout is injected under controlled pressure

into the soil through the injection pipes. The pressure level is determined by

the soil type and the grout material.

o The grout fills voids, fissures, and cracks in the soil, which helps in

improving soil cohesion, reducing permeability, and reinforcing weak soil

zones.

• Continuous Monitoring:

o During injection, the pressure and volume of grout being injected are

carefully monitored to ensure uniform distribution. Sensors and gauges are

used to measure pressure levels and detect any unexpected variations in flow

rates.

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 • Layer-by-Layer Injection:

o In some cases, grout injection is done in multiple layers, especially in deeper

soil layers. This allows for more effective penetration and filling of voids and

fractures.

Curing and Hardening

• Curing:

o After grout injection, the material is left to harden and cure. This process can

take a few hours to several days, depending on the grout material used and

environmental conditions.

o For cementitious grouts, curing is essential to achieve the desired strength

and bonding within the soil.

• Post-Injection Testing:

o After curing, the effectiveness of the grouting is tested using penetration tests

or core sampling. These tests determine whether the grout has sufficiently

filled voids and improved the soil strength.

Monitoring and Quality Assurance

• Quality Control:

o Regular checks are performed to ensure the grout is evenly distributed, and

no blockages or inconsistencies have occurred. A grout flow test can be

conducted to verify the uniformity of the grout mixture.

• Final Inspection:

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 o Once the grouting process is complete and the material has cured, engineers

conduct post-injection tests to ensure that the soil improvement goals

(settlement reduction, reinforcement, etc.) have been achieved.

Environmental Considerations

• Grout Material Environmental Impact:

o The environmental impact of pressure grouting depends largely on the grout

material used. Cement-based grouts can contribute to environmental

pollution if not managed properly, while chemical grouts may pose risks to

groundwater contamination if improperly handled.

• Sustainability:

o New technologies are emerging to develop more eco-friendly grouts, such as

geopolymer-based or recycled grout materials, which aim to reduce

environmental impact and increase the sustainability of pressure grouting.

3.5 Applications of Pressure Grouting

Pressure grouting is used in:

• Foundation Stabilization: For buildings, bridges, and dams.

• Void Filling: In areas with cavities, such as sinkholes or abandoned mines.

• Waterproofing and Erosion Control: To reduce water infiltration and improve

soil structure.

• Soil Strengthening: To prevent liquefaction and improve the load-bearing capacity.

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3.6 Design Considerations

Design considerations for pressure grouting include:

• Soil Type: Different grouting materials are used based on soil composition (e.g.,

cement for granular soils, chemical grouts for cohesive soils).

• Injection Pressure: Adjusted based on soil conditions and grout material used.

• Grout Volume: Determined by the size of the voids and required soil improvement.

3.7 Advantages and Limitations

Advantages:

• Effective for improving loose or granular soils.

• Provides immediate results and reduces settlement.

• Versatile in application, can be used for various soil types.

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Limitations:

• Limited to specific soil types (less effective in cohesive or very dense soils).

• Potential issues with grout flow and uneven distribution in heterogeneous soils.

3.8 Case Studies

1. Bridge Foundation Stabilization: Pressure grouting used to stabilize the

foundation of a bridge over loose sandy soils, preventing differential settlement.

2. Sinkhole Repair: Grouting used to fill and stabilize a sinkhole in a residential area,

ensuring structural safety.

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 4. Comparative Analysis of Stone Column and Pressure

Grouting

4.1 Suitability for Different Soil Types

• Stone Columns: More suitable for granular soils or soft clays with moderate depth.

• Pressure Grouting: Effective in loose sands, fractured rocks, and areas with voids.

4.2 Cost-Effectiveness

• Stone Columns: More economical for large-scale projects with deep foundations.

• Pressure Grouting: More cost-effective for localized soil stabilization but less so

for large areas.

4.3 Environmental Impact

• Both techniques have relatively minimal environmental impact compared to

traditional excavation, but pressure grouting can introduce chemicals into the

environment, requiring careful material selection.

4.4 Performance and Durability

• Stone Columns: Long-term effectiveness but can be affected by high groundwater

levels.

• Pressure Grouting: Provides immediate stabilization but may require maintenance

if grout material degrades over time.

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 5. Future Trends and Innovations

5.1 Technological Advances in Stone Columns

• Use of recycled aggregates for sustainability.

• Automated vibroflotation techniques for faster installation.

5.2 Innovations in Grouting Materials and Techniques

• Geopolymer grouts as sustainable alternatives.

• Smart grouts that respond to changes in pressure and temperature.

5.3 Sustainable Practices in Ground Improvement

• Focus on reducing environmental impact, using low-carbon materials and eco-

friendly equipment.

6. Conclusion

6.1 Summary of Findings

Stone columns and pressure grouting are both effective ground improvement techniques,

each with its strengths and limitations. Stone columns are ideal for large-scale

infrastructure projects, while pressure grouting excels in localized soil stabilization.

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6.2 Recommendations

For large construction projects on soft or weak soils, stone columns are generally

recommended. Pressure grouting should be considered for smaller-scale soil

improvements or areas with significant voids.

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