Science and Technology Class 01

Lecture Plan
Space Programme
➢ Basics of the space.
➢ Different types of Rocket Systems.
➢ Satellite System.

Energy Resources
➢ India has a wide variety of energy resources.
➢ Renewable Energy resources and non-renewable energy resources.
➢ Wind Energy, Solar, Biomass, biofuel, biogas, geothermal, OTEC, wave/tide, and hydrogen are
examples of renewable energy.
➢ Fossil fuel, nuclear energy, etc. are examples of non-renewable energy.

Defence
➢ Missiles system.
➢ Submarine System.
➢ Aircraft carrier ships.
➢ Drones.
➢ Light Weight Aircraft technology.

Information and Communication Technology

➢ Biometrics.
➢ Internet.
➢ Digital India Programme.
➢ Government of India Apps: UMANG, BHIM, Bharat QR Code, digital lockers.

Smart Industries
➢ Big Data
➢ 3D Printing
➢ Immersion Technology: Augmented reality, Virtual Reality, MR, Metaverse
➢ Block Chains
➢ Quantum Technology
➢ Semi-Conductors

Bio-Technology
➢ Ancient Bio-Technology
➢ Medieval Biotechnology
➢ Modern Biotechnology: red, white, green, grey, and blue biotechnology.
➢ Tools: PCR, Cloning, DNA fingerprinting, Genome sequencing, Genetic engineering (gene therapy,
rDNA technology, genome editing).
➢ Applications (Stem cells, vaccines, GMO, fortification, etc).

Nano Technology

Intellectual Property Rights

SPACE [Diagram from lecture]
➢ It is divided into Inner Space and outer space.
➢ Earth is a Geoid Shape.
➢ Karman Line: At 100 Km outer space starts.

Outer Space
➢ Dark Energy (68%) as well dark matter (27%).
➢ 5% of planets, Asteroids, stars, suns, stars, suns, solar system, galaxy.
➢ Responsive Force: Anti-Gravity
➢ Gravity Matter: Cosmic Cement

Dark Energy Dark matter

It accounts for 68% of the universe It accounts for 27% of the universe
Responsive Force: Anti-Gravity Gravity Matter: Cosmic Cement

(Dictation)
➢ Outer space is an invisible part and it is a constituent of dark matter and dark energy.
➢ The visible part of the universe constitutes 5% of the universe.
➢ We see it as a result of the various interaction among the fundamental forces acting upon the
particularly:
1. Strong nuclear force
2. Weak nuclear force
3. Electromagnetic force
4. Gravitational force

➢ Among all the above four basic natural forces weakest and long ranged force is the gravitational
force.

➢ Because of the extreme weakness of gravitational force, it is less understood.

➢ Hence, we are unable to detect any particle which interacts with it.
➢ This is one of the reasons why we are unable to understand dark matter and dark energy.

➢ Dar energy and dark matter are invisible. Hence, we have less information regarding it.
➢ USA, China and European Union have launched the following projects for the first time in the
world to explore the information regarding to the weak interactive massive particles (Dark
matters).
➢ These projects are Lux-Zeplin of the USA, Pandax-XT of China, and Xenon-IT of the European
Union.
➢ The majority of the space is invisible because it does not reflect light, emit light, and does not
produce light naturally.
➢ Dark matters are unknown.
Utilization of Space
Communication Remote sensing Navigation
Satellite/Rockets Satellite/Rockets Rockets/Satellite
Mobile Drones
Radio Parachute balloons
Broadcasting Aviation
Helicopter
Satellites
Rockets

➢ How space is utilized for a common man?

Exploration of the space

➢ Searching for Carbon dioxide (CO2) and water (H2O).
➢ Basic energy production methods:
1. Photosynthesis
2. Respiration
3. Combustion

➢ Photosynthesis takes place in plants

➢ Respiration takes place in both animals and plants.
➢ Combustion takes place in non-living substances
➢ 6CO2 + 12H2O-------------------C6H12o6 + 6O2 (In presence of sunlight)

Exploration of space
➢ Searching for CO2 & H2O’Searching for Alien life.
➢ Earth Like planet/Goldilock Zone/Habitable zone.
➢ Exploring Black Hole/Worm Hole.
➢ Gravitational Wave.
➢ Neutrinos.
➢ Information regarding to different cosmic sources.
➢ Difference between Satellite and Space Missions.

Tools
➢ Rockets and Launch vehicle are required.
➢ Telescope based on ground and space.
➢ International space centres.
➢ Deep space network
➢ Research and development are required.
➢ Astronauts training centres.
➢ Space-based data centres.
Space Programme in India
Background
➢ Handout will be provided for the topic.
➢ The space programme in India started in 1966.
➢ Japan's Olympic Games took place in 1960.
➢ It was live telecasted by Syncom-3 satellite of USA.
➢ It was attended by Vikram Sarabhai from India.
➢ He visualizes the benefits of the space programme and he started the space programme in India
in a small fishing village in Kerala named Thumba.
➢ Thus, Thumba is known as the mecca of the Indian space programme in 1962.
➢ Later it is named the ISRO in 1968.
➢ Department of Atomic energy was established in 1954
➢ Department of space was established later.
➢ Indian National Committee for space research.

Black Hole
➢ The star takes birth in form of a stellar nebula and further grows due to the fusion in the big state.
➢ It further results in the Red Giant. Further fuel exhausts and results in a supernova explosion.
➢ If the mass of the star will be 3 times or more than the mass of the sun, then it results in the
formation of a black hole. This limit is known as the Chandrashekhar limit.
➢ Based on the size, the black holes are divided into:
1. Atom-size black holes.
2. Stellar Black Holes.
3. Supermassive black holes.

➢ Black holes are the highest gravitational centres.

➢ From this black hole, not even a light can scope.
➢ According to the scientific hypothesis, black holes attract cosmic dust and it results in the
formation of asteroids as well as the planets.
➢ At the centre of the Black holes, the mass becomes infinite.
➢ Black holes that are nearer to our solar system are:
1. Gaia BH1.
2. Sagittarius.

➢ The famous cosmologist Stephen Hawking has said that certain radiation particles are emitting
from Black Hole and termed them as Hawking radiation.
Gravitational Waves
➢ It is a ripple in space fabrics.
➢ It was discovered by LIGO (Laser Interferometer Gravitational-Wave observatory).
➢ India has proposed a project for research in Gravitational Waves and it is named INDIGO (Indian
Laser Interferometer Gravitational-Wave observatory).

(Dictation)
➢ Sources of Gravitational Waves are:
1. Orbiting of two Black Holes in each other.
2. Supernova Explosions.
3. The collision of huge celestial bodies.

➢ We can produce gravitational waves on the earth also but these Gravitational Waves on the Earth
are very weak to detect.
➢ The basic principle behind the identification of Gravitational waves is the interference of light.
➢ When the Gravitational Waves interfere with the laser light of the LIGO experiment then there will
be a change in the length of the laser.
➢ With Indian mathematical expressions or equations, we can predict whether a particular cosmic
wave is a gravitational wave or not.
➢ Neutron Stars Collision also produces gravitational waves.

Neutrinos
➢ They are the second largest fundamental particles in our universe after photons.
➢ These neutrinos are impossible to detect because they never interact with other substances as
they do not have any charge.

Neutrinos have the following characteristic features

➢ They are mass particles.
➢ They are chargeless particles.
➢ The major source of neutrinos are the sun, stars, and supernova explosions.
➢ On Earth, they are produced from nuclear power plants as well as from laboratories (Particle
accelerators).
➢ According to recent discoveries, scientists have identified that neutrinos move from earth to
space as well as from space to earth.
➢ This was proved through NASA’s ANITA known as the Antarctica Impulsive Transient Antenna.

Neutrinos Exist in three forms:

1. Tau Neutrinos (ντ)
2. Electron Neutrinos (νe)
3. Moun Neutrinos (νμ).

➢ India is establishing the world's largest neutrinos laboratory in Tamil Nadu.

International Space Station

➢ International Space Stations are beneficial for the to and fro movement of astronauts.
➢ It is useful for repairing and refuelling of satellites.
➢ Conducting experiments in microgravity conduction and low-pressure conditions.
➢ It helps in understanding microgravity as well its influence on life.
➢ In the future, we can launch rockets and space missions which becomes cheaper.
➢ Space debris can be tracked, collected, and will be re-utilized.
What are the benefits and applications of neutrinos?
➢ They are ghost particles; hence they travel across the universe.
➢ They are useful for knowing deeper insights of space.
➢ They can help in understanding the origin of the universe.
➢ Constituents of the universe can be known.
➢ Probing of the early universe during the time of the big bang.
➢ To understand the property of the Sun.
➢ It can be used for imaging purposes.
➢ Discussion on the UPSC Previous Years Questions.

Higgs Boson/God Particle

➢ Higgs Boson Particles are known as the god particle
➢ Laboratory Large Hadron Collider (LHC) for the big Bang Experiment brought clarity on Higgs
Boson/God Particle.
➢ Through this big bang experiment through the collision of two protons or ions, scientists have
discovered the existence of this god particle.

The topic for the next class discussion: Space will be continued.
Science and Technology Class 02
Clarification on a few concepts discussed in the last class discussion.
➢ At the centre of the black hole, the mass becomes infinite and that area is known as the
singularity.
➢ Gravitational waves are observed due to the interference with the Laser.

Neutrinos
➢ They are charge less.
➢ They travel across the universe like ghosts.
➢ It never interacts with other substances due to its charge-less characteristics.
➢ Because of their mass Neutrinos exist in different types.
➢ Neutrino Laboratory in the Tamil Nadu. It is one of the world's largest Iron calorimeter
laboratories.

(Dictation)
➢ Neutrinos are fundamental particles that are hard to detect but travel across the universe
without any obstacles. Hence, they are known as ghost particles.
➢ Sources of neutrinos are:
1. The sun and stars.
2. Nuclear reactors on the earth.
3. Supernovas.

➢ Characteristic features of these neutrinos are:

1. They have mass.
2. They are of the charge less.
3. Due to the lack of charge neutrinos do not interact with other substances generally.
4. After photons neutrinos are the second largest fundamental particles travel equal to the
speed of light across the universe.

➢ In India, the government is going to establish one of the world’s largest Neutrino laboratory in
the Theni district of Tamil Nadu.
➢ With recent experiments scientists have discovered there is a movement of neutrinos from space
to earth and from earth to space.
➢ It was done through the NASA ANITA experiment.
➢ ANITA means Antarctica Impulsive Transient Antenna.

Large Hadron Collider (LHC)

➢ It is an experimental laboratory.
➢ In this laboratory, the experiment that was done is the Big Bang Experiment.
➢ As a result of this experiment, Peter Higgs discovered God's Particle known as the Higgs Boson
Particle.
➢ In the Large Hadron Collider (LHC) laboratory scientists at the initial stages, they made the
protons travel at light speed in 27 kilometres superconducting magnets tunnel.
➢ When two protons collide with each other results in the production of new particles known as the
God Particles.
➢ Note: Neutrinos and God Particles are generally considered as sub-sub-atomic particles.
➢ Discovering the properties of these two fundamental particles can provide an explanation for the
formation of quarks, leptons, and other atomic particles.
➢ Quarks are made up of protons and neutrons. Leptons include electrons. These two particles
make up all known matter.
Rocket Systems/Launch vehicles in India
Rocket Systems/Launch vehicles in India
TERILS SDSC SHAR Thoothkudi
Thumba Equatorial Rocket Launch
Satish Dhawan Space Centre Small satellite Launch Vehicles
Station
Vikram Sarabhai Rocket Launch
Sriharikota High Altitude Range T.N
Station
➢ Almost all the rocket launches station in the world are established nearer to the equator because
gravitational force is minimum at the equator and maximum at the poles and zero at the centre
of the earth.

In India, we are launching rockets from the East coast because of the following benefits:
➢ Any technical failure of the rocket can bring it to the waters.
➢ Earth rotates from west to east; due to this rotation the speed of rotation is very high near the
equator. Hence it gives an initial boost to the rocket during its take-off.
➢ It results in the reduction of launch costs.

Rocket system of India

Historical Operational Futuristic
40 Kg, Satellite Launch Vehicle
Rohini Rocket/Sounding Rocket RLV
(SLV)
Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle Human Rated Launch Vehicles
150 Kg Augmented Satellite LV
(PSLV) (HR LVM III)
GSLV
GSLV MK III
SSLV
➢ All these functions are based on Newton’s Law.
➢ Rockets as well as Missiles of India works based on the principle of Newton’s Laws.

➢ From the first generation of rockets to the current generations of rockets.

➢ There is a consistent increase in payload carrying capacity i.e., from SLV to GSLV.
➢ Hence, we call it as the evolutionary nature of Indian Rocket Systems.PS

Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle (PSLV)

➢ It is used for the remote sensing satellite.
➢ It can be launched in the Lower Earth Orbits/Polar Orbits and Sun Synchronous Orbits.
➢ Payload capacity is 1700 to 1800 Kg.
➢ It is a 4 stages system.
➢ Stage 1 is solid propellant.
➢ Stage 2 is liquid Propellant.
➢ Stage 3 is solid Propellant.
➢ Stage 4-liquid-Fuel propellent.
➢ Vikas engine was used in stage 2 of PSLV.
4 Strap on motors in the initial stage
1. In PSLV-CA, CA means Core Alone.
2. In PSLV DL, DL means 2 strap on engines.
3. In PSLV-QL, QL means 4 strap-on motors.
4. In PSLV-XL, XL means 6 strap-on motors.

➢ Strap-on motors or Booster straps give a boost to the rocket during take-off.
➢ PSLV is known as the workhorse of the ISRO as it is a most reliable vehicle in the world.
➢ Till now in 55 launches of the PSLV, only two failed.
➢ PSLV has the capability to launch multiple satellites into a single orbit.
➢ With PSLV C45 Rocket India launch multiple satellites into multiple orbits.
➢ The failed launches were the PSLV D1 and PSLV C39.

Gravitational Forces
➢ Gravitational force is a non-contact force. It is a long-range and weakest force.

Applications of these gravitational forces are

1. Formation of the planets and solar systems.
2. Life-supporting systems on the earth. (Atmospheric gases)
3. Evolution and sustenance of life on the earth.

➢ PSLV CA core alone version does not have any strap-on motors or booster straps.
➢ PSLV C45 and PSLV C53 rocket's fourth stage were experimentally used as the satellite.
➢ In PSLV C53 the experiment was done in the name of “Poem” which means PSLV orbital
experimental module.

Geo Synchronous Satellite Launch Vehicle (GSLV)

➢ It launches communication satellites into geosynchronous, geo-stationary, and geo-transfer
orbits.

Stage 1
➢ Solid fuel/propellant.
➢ It includes 4 strap-on motors.
➢ 1 Vikas engine was used in each and every strap on motor.

Stage 2
➢ Liquid fuel/propellant-Liquid fuel.
➢ Use of Vikas engine at this stage.

Stage 3
➢ Cryogenic fuel/Gaseous propellant.
➢ It includes Liquid hydrogen and liquid oxygen.
➢ Use Cryogenic Engine (CE-7.5)

➢ In total there are 14 launches of GSLVs have been done.

➢ Out of these 14 launches, 4 were unsuccessful.
➢ For the GSLV the payload capacity is around 2000 Kg.
(Explanation)
➢ The cryogenic engine will be used only in the upper stages or third stage of the GSLV rocket
because it is the stage that is operated in outer space where oxygen availability does not exist.
➢ This cryogenic engine perfectly maintains the velocity of launching satellites into orbit.

GSLV Mk III/LVM III (Launched vehicle Mark III)

➢ Launching of space Mission. Heavy satellite into different orbits.

Stage 1
➢ Liquid fuel is used.
➢ In it “S-200” solid engine 2 strap-on motors are used.
➢ It will use the two Vikas engines.

Stage 2
➢ Solid fuel - S200 engine.

Stage 3
➢ Gaseous Fuel - Cryogenic engine (CE-20).

➢ GSLV MK3 is India's largest heavy-weight launch vehicle.

➢ It has a payload capacity of 4000 kg into geosynchronous orbits and 8000 kg into the lower earth
orbits.
➢ The cryogenic engine will be used only in the 3rd stage of the GSLV rocket because it is the stage
used in outer space where no oxygen exists.
➢ Within the cryogenic engine, both fuel and oxidizer will be used simultaneously.
➢ S200 is a solid booster engine. It is the world's largest solid booster used in the second stage as
well as in booster strap-on motors.
➢ So far, we have launched GSLV Mk III, 5 times. All are successful.

Fuels and Propellant

➢ In rockets, the fuel is a mixture of different chemicals hence it is termed as the fuel propellant.
➢ Generally, these fuels exist in three phases i.e., solid, liquid, and gaseous phase.
➢ Liquid fuels have more thrust compared to solids.
➢ Gaseous fuels have more thrust compared to liquids.
➢ In the Indian rocket system, we started using all these three different phases of fuels in different
stages based on the requirements.

The criteria are

1. The payload capacity of the rocket.
2. Depending upon their rocket weight.
3. Energy requirement in each and every stage.

What is the difference between PSLV and GSLV?

Small Satellite Launch Vehicle
➢ It is developed by New Space India Limited.
➢ To carry multiple payloads such as nano-satellites, mini and micro, and small satellites.

Salient features
➢ It is launched on demand.
➢ It has a lower per kg launch cost.
➢ It has reduced turnaround time.
➢ It has increased production rates from industries.
➢ It has multiple satellite mounting options to carry multiple payloads such as nano-satellites, mini
and micro, and small satellites.
➢ It has the capacity of 6 to 8 launches per year as compared to PSLV and GSLV that has 2 to 4
launch per year.
➢ SSLV has launch capability in 500 Kg in LEO and 300 Kg in the Sun Synchronous orbits.
➢ The velocity trimming module was introduced in the third stage.

Satellite Categories
1. Pico Satellite: Less than 1 kg
2. Nano Satellite: 1 Kg to 10 Kg
3. Micro Satellite: 10 to 100 Kg
4. Mini Satellite: 100 to 500 Kg
5. Medium Satellite: 500 to 1000 Kg
6. Large/Macro Satellite: More than 1000 Kg.

The topic for the next class discussion: Rohini Rockets and Sounding Rockets.
Science and Technology Class 03
Rohini Rocket/Sounding Rocket
➢ For the technology demonstration purpose, we use this rocket.
➢ It is also used for research purposes.
➢ Aeronomy means the study of the upper atmosphere.

Vehicles RH200 RH 300 Mk II RH-560-Mk II

Payload (In Kg) 10 60 100
Altitude (in Km) 80 160 470
Purpose Meteorology Aeronomy Aeronomy
Launch Pad Thumba Balasore SDSC-SHAR SDSC-SHAR

➢ The sounding rockets are also known as the Rohini Rockets.

➢ These are one or two-stage solid propellant rockets.

➢ The primary objective of this rocket is:

1. Technology demonstration.
2. Testing purpose.
3. Aeronomy Studies.
4. Meteorological studies (Climate Related).

➢ Human Rated LVM III: HLVM3

➢ The main objective of the GAGANYAAN Project is to develop a system to launch three crew
members to an orbit of 400 Km for three days and bring them back safely to the earth.
➢ As part of this mission, Human Rated Launch Vehicle is being developed.
➢ The orbital module of this launch vehicle consists of two parts that are:
1. Crew Module.
2. Service Module.

➢ The Crew module is a habitable space with an Earth-like environment in space for the crew
member.
➢ The Service module provides necessary support to the crew module while in orbit.

Reusable Launch Vehicle

Reusable Launch Vehicle Technology demonstrator benefits
➢ The manufacturing cost of launch vehicles can be reduced.
➢ Satellite launch costs can be reduced.
➢ Cheaper services can be provided to the wider range of the country.
➢ It further enhances the space economy in India as well as in the world.
➢ Space debris can also be reduced.
➢ Launch on-demand facility can be provided.
➢ Through these, we can increase the manufacturing base by focusing on research and
development.
Rocket Engines
Air Breathing/Air Propulsion Engine
Semi-
Vikas Cryogenic Ramjet Scramjet Dual Mode Ramjet
Cryogenic
Engine Engine
Engine Hypersonic Subsonic to supersonic
Supersonic Speed
Speed speed combustion

➢ The speed of the rocket should be 332 meters/second to be efficient.

➢ Scramjet is the upgradation of the Ramjet.
➢ Fuel is a chemical substance that combusts in presence of an oxidizer.
➢ Oxidizers such as oxygen, Dinitrogen tetroxide are used for the combustion of fuel or to
produce a flame.
➢ In current versions of the rockets, 70% of the fuel tank weight is due to the oxidizer.
➢ To reduce this burden in rocket engines, we have developed Air-breathing and Air propulsion
technology i.e., Ramjet, Scramjet, and Dual Mode Ramjet.
➢ In these engines hydrogen will be used as fuel and oxygen will be taken from the atmosphere.

➢ India’s target is to reduce the weight of the rocket by reducing the weight of the engines.
➢ The use of hydrogen as a fuel drastically reduces the weight of the engine because hydrogen is the
lightest element in the periodic table.

➢ These air-breathing technologies such as Ramjet and Scramjet are efficient at supersonic and
hypersonic speeds only but their efficiency drops if the speed is not maintained.

SCRAMJET
➢ Scramjet means supersonic combustion Ramjet.
➢ It is a superior version of the Ramjet engine.
➢ In Scramjet fuel combustion takes place at supersonic speed and the vehicle travels at
hypersonic speed.

Cryogenic and Semi-Cryogenic Engines

➢ The fuel used is Hydrogen. The oxygen is used for the oxidizer.
➢ These two fuel mixtures should be maintained at low temperatures which is known as
the cryogenic temperature and hence the engine is known as the cryogenic engine.
➢ Production, maintenance, and transportation of hydrogen are very difficult and it is a costly
mechanism.
➢ To overcome the above two problems or limitations we started developing a semi-cryogenic
engine under the project name of SCE 200.

Benefits of Semi-Cryogenic Engines

1. Instead of Hydrogen, Highly Refined Kerosene Oil is used. It also includes Liquids Oxygen.
2. Highly refined Kerosene oil also known as ISRO SENE. It is also environmentally friendly.
3. Normal temperature is required for its storage.
4. It requires easy maintenance and operation.
5. It is efficient and similar to the cryogenic engine.
 ➢ Current rocket systems PSLV, GSLV, and GSLV Mk III have the capability of carrying a payload
of just 2 to 4% of total rocket weight.
➢ To enhance the payload efficiency of rockets India has started developing cryogenic engine
technology.
➢ Initially, cryogenic engines were imported from Russia but due to the failure, India has developed
cryogenic engines indigenously at the Liquid Propulsion System Centre.
➢ Immediately, after the success of the cryogenic engine, India was developed as a self-reliant
country in the launching of heavier payloads.
➢ Prior to this for launching heavier payloads of India we were taking the assistance of the France
and USA.

➢ India is planning to use the semi-cryogenic engine in GSLV Mk III's first stage by replacing the
liquid propulsion engine as well as in futuristic vehicles that is unified launch vehicles.

VIKAS Engine
➢ It is named after Vikram Ambala Sarabhai.
➢ It was developed based on the Viking Engine of France.

Satellite Orbits
These orbits are categorised based on
Shape Altitude Synchronous
Circular or elliptical orbits Lower Earth Orbits, (200 to 1200 Km)
Geo-Synchronous
Lagrangian/Lagrange Orbit Medium Earth Orbits, (1200 to 36000 Km)
Sun Synchronous
(Halo Orbit) and Higher Earth Orbits (36000 Km and above)

Lagrangian/Lagrange Orbit (Halo Orbit)

➢ These orbits are 1.5 million Km far away from the earth and situated between the sun and the
earth.
➢ There is a total of 5 points where the gravitational pull of the earth and sun cancel out each other.
➢ India’s Solar Mission (Aditya Mission) is going to use the L1 orbit. Hence it is renamed as the
Aditya L1.

Geo Synchronous
➢ It is classified as:
1. Geostationary
2. Geo Transfer Orbits

➢ Geo-stationary Orbit is a special case of geosynchronous orbit that is circular and the orbit is in
the earth’s equatorial plane. It stays over the same points of the earth’s equator.
➢ All geostationary orbits are geo-synchronous. But all geosynchronous are not geostationary.
➢ Geosynchronous is mainly used for communication purposes.
➢ These orbits are at an altitude of 35786 Km.
➢ It comes under the Higher Earth Orbits.
➢ Satellites in geostationary orbits seem to be fixed at a particular place for an observer from the
earth but actually, it does not. This illusion effect is because of revolution speed of the satellite is
the same as the Earth.
➢ The speed of the satellite and Earth is similar. Hence, we call these orbits geosynchronous.
➢ Satellite in geosynchronous orbits revolves in an elliptical manner. But for an observer from the
earth, it seems to be moving in north and south directions at a fixed point or fixed location.
 ➢ Satellite nearer to earth (Lower Earth Orbits) has more orbital velocity compared to satellite in
Higher Earth Orbit.
➢ Geosynchronous Orbits come under the category of Higher Earth Orbits.
➢ Hence it has less orbital velocity, less fuel combustion, and more life span of satellites (10 to 12
years).
➢ In Higher Earth Orbits Satellites have a larger area of coverage, hence we are launching
communication satellites into the geosynchronous orbits which are of higher altitudes in range.
➢ Thus, it helps in achieving more coverage with fewer satellites.
➢ To make one complete rotation around the earth total time that is required is 23 hours 56
minutes and 4 seconds.

Geo-Transfer Orbit (Explanation)

➢ To attain geosynchronous and geostationary orbit a spacecraft is first launched into a highly
elliptical orbit with an apogee of about 36000 Km.
➢ Perigee can be as less as 400 km. When the spacecraft reaches the apogee, it is given the boost to
inject it into the desired orbit.
➢ These temporary orbits are called the geo-transfer orbit.

Sun Synchronous Orbits

➢ Satellites in sun-synchronous orbits will revolve around the earth according to the time intervals
of the sun. Hence such orbits are known as sun-synchronous orbits.
➢ If a satellite revolves in the north and south direction of the earth following the time interval of
the sun then it is known as the polar sun-synchronous orbit.
➢ Satellites in these orbits revolve around the earth 14 to 15 times per day.
➢ Remote sensing satellites are usually launched into these orbits for better picture quality and for
high resolution of the picture.

Orbital Characteristics Sun Synchronous Satellite Geosynchronous

Altitude 700 to 900 Km Around 36000 Km
Coverage 81°N to 81°S 1/3rd of the Globe
Orbital Period Around 14 Orbits per days 24 Hours
Resolution Fine (182 meter to 1 meter) Coarse (1 Km * 1 Km)
Uses Earth Resource applications Telecommunication and Weather Monitoring.

➢ International Space stations as well as space debris are confined to the lower earth orbits.
➢ In lower earth orbit satellite has more orbital velocity, more fuel consumption, and a shorter life
span.
Satellite System of India
Satellite System of India
Artificial Satellite/Man-Made Satellite
Communication Earth Observatory Navigation Space Mission

Natural Chnadrayaan
Satellites Magalyann
Indian Remote
INSAT IRNSS GAGAN
Sensing Aditiya L1
ASTROSAT

The topic for the next class discussion: Satellite System of India
Science and Technology Class 04
Navigation System
Navigation System

Regional Navigation System Global Navigation System

❖ It works within the territorial limits of a

❖ It works across the world.
particular country.

1. GPS (USA)
1. NAVIC/IRNSS (India) 2. GLONASS (Russia)
2. Quasi-Zenith (Japan) 3. Galileo (European Union)
4. BeiDou (China)

NAVIC/ Indian Regional Navigation Satellite System (IRNSS)

❖ It is popularly known as the NAVIC or GPS of India.
❖ The IRNSS provides two types of services:
1. Civilian services are also known as Standard Positioning Services. It is provided to all
users.
2. Restricted services are also known as Precision Positioning Services. It is an encrypted
service provided to authorized users.

❖ The IRNSS system is expected to provide a position accuracy of better than 20 meters in the
primary services area.

Application of IRNSS
1. Visual and voice navigation for the drivers.
2. Terrestrial navigation aid for hikers and travellers.
3. Terrestrial, Arial, and marine navigation.
4. Vehicle tracking and fleet management.
5. Disaster management: Rescue and search operation during the disaster. It helps controlling
hazards and prevent them from becoming a disaster.
6. Integration with mobile phones.
7. Mapping and Geodetic data capture.
8. Precise Timing.

GAGAN System
(Explanation)
❖ The Indian Space Research Organization (ISRO) and Airport Authority of India (AAI) have
implemented the GPS Aided Geo Augmented Navigation GAGAN project as a Satellite Based
Augmentation System (SBAS) for the Indian Airspace.
❖ The objective of GAGAN to establish, deploy and certify satellite-based augmentation systems for
the safety of life civil aviation applications in India has been successfully completed.
❖ The system is interoperable with other international Satellite Based Augmentation System
(SBAS) like US-WAAS, European EGNOS, Japanese MSAS, etc.
 ❖ GAGAN though primarily meant for aviation, will provide benefits beyond aviation to many other
user segments such as intelligent transportation, maritime, highways, railways, surveying,
geodesy, security agencies, telecom industry, personal users of position location applications,
etc.
❖ GAGAN's Geo footprint extends from Africa to Australia and has expansion capability for
seamless navigation services across the region.
❖ GAGAN provides the additional accuracy, availability, and integrity necessary for all phases of
flight, from en route through approach for all qualified airports within the GAGAN service volume.
❖ GAGAN payload is already operational through GSAT-8 and GSAT-10 satellites.
❖ The third GAGAN payload will be carried onboard the GSAT-15 satellite which is scheduled for
launch this year.

(Dictation)
❖ AAI + ISRO jointly launched Satellite Based Navigation System (SBNS).
❖ GAGAN: GPS Aided Geo Augmented Navigation System.
❖ Satellite Used are GSAT-8, GSAT-10, and GSAT-15.

Services
❖ The service ranges provided are from the region between West Africa to East Australia.

Services
Aviation Services Extended Services
Seamless, Secured, and safety Intelligent Transport
Better Air Trafficking Freight management services
More Aviation Services National Highway Management Services
Reducing Fuel Consumption through Direct Route Forest Management Services
Railway trafficking and management services

❖ These services are interoperable with the EU, USA, and Japan.

Communication Satellites
Communication Satellites

It was started in the Year 1983 by launching INSAT-----------→Indian National Satellite System
INSAT 1B system. G-SAT
CMS

❖ Indian Communication system is the Asia-Pacific largest constellation of the satellite system.
Electromagnetic Spectrum
❖ It is the combination of the electric as well as the magnetic field.
❖ The major source of the electromagnetic spectrum is sunlight.
❖ This electromagnetic spectrum is based on wavelength and frequency.
❖ It is categorized into the following waves.

Used to broadcast radio

Radio Waves
& television
Used in cooking, radar
Non- Ionizing
telephone, and other Micro
Radiation
signals
Transmits heat from sun,
Infrared Rays
fires, radiators
Based on the It has a wavelength
Electromagnetic Wavelength Makes things able to be of 380-750 nm.
Visible
Spectrum and Frequency seen It is detectable by the
human eyes.
Absorbed by skin, used
UV
in fluorescent
Used to view the inside
X-Rays Ionizing Radiation
of bodies and objects
Used in medicine for
Gama Rays
killing cancer cells.

❖ From radio waves to Gama rays’ frequency increases and wavelength decreases.
❖ After the Gama Rays, cosmic rays exist.

Radio Waves
❖ Radio Waves vary from small football size to big planet size.
❖ These radio waves are used for the following communications:
1. Mobile communication
2. Television broadcasting
3. Satellite communications
4. Radio communications

❖ In the electromagnetic spectrum radio waves has a frequency range of 1 kHz to 300 GHz and a
wavelength range of 1 millimetre to 100 Kilometres.
❖ Within this frequency and wavelength, the following applications we are using in day-to-day life.
 Super
Very Low Low Medium High Very Ultra- Extreme
High
Frequency Frequency Frequency Frequency Frequency Frequency Frequency
Frequency
Radio
VHF TV, Satellite/mi
Maritime AM Short wave UHF TV, astronomy,
Navigation FM Radio, crowave
Navigation Maritime radio, radio Cell phones, radar
al Aids Navigation telecommu
Signals Radio telephony GPS landing
al Aids nications
system.
100 Km 10 Km 1 Km 100 meters 10 meters 1 meter 10 Cm 1 Cm
3 kHz 30 kHz 300 kHz 3 MHz 30 MHz 300 MHz 3 GHz 30 GHz
Satellite Frequency
1 2 4 8 12 18 26 Frequency
L S C X Ku K Ka
❖ U means under.
❖ A means above.
❖ X means extended C band.

Frequency Bands
Bands Frequency Range Total Band Width General Application
L 1 to 2 GHz 1 GHz Mobile Satellite Services (MSS)
S 2 to 4 GHz 2 GHz MSS, NASA, deep space research
C 4 to 8 GHz 4 GHz Fixed Satellite Services (FSS)
FSS military, terrestrial earth exploration,
X 8 to 12.5 GHz 4.5 GHz
meteorological satellites.
Ku 12.5 to 18 GHz 5.5 GHz FSS, Broadcast satellite services (BSS)
K 18 to 26.5 GHz 8.5 GHz BSS, FSS
Ka 26.5 to 40 GHz 14.5 GHz FSS

Important Satellites
GSAT-11
❖ India’s first heavy satellite providing communication services in Ka-band.
❖ It supports the digital India programme in the form of Bharat net.
❖ It will provide broadband services in remote and rural areas.
❖ The speed will be around 16 Gbps.
❖ Ka-band was used for the first time.

GSAT-29
❖ It provides communication services in J&K and North East India.

GSAT 3
❖ It is India’s first dedicated satellite for education, telehealth, and telemedicine services.

GSAT 9
❖ Specially dedicated for the SAARC country.
Space Missions
Chandrayaan Mission
❖ India is targeting only the South Polar Region of the Moon because of Chandrayaan I mission we
got evidence that the South pole region of the moon consists of water.
❖ Chandrayaan II consists of orbiter, Lander, and Rover.
❖ The main objective of Chandrayaan II is to collect samples and data of the moon’s crust as well
as the atmospheric conditions.

Aditya L1 Mission
❖ It is India’s first mission to the sun.
❖ We are launching it in the Lagrangian Orbit 1.
❖ It is a collaboration of many physics’ institutes across the world.
❖ It will study the corona layers of the sun.

Parker Solar Probe

❖ NASA's Parker Solar Probe is on a mission to "touch the Sun."
❖ The spacecraft is flying closer to the Sun’s surface than any spacecraft before it.
❖ The mission will revolutionize our understanding of the Sun.
❖ Parker will fly more than seven times closer to the Sun than any spacecraft.
❖ Over seven years, the spacecraft will complete 24 orbits around the Sun.
❖ At its closest approach, the spacecraft will come within about 3.9 million miles (6.2 million
kilometres) of the Sun.

ASTROSAT
❖ It is India’s first astronomical mission.
❖ This ASTROSAT satellite is multi-wavelength and multi-observatory.
❖ Thus, it can visualize the celestial bodies in three frequency regions:
1. Ultra-violate range
2. Visible region
3. X-Rays

❖ The science data gathered by five payloads of ASTROSAT are telemetered to the ground station at
MOX.
❖ The data is then processed, archived and distributed by the Indian Space Science Data Centre
(ISSDC) located at Byalalu, near Bangalore.

The scientific objectives of ASTROSAT's mission are:

1. To understand high energy processes in binary star systems containing neutron stars and black
holes
2. Estimate magnetic fields of neutron stars
3. Study star birth regions and high energy processes in star systems lying beyond our galaxy
4. Detect new briefly bright X-ray sources in the sky
5. Perform a limited deep-field survey of the Universe in the Ultraviolet region

The topic for the next class discussion: Space will be continued
Science and Technology Class 05
Mangalyaan Mission (Mars Orbital Mission (MOM))
(Explanation)
❖ It will be for Mars.
❖ It will orbit at 100 Km from the surface and will collect information regarding Mars.
❖ We want to develop a good understanding regarding the atmosphere of Mars.
❖ The search is also for the habitable zone.
❖ The mission is known as the MoM.
❖ NASA launched the MAVEN mission. The cost was very high for the launch.
❖ Indian mission is a cheaper cost.
❖ Mangalyaan is an orbiter.
❖ It is for the study of the Topographic structure of Mars.

Dictation
❖ It was launched on the Mars planet.
❖ It is an orbiter.
❖ It revolves around Mars planet at an altitude of 100 Km for the collection of data and information
regarding the Martian atmosphere and Martian topography.

Objectives
❖ Study of Martian Atmosphere and Study of Martian Topography.
❖ Under atmosphere, the study will focus on the gaseous constituents.
❖ In topography study, the focus will be on the geographical structure.
❖ This space mission has been planned in three phases:

Phase II Phase II Phase III

Orbiter Orbiter, lander, and Rover AI robot and Humans

Remote Sensing Satellite/Earth Observatory Satellite System

❖ They are useful for the surveying and mapping of resources.
❖ They are launched in the Lower Earth Orbit, Polar Orbit, or the Sun-synchronous Orbit.
❖ These orbits are more effective for high resolution.

Natural resources
❖ Fossil Fuels, Solar Energy, Wind Energy, Water Resources, Forest Resources, Air, Soils, etc.

Tools for remote Sensing

❖ Satellites, Airplanes, Ships/Submarine, Drones, Helicopters, Parachute balloons etc.

❖ Through Radio Detection Range (RADAR).

❖ They collect information and data with respect to the satellites.

❖ Light Detection Range (LIDAR).

❖ LIDAR is used to evaluate and calculate wind potentiality.

❖ Sound Navigation and Range (SONAR) technology.

❖ In Sonar, ultrasonic sounds are used.
 ❖ Hyper Spectral imaging are the methodology for the collection of information from the Radio
waves are used for the collection of data in Radar technology.
❖ Hyper Spectral imaging uses Visible and Infra-Red regions of the electromagnetic range are used.
It is used for higher resolution.

Dictation
❖ Hyper Spectral imaging is an advanced remote sensing technology currently using in India for
the high resolution of surveying and mapping of different resources.
❖ In this hyper Spectral Imaging Payload visible region and infrared region of the Electromagnetic
spectrum will be used simultaneously for enhanced picture quality.
❖ RADAR Technologies are used within the atmosphere.
❖ SONAR technologies are used underwater. (Surveying and mapping of the sea and ocean
resources).
❖ LIDAR Technologies are used for both atmospheric as well as ocean-related studies.

Do You Know
Remote Sensing means without coming into contact with an individual, landscape, as well any topographic
structure information will be collected from time to time.

Application of Remote Sensing Satellites

Remote Sensing in Water resources
1. Interlinking of River system Planning.
2. In the water grid system.
3. Effective and efficient groundwater exploration through bore wells.
4. Watershed management practices.
5. It also helps in estimating the water level in dams and reservoirs.

Remote Sensing in biodiversity

1. It helps in biodiversity distribution studies of species.
2. It helps in preventing man and animal conflicts and also prevents animal trapping.
3. It helps in the mapping of migratory routes of animals and birds.
4. It helps in finding the animal's corridors and their planning.
5. Ecotourism can be promoted by knowing the route of migration.

Remote sensing in Forests

1. It helps in estimating the area of the extent of the forest.
2. The percentage of forest can be known.
3. It also helps in the prediction and control of forest fires.
4. It helps in the protection of endemic plant species such as Red Sanders, mangroves, etc.
5. It helps in finding the carbon sink areas.

Do You Know
❖ The green colour part of the plant consists of chlorophyll pigments and it is useful for
photosynthesis.
❖ Plants are green in colour due to the chlorophyll as well as it reflects green colour as part of visible
reasons.
❖ White colour is made up of the VIBGYOR.
❖ The photosynthetic rate is completely zero in green lights because it will be totally reflected.
❖ Photosynthetic rate is high in the case of red colour.
Remote Sensing Application in Agriculture
1. Types of soils can be known.
2. Better management and planning of crop production. (PM Fasal Bima Yojana)
3. The humidity level in soils. (PM Krishi Sichayi Yojana)
4. Area of the extent of pest infestations.
5. Area of the extent of crop damage.

Remote Sensing Application in Sea and Oceans

1. Based on the chlorophylls we can predict the phytoplankton zone.
2. Alerts to the fishermen by the GEMINI device developed by the collaboration of ISRO and the
Indian National Centre for Ocean Information Services (INCOIS).
3. It also helps in the prediction of the areas of the extent of corals.
4. It also helps in the change of temperature and pressure.

(Dictation)
❖ Potential fishing zones will be estimated based on the chlorophyll content in phytoplankton.
❖ Phytoplankton are primary producers of aquatic ecosystems.
❖ Indian National Centre for Ocean Information Services along with ISRO developed a device
named GEMINI that uses satellite data in providing different services.
❖ GEMINI devices use GAGAN System.

Types of the Remote Sensing Satellites

❖ Earth Observatory Satellite I.

❖ Cartosat series: The Cartosat is a series of Indian optical earth observation satellites focussed on
the Cartography Study.

❖ Oceansat: Oceansat is a series of earth observation satellites dedicated to Oceanography

purposes.
❖ Scatsat: It is the continuation of ocean sat satellites. It is used for oceanographic studies.

❖ Resourcesat: It is useful for the surveying and mapping of resources.

❖ Resat: Radar imaging satellite systems.

Privatization of Space Sector

Organization Chart of the Space Administration
ANTRIX
❖ It looks after the commercial activities of ISRO.
❖ Antrix Corporation Limited, Bengaluru is a wholly owned Government of India Company under
the administrative control of the Department of Space.
❖ Antrix Corporation Limited was incorporated as a private limited company owned by the
Government of India as a marketing arm of ISRO for the promotion and commercial exploitation
of space products, technical consultancy services, and transfer of technologies developed by
ISRO.
❖ Another major objective is to facilitate the development of space-related industrial capabilities in
India.
❖ Antrix provides end-to-end solutions for many space products.
❖ Ranging from supply of hardware and software including simple subsystems to a complex
spacecraft.
❖ Transponder lease services.
❖ Launch services through the operational launch Vehicles (PSLV and GSLV)
❖ Mission support services.

New Space India Limited (NSIL)

❖ It looks after the manufacturing activities of space programmes such as rocket and satellites
spare parts.

The major business areas of NSIL include

❖ Production of Polar Satellite Launch Vehicles (PSLV) and Small Satellite Launch Vehicles (SSLV)
through the industry.
❖ Production and marketing of space-based services including launch services and space-based
applications like transponders leasing, remote sensing, and mission support services.
❖ Building of Satellites (both Communication and Earth Observation) as per user requirements.
❖ Transfer of Technology developed by ISRO centers, units, and constituent institutions of the
Department of Space.
❖ Consultancy Services.

Indian National Space Promotion and Authorization centre (INSPACe)

❖ It looks after the privatization of the space programme.
❖ IN-SPACe will have a chairman, technical experts for space activities, Safety experts, experts from
Academia and Industries, Legal and Strategic experts from other departments, members from the
Prime Minister's Office (PMO) and the Ministry of External Affairs (MEA) of the government of
India.

IN-SPACe
Skyroot
Mission Prarambh
Vikram Satellite It is India’s first indigenous-developed private Rocket.

❖ A private company Dhruva has made Thybolt I and Thybolt II satellites.

❖ A private start-up Agnikul has developed India’s first Pvt Rocket Launch Station.
Space Debris
❖ Kessler Syndrome (It is a Space Debris).
❖ Project Netra: It is a space surveillance system.

(Dictation)
❖ Space Debris means unused parts of rockets and satellites around the earth.
❖ These space debris revolve around the earth at a higher velocity.
❖ Collision of this space debris is creating a chain reaction resulting in increasing in space debris
number. This intensity was termed Kessler Syndrome.
❖ Space Debris is a threat to future missions, international space stations as well as satellites.
❖ Space debris is mostly confined to the lower earth Orbits to overcome this problem India has
launched the project Netra.
❖ It is a space surveillance system.

Energy
❖ India is targeting energy security.
❖ Now India is in a state of energy poverty.
❖ India wants to achieve energy security.

The topic for the next class discussion: Discussion on UPSC Previous Years Question, Energy.
Science and Technology Class 06
Role of the space program in space economics
Question: What are the initiatives that the government of India is implementing in enhancing the role of
the space program in world space economics? (10 marks/ 150 words)

Answer:
❖ Establishment of New Space India Limited and IN-Space.
❖ Basic infrastructure Manufacturing base was enhanced, Example - [WEB 3.0- a constellation of
satellites- We are providing services to the UK].
❖ India is trying to provide Launch on-demand services- Reusable launch vehicles.
❖ Renting out basic infrastructure facilities.

Energy Resources
❖ Energy resources are utilized for the production of Heat and electricity.
❖ There are wide varieties of energy resources in India, but compared to developed countries, the
abundance of energy resources is less.
❖ India is trying to provide energy security by utilizing a wide variety of energy resources but the
major problem is the lack of technology.
❖ Even though we have a lot of energy resources we are importing coal, and crude oil from other
countries.
❖ Currently the majority of electricity production in India is from thermal power plants.
❖ Among the thermal power plants coal-based thermal power plants, the contribution is very high
i.e., Up to 68% approximately.

❖ Combustion of coal in thermal power plants resulting in the following effects:

❖ Coal combustion in thermal power plants results in the release of Carbon Monoxide, Carbon
dioxide, Nox, So2, and Fly Ash.
❖ NOx emissions: N2O, No2, NO.

❖ Coal combustion results in the release of Air pollutants as well as Green House Gases.
❖ To reduce this burden as well as to achieve the Paris Agreement target, the Government of India
is focusing on green power production.

❖ INDC targets:
❖ To reduce the emissions intensity of its GDP by 33 to 35 percent by 2030 from the 2005 level.
❖ To achieve about 40 percent cumulative electric power installed capacity from non-fossil fuel-
based energy resources by 2030.

❖ Green power means the production of electricity without any GHG emissions as well as
environmental pollutants emission.
❖ Example: Renewable energy and nuclear energy.

❖ Sector wise electricity production - Thermal> Renewable>Hydro>Nuclear.

❖ Renewable- Solar> wind>Biomass.
❖ Carbon dioxide is not an Air pollutant, but a GHG.
❖ Carbon Monoxide is an Air pollutant and not a GHG.
❖ Nuclear energy is considered a green and clean energy.
Classification of Energy
❖ Energy resources are classified based on Longevity.

Energy

Renewable
Non-Renewable
❖ Inexhaustible.
❖ Exhaustible.
❖ Can be replenishable.
❖ Cannot be replenishable.
❖ Example- Solar, wind, Biomass, Biofuel, Wave, Tidal,
❖ Example- Fossils, Nuclear.
Hydrogen, Geothermal, Biogas, Hydro.

❖ Fossil fuels are produced in interior layers of the earth's crust from the dead remnants of living
organisms at high temperatures and pressure ➔ this process is called as Fossilization.

Fossil fuel

Coal Crude oil (Method- Fractional distillation) Natural Gas

❖ Most Abundant. ❖ Cleanest fossil fuel.
❖ Based on Carbon ❖ Based on occurrence.
Content.
1. Anthracite. Diesel Petrol Kerosene LPG Plastic
2. Bituminous.
Shale Coal bed gas
3. Lignite.
gas Methane hydrates
4. Peat.

Renewable Energy resources

Wind Energy
 ❖ Winds blow from High pressure to Low pressure.
❖ Winds always move from High-pressure areas to Low-pressure areas.
❖ By establishing wind turbines, the mechanical energy of the turbine will be converted into
electrical energy, or the Kinetic energy of the wind is converted into electrical energy.
❖ A group of wind turbines together known as Wind Farms.

❖ These wind farms can be established in the following areas:

1. Mid oceans.
2. coastal regions.
3. Between the mountains and hills.
4. Open plains.
5. Top of the mountains/buildings.

❖ Currently in India, the majority of wind farms are established on the Top of mountains and in
plain areas. Now we are focusing on the coastal areas.
❖ In urban open plains, it is not established as these areas are crowded with Buildings.

❖ Estimation of Wind energy Potentiality will be done by the National Institute of Wind Energy.
❖ Estimation of Wind energy Potentiality will be done by using LIDAR technology which is a part of
remote sensing.
❖ Wind energy potentiality will be estimated from the mean sea level to the height of 80m, 100, and
120 m.
❖ At 100m height total estimated potentiality of wind energy is 302 GW.

Benefits of Wind energy

1. It is a free continuously available renewable source.
2. It is environment-friendly energy.
3. Decentralized power production is possible in remote and rural areas.
4. India has well-developed technology.

Challenges of wind energy

1. Land Acquisition.
2. Seasonal impacts.
3. Constant power production is not possible.
4. Large number of Birds are dying.
5. Noise pollution.

Solution
❖ To overcome the above limitations, the government of India is focusing more on Off-shore as well
as On-shore wind power plants except installation costs.
Solar Energy
❖ It can be harnessed in 3 ways.

Solar energy

Solar ➔ Heat
❖ Solar thermal technologies.
Solar ➔ electrical Solar ➔ Biochemical
❖ Using Solar panels. Solar cookers ❖ Photosynthesis.
❖ DC current is produced. ❖ 6Co2+ 12H2o==>
Solar water heaters
❖ Photovoltaic cells are C6H12O6+ 6Co2
semiconductors and made Solar Thermal power plants ❖ Light energy will be
up of Silicon- Germanium. converted into Bio-chemical
❖ Due to the potential ❖ AC current is produced. energy.
difference between two ❖ Per unit energy production is ❖ Free energy will be
semiconducting materials, very high. converted to potential
light energy will be ❖ Here copper metal is used with energy.
converted to electrical black colour coating because ❖ Carbon dioxide will be
energy. black absorbs maximum converted to carbohydrates.
intensity of light and it will be
converted to heat energy.

Solar panels based on establishment

Land based solar panel Rooftop solar panels Floating solar panel

❖ Based on the Flow of electrons, the substances are classified into 3 types:

Conductors
❖ Conductors allow the flow of electrons.
❖ Examples of conductors- Silver, copper.

Semi-conductors
❖ Semi-conductor means partial electron flow takes place.
❖ Examples of semi-conductors- Silicon, Germanium.

Insulators
❖ Insulators do not allow the flow of electrons.
❖ Examples of insulators- Rubber, plastic.

Difference between solar panels and solar thermal technologies

1. In solar panels, light energy is converted into electrical energy whereas in solar thermal
technologies, light energy is converted to Heat energy.
2. In solar panels, DC current is produced whereas In solar thermal technologies AC current is
produced.
3. More power production is from Solar panels currently in India, whereas less power production in
Solar thermal technologies.
4. There is less cost of technology in solar panels whereas Technology cost is very high in Solar
thermal technologies.
5. The cost of electricity production per unit is low in solar panels whereas The cost of electricity
production per unit is very high in solar thermal technologies.
Benefits of solar energy
1. India is a sunshine country i.e., Out of 365 days, 300 days, sunlight availability exists.
2. More decentralization of electricity power production is possible.
3. Carbon Budget of India can be reduced.
4. Environmental impacts can be reduced.

Limitations
1. Lack of technology in India.
2. Land Acquisition.
3. Servicing, Repair, and installation of solar panels cannot be done within India due to a lack of
skilled Human resources.
4. Maintenance and operation costs are very High.
5. Due to the seasonal impacts, the quality of power production is very less.
6. Due to transmission losses, the Quality of solar production has further reduced.

Do you Know?
❖ Any energy resources that we are unable to extract and utilize in an easy manner with existing
technology then it is considered as an unconventional or non-conventional energy source.
❖ Natural gas - Unconventional source.

The Target of Renewable Energy Resources

❖ 175 GW by 2022 (100 GW for solar, 60 GW for wind, 10GW for biomass, 5 GW for small hydro
plants).
❖ Recently Government revised the target of 500 GW by 2030.

Initiatives by the Government of India for penetration of Solar Energy

GOI initiatives
National Solar Mission (100 GW)
60 GW for the land-based power plants Schemes.
1. KUSUM scheme- Solarization of Agri-sector (Kisan Urja
40 GW for rooftop Schemes.
Suraksha evam Utthan Mahaabhiyaan).
1. Atal Jyothi scheme.
2. Solar parks- Ultra Mega solar parks.
2. SRISTI scheme.
3. Water floating Power plants.
4. International solar alliance.

❖ Note: International solar alliance is not implementing under the National Solar Mission but
it is focusing on solar energy penetration as well as solar technology development.

Benefits of the KUSUM scheme are

1. Dependency on Fossil fuels can be reduced.
2. GHG emissions as well as environmental pollutants emissions from Agri-sector can be reduced.
3. Energy security as well as water security was provided.
4. Enhancing the base of the irrigation facility.

Solar parks
❖ Any solar power plant which is having capacity of more than 500 MW is called a Solar Park or Ultra
mega solar park.
❖ Note- In North-East India as well as in Union Territories, when the solar power plant is less than
500 MW it is considered as Solar park.
Science and Technology Class 07
Atal Jyoti Yojana
❖ It is being implemented by the Energy Efficiency Service Limited (EESL).

Atal Jyoti Yojana

Coverage Area Urban Areas Semi-Urban Areas Rural
Aims LED, Solar Powered Street Light Solar Lamps

Sustainable Rooftop Implementation Solar Transfiguration of India (SRISTI)

❖ It aims for producing rooftop solar power production.
❖ Thus, it provides incentives for the installation of rooftop solar power plant projects.
Biomass
❖ Forestry Waste, Agriculture Waste, Industrial Waste, and Animal Waste are the basic sources of
biomass.
1. Forestry Waste: Dried leaves, and wood.
2. Agriculture Waste: Stubble, coconut shell, or groundnut shell.
3. Industrial Wastes: Baggage, Neem Cake, and rice Husk.
4. Animal Waste: Cow dung, Poultry Waste, and solid waste.
5. Solid Waste:

❖ 6CO2 + 6H2O ➔ C6H12O6 + 6O2 [Glucose ➔ Biomass]

❖ The process is carbon neutral as when the combustion process takes place carbon production
and carbon combustion balance each-others.

(Dictation)
❖ In general, biomass is an organic substance produced from plants and animals.
❖ Currently, 70 percent of the Indian rural population depends upon biomass for their basic energy
needs.
❖ Maharashtra, Uttarakhand, and Karnataka are the top three states producing biomass energy.

Benefits of Biomass
❖ It is a carbon-neutral source i.e. the amount of carbon dioxide (CO2) that is required for the
production of biomass through photosynthesis when it is combusted the same amount of carbon
dioxide (CO2) will be released.
❖ Biomass is a source of different types of energy such as:
1. Heat energy
2. Electrical energy
3. Biogas
4. Biofuel

❖ Until the last living organism exists on the earth there will be continuous availability of biomass.
❖ On that basis, it is considered a renewable source.

Limitations of Biomass Energy

❖ The collection, transportation, and storage of biomass at the commercial level is the major
problem.
❖ It is not 100% environmentally friendly.

(Explanation)
❖ When the Biomass is digested anaerobically (in absence of oxygen) is known as fermentation.
❖ It results in Biogas and Slurry.
❖ In addition to the CH4, CO2, H2S, and other Nitrogen, and Sulphur content is released in the
environment.
❖ To reduce such environmental pollution upgradation is needed.
❖ The first purification is done to receive Bio-methane in form of 90 to 95% CH4.
❖ Then compression is done to get Bio CNG.
❖ The slurry is the by-product in biogas production.
❖ It is a semi-liquid substance rich in minerals and nutrients.
❖ Hence it can be used as manure in the agricultural sector.
❖ In turn, this reduces the dependency on organic fertilizers.
❖ The slurry is produced at high temperatures; hence it destroys the seeds of weeds.
Note: Biogas production is not 100% environmentally friendly because along with methane it includes
impurities such as carbon dioxide, hydrogen sulphide, and other ammonia and sulphur-related components
which are considered as the impurity.

Government Schemes
❖ GOBAR DHAN YOJANA: Here GOBAR means Galvanising Organic Bio Agro Resources.
❖ SATAT: Sustainable Alternative Towards Affordable Transportation.

❖ New National Biogas Organic Manure Management Programme: Small, medium, and large
biogas plants are being established.
❖ Small: 3 to 25 m3/day.
❖ Medium: 30 to 2500 m3/day.
❖ Large: Above 2500 m3/day.

Bio Fuels
Ethanol Methanol (CH3OH) Plant oil Animal Oil
It is also known as It is also known as Methyl It is also known as In Ancient and medieval India, it
Ethyl Alcohol. Alcohol or Wood Alcohol. Bio Diesel. was used for lightning purposes.
Sources: Jatropha
Grain Alcohol
and Pongamia
Baggase
Ethanol
Baggage➔ Yeast-Fungus Fermentation process➔ Alcohol
Ethanol Blending
Current blending is 10% The future target is 20% by 2025

(Dictation)
❖ Ethanol is also known as Grain Alcohol.
❖ Currently, the majority of Ethanol production is from sugar mills.
❖ But most of the ethanol produced is utilized in the beverage industry.

Blending Ethanol biofuel into the Petrol and Diesel has the following benefits
❖ Reducing fossil fuel imports.
❖ Dependency on fossil fuels can also be reduced.
❖ Environmental Pollutants emissions can be reduced.
❖ Foreign Exchange reserves can be conserved.
❖ Farmers' income levels can be enhanced.
❖ Sustainable waste management can be done within India by converting waste into energy
(biofuel).

❖ To enhance ethanol production in India National Biofuel Policy 2018 was launched.
❖ Under this policy Government has of India has suggested the following waste products to
produce ethanol.
❖ Here the waste products are:
1. Once-used cooking oils
2. Sugar Cane Juice
3. Corn Based
4. Sprouted seeds in warehouses

Do You Know
❖ Ethanol Production is through fermentation.

Methanol (CH3OH)
❖ Indian economy depends on the Fossil fuel.
❖ In the future, we want to make it Hydrogen Fuel Economy.
❖ Leap Frog Technology in areas of the Atma Nirbhar Bharat.

(Dictation)
❖ Methanol is popularly known as wood Alcohol.
❖ Methanol is produced from a wide range of sources such as carbon dioxide, natural waste (CH4),
solid waste, and agricultural waste.
❖ Methanol is more environmentally friendly as compared to Ethanol because of its efficient
combustion.
❖ The Government of India is focussing on the methanol economy establishment to reach the
target of the Hydrogen fuel economy.
❖ Currently, Methanol is blended into Liquefied Petroleum Gas (LPG) cylinders that is 20% in the
form of Dimethyl Ether.
Bio-Diesel
❖ Plant oil is known as Biodiesel.
❖ The majority of biodiesel production in India is from Jatropha and Pongamia. They are non-food
crops.
❖ The government of India's target is to blend 5% of the bio-diesel into diesel by 2030.
❖ Use of cooking oil as the bio-diesel as the bio-diesel is prohibited in India as it becomes a threat
to the Food Security of India.

Do You Know
❖ Fats in Plants are known as oils.
❖ Fats in animals are known as Cholesterol.
❖ Both plant oil and Cholesterol can be used as biofuels.

Biofuels based on sources are categorized into different generations

1st generation 2nd Generation 3rd Generation 4th Generation
They are based on Carbon
They are produced by
Based on Food crops. Based on non-food crops. capture storage and
Algae.
utilization technology.
1. Non-Food Crops
(Jatropha and
Rice, wheat, maize,
Pongamia Plants).
corn.
2. Agri-waste (Stubble).
3. Solid Waste.
They are made up of They are made up of the These two types of biofuels are known as the future
carbohydrates. Lignocellulosic Materials. source of biofuels.

❖ PM JIVAN YOJANA: Jaiv Indhan Vatavaran Fasal Awasesh Nivaran Yojana.

❖ Currently, the government of India is focussing on the 2nd generation of Biofuel Production.
❖ These 2nd generation biofuels are also known as the Lignocellulogic Ethanol Technology.

Do You Know
❖ Lignocellulose is a constituent of fats and carbohydrates.
❖ The more fat content, more is the biofuel production.
❖ The government of India is focussing only on the 2nd generation of Bio Fuels to control food
inflation by avoiding the uses of the 1st generation.

Points to be Remembered
❖ The 3rd and 4th generations of Bio Fuels are known as futuristic fuels or advanced biofuels.
❖ Algae is a micro-organism that has a shorter life span. Hence quality and quantity of bio-fuel
production are very high compared to the first two generations.
❖ Algae can grow in any environmental conditions with fewer input requirements. Hence bio-fuel
production costs will also be less.
❖ In the 4th generation of biofuels, intentionally the Carbon Dioxide will be trapped for the
production of biofuels. Hence it is known as the Carbon Capture Utilization Method.

❖ If the 4th Generation of Biofuels is future application/production known as the carbon capture,
and storage methodology.
Hydrogen Fuels
❖ Most abundant element in Universe.
❖ The cost is very less.
❖ H2 + O2 ➔H2O.
❖ It has a high calorific value.
❖ It is considered the lightest element.

Types of Hydrogen
❖ The government of India has categorized Hydrogen fuel into three categories i.e., Grey, Blue, and
Green Hydrogen.

Grey Hydrogen Blue Hydrogen Green Hydrogen

Split natural gas into hydrogen Split natural gas into Split water into hydrogen by electrolysis
and CO2 hydrogen and CO2 powered by water or wind
CO2 emitted in the atmosphere CO2 stored or reused No CO2 emitted

❖ Green Hydrogen: 2H20 ➔ 2H + 20 (Under electrolysis and solar wind).

❖ Blue Hydrogen: Fossil Fuels ➔ H2+ CO2.
❖ Grey Hydrogen: Coal, Natural gas ➔ H2 + CO2.

Benefits
❖ It is the most abundant element in the universe.
❖ Because of abundance, the cost of Hydrogen fuel will be very less.
❖ Always the combustion of Hydrogen takes place in presence of oxygen.
❖ It is an environmentally friendly fuel and helps in reducing the carbon budget of India.
❖ Among all the fuels Hydrogen has the highest calorific value. Hence with less fuel more energy
production is possible.
❖ It is the lightest element among all the elements in the periodic table.
❖ Hence, use of hydrogen as fuel reduces the weight of vehicles and in turn, leads to fuel
efficiency.
Limitations
❖ Even though Hydrogen is abundantly available it is not in its elemental form.
Hence extraction process of Hydrogen is too costly.
❖ Because of the lightness of Hydrogen with existing technologies, we cannot transfer it for longer
distances. Hence, we are converting this hydrogen into ammonia as well as methane.
❖ Hydrogen immediately catches the fire hence accidental rate is very high.
❖ Extraction and production of Hydrogen at bulk level (commercial farms) is too costly.

Government Initiatives
❖ Currently, the Government of India is focussing more on Green Power production. As a part of it,
Green Hydrogen production was made mandatory in the following industries:
1. Steel manufacturing industries.
2. Oil refineries.
3. Organic fertilizer manufacturing industries.

❖ For enhancing the production of Green Hydrogen in India National Hydrogen Mission was
established.
❖ India has targeted this green hydrogen production to attain energy sufficiency and to export
Hydrogen.

The topic for the next class discussion: Energy will be continued
Science and Technology Class 08
Battery and Fuel Cell Technology
Batteries Fuel Cell
Chemical ➔ Electrical Chemical, Biochemical ➔ Electrical
Rechargeable Refuelling is possible
It has a shorter life span They have longer-life span
Environmental Polluting Environmentally Friendly
Examples are:
Examples of fuel cells are:
1. Lead-Acid
1. Hydrogen fuel cells
2. Li-ion
2. Microbial fuel cells
3. Li-Ion polymers batteries

➢ In India currently, electricity cannot be stored at a bulk level.

➢ To develop such kind of technologies government of India launched National Mission for
charging infrastructure.

Coal and Natural Gas

➢ Conventional power plants are not green power production but now these mega plants are green
and clean power plants.
➢ Natural gas cleanest one.
➢ However, natural gas is not 100% environmentally clean.

Natural gas
➢ Methane is produced in the deeper layers of the Earth.

➢ Shale Rocks are a type of sedimentary Rock.

➢ Shale Rocks are the richest source of natural gas.
➢ In all these natural gas the main constituent is the same which is Methane (CH4).
➢ Methane when trapped in ice crystals we call Gas Hydrate. They are available in polar regions
and oceans.

Shale Gas
➢ When Methane is trapped in shale rock, we call it as shale gas.
➢ India has only one operational Shale gas plant in Gujarat.
➢ The shale is available across India in the river valleys.
➢ When Natural Gas is converted into liquid form and transported then it is known as Liquefied
Natural Gas (LNG).
➢ The majority of natural gas is used in electricity production.
(Dictation)
➢ Coal is the most abundant fossil fuel.
➢ Extraction of coal as well as the combustion of coal is resulting in the release of greenhouse
gases as well as environmental pollution.
➢ Greenhouse gases show a severe impact on the environment.
➢ To reduce this impact government of India is focusing on clean coal technologies.
➢ One of the most important technologies is the establishment of ultra-mega power plants.
➢ These ultra-mega power plants are 4000 Mega Watt Power Plants and will replace supercritical
technology for efficient combustion of coal.
➢ Tilayya in Jharkhand, Sasan in Madhya Pradesh, Mudra in Gujarat, and Krishnapattanam in
Andhra Pradesh.

Natural Gas
➢ It is the cleanest fossil fuel.
➢ The major constituent of natural gas is Methane.
➢ Along with methane minor constituents of ethane and propane will be present.
➢ The majority of natural gas that is produced in India is used for:
1. Electricity production
2. Automobile sector
3. Fertilizer manufacturing industries

➢ Butane is part of LPG, and LPG differs from natural gas.

➢ LPG is produced from crude oil.
➢ Based on occurrence, Natural Gas is categorized into:
1. Gas Hydrate
2. Coal Bed Methane
3. Shale Gas

Gas Hydrates
➢ It is also known as Flammable Ice or fire ice.
➢ In this form, natural gas is available in ice hydrates.
➢ It is found in polar regions and oceans.
➢ India has gas hydrates resources found across the coastline of India.
➢ However, we are unable to extract these resources due to the lack of technology.

Coal Bed Methane

➢ CH4 + Coal Mines ➔ Coal Bed Methane gas
➢ India has one of the world’s largest coal resources.
➢ Hence coal bed methane availability is also very high.

Shale Gas
➢ Shale Rock is like a sandstone under the categories of sedimentary rocks.
➢ Shale gas is extracted from the shale rocks with help of Fracturing Technology.
➢ Shale gas is found in the land as well as continental shelf region.
➢ Shale gas is also referred to as tight gas.
➢ As the shale gas is tightly packed in the shale rocks in interior layers of the earth's crust.
Points to be remembered
➢ When a gas is produced from Biomass then it is termed as Bio CNG, Bio Methane, and Bio Gas.
➢ When a gas is produced from the interior layer of the earth’s crust, then it is termed as Natural Gas.
➢ When this Natural Gas and Biogas are compressed and converted into liquid and transported
through the pipelines then it is termed Liquefied Natural Gas (LNG).

Difference between CNG/LNG and LPG

CNG/LNG LPG
In LNG the major constituent is Butane.
In CNG the major constituent is Methane. Beta Mercapto ethanol or propane is added as an
impurity as preventive.
Natural Gas is the source for it Crude oil is the source for it.
It is mainly used in electricity production and
It is mainly used in households.
Automobiles.
It has less accidental rate. It has a high accidental rate.
It is lighter than air and spread quickly. It is denser than air and accumulates on the ground.

➢ Gas in Gas cylinders is always maintained in liquid form because:

1. To avoid thermal expansion.
2. To accommodate more fuel within less space.

➢ LPG is mainly formed by Butane which is denser than air hence in case of leakage it confines to
the ground and does not spread.
➢ Thus, it makes the accidental rate very high.

➢ CNG is mainly formed by Methane which is lighter than air hence in case of leakage it disperses in
air and neutralizes to reduce the impact.
➢ Thus, it makes the accidental rate very low for the CNG.
Nuclear Energy
Fission
➢ U235 + 0n1 ➔ Kr + Ba + 3n1 + Energy.
➢ Fission is also known as the controlled chain reaction.
➢ Here the Fuels are:
1. Uranium
2. Plutonium
3. Thorium

➢ Less Energy is released.

Fusion
➢ It is based on Thermonuclear Reaction.
➢ 1H2 + 1H2 ➔ 2He4.
➢ Fuel is Hydrogen.
➢ More Energy is released.

Do You Know
➢ Radioactivity means the emission of alpha, beta, and gamma particles by the disintegration of
radioactive substances.
➢ These radioactive particles such as alpha (α), beta (β), and gamma (γ) will have severe impacts on
life as well as on the ecosystem. It is termed as radiational effects and radiation pollution.
➢ Enrico Fermi discovered the nuclear fission process by bombarding the neutrons with radioactive
substances such as uranium resulting in the release of more neutrons and energy with radioactive
particles.

Merits and demerits of Nuclear Energy

Merits of Nuclear Energy
➢ Nuclear energy is considered clean and green energy.
➢ With less fuel, we can produce more electricity.
➢ The cost of electricity production per unit is very less compared to thermal power plants.
➢ Constant power production is possible, hence nuclear energy is considered the growth engine of
the particular country.

Limitation of Nuclear Energy

➢ Lack of sufficient uranium resources.
➢ India is not a member of the Nuclear Supplier Group (NSG).
➢ Due to the shortage of uranium resources establishment of more nuclear reactors is not possible.
➢ Nuclear accidents lead to radiation pollution. It has a long-term effect on living organisms as
well on the ecosystem.
➢ Resistance from the local people. Myths among the people.
➢ Acquisition of land is also a major problem.

➢ There is total of 23 Nuclear Reactors in India and a total of 6780 Megawatts. Thus, it constitutes
3% of the total electricity production.
➢ By 2050, we want to share of the nuclear energy in total electricity production to be 25%.
Components of Nuclear Fission Reactors Figure
1. Fuels.
2. Controlled Rods.
3. Moderators.
4. Coolant.
5. Core.

➢ Boron and Cadmium are used to control Nuclear Fission Reactions by absorbing Neutrons
Completely.
➢ Hence Fission Reaction is known as a control Reaction.

Moderators
➢ A moderator is used to reduce the speed of neutrons.
➢ It makes the chain reaction sustainable.
➢ Graphite rods or heavy water are used as moderators.

Coolant
➢ Coolants maintain the temperature of the nuclear reactor core.
➢ Water, Heavy Water, and Liquid Sodium (Na) are used as coolants.

Fuels
➢ Uranium, Plutonium, and Thorium are used in form of Fuel Rods.

Points to be Remembers
➢ For every single fission reaction 3 neutrons will be produced.
➢ The heat energy produced in the core of the nuclear reactor is used for the conversion of water into
steam.
➢ Steam is useful for the rotation of turbines as well as generators in turn results in the production of
electricity.

Natural Uranium
➢ Pitch Blend is the ore.
➢ Natural Uranium consists of 99.3% of U238 and 0.7% of U235.
➢ The U235 is fissile Material and U238 is the fertile material.
➢ Fertile means the isotopes produces other isotopes.
➢ Fissile means used as a fuel.
➢ Any substance when it is able to absorb neutrons and produces more neutrons with heat energy.
➢ Uranium 235 is a fissile material that is extracted from U238.

Do You Know
➢ U238, U235, and U233 are the isotopes of the Uranium element.
➢ Isotope means atoms with the same atomic number but with different atomic masses.
Enrichment
➢ At 0.7% of U235 fissility is very less hence we need to increase the concentration up to 3 to 5%.
➢ If the percentage of U235 in U238 is more than 90%, then that uranium is known as the weapon-
grade uranium used in nuclear weapons (nuclear bombs).
➢ An increase of Uranium 235 concentration in U238 from 0.7% to 3 to 4% is known as the
enrichment of Uranium.
➢ The crude form of uranium does not have a shape. It will be converted into a rod shape through
the fabrication process.
➢ Fabrication and enrichment will be done at the nuclear fuel complexes in Punjab and Hyderabad.
➢ The combustion of U235 in the first stage of nuclear reactors produces Plutonium 239 as a by-
product. It is used as a fuel in the second stage of nuclear reactors.

Thorium 232
➢ India has one of the world's largest thorium resources.
➢ They are present in the coastal areas in the form of Monazite sands.

➢ India is developing Thorium based nuclear reactors because the world's largest thorium resource
is present in India.
➢ Around 25% of the world's thorium resources.
➢ Monazite sand in coastal India is the richest source of thorium.
➢ India is developing thorium-based nuclear reactors. This is to attain self-reliance.

Nuclear Power programme of India

➢ Homi Jahangir Bhabha took lead in the development of nuclear energy in India.
➢ The Nuclear Power Project in India was divided into three phases.

The topic for the next class discussion: Nuclear Energy will be continued
Science and Technology Class 09
Nuclear power program of India
➢ Based on the availability of fuel resources.

Stage I Stage II Stage III

Pressurised heavy water reactor Fast breeder reactor Thermonuclear reactors
Fuel- Mixed oxides or Uranium & Fuel- Mixed oxides of Thorium
Fuel- U235
Plutonium and uranium
Coolant- D2O (heavy water) Coolant- Liquid sodium Coolant- heavy water
Moderator- heavy water No moderator No moderator
Capacity- 250 MW Capacity- 500 MW Capacity- 1000 MW
Design- Indira Gandhi centre for
Design, construction, atomic energy research.
Design- Indira Gandhi centre
maintenance- NPCIL (Nuclear Maintenance/ operation-
for atomic energy research.
power corporation of India Ltd). BHAVINI (Bharatiya Nambhikiya
Vidyut Nigam Ltd).

Pressurised heavy water reactors

➢ During the 1960s almost all the countries in the world has opted for light water reactors but India
opted for pressurized heavy water reactors because of the following benefits and limitations:
1. In pressurized heavy water reactors unenriched Uranium is used but in light water reactors,
low enriched Uranium will be used.
2. Heavy water is used as a coolant rather than normal water because heavy water has more
boiling point than normal water.
3. In 2016 India entered into the second stage of the nuclear power program by establishing
Kalpakkam nuclear reactor in Chennai.

Fast Breeder reactors

➢ These reactors breed more fuel than it consumes, the fuel used is mixed oxides of Uranium 238
and Plutonium 239 to absorb neutrons during the fission process creating more fuel than utilized.
➢ No moderator will be used in these reactors because neutrons that are produced as a part of the
fission process will be utilized for the transmutation of U238.
➢ Use of liquid sodium as a coolant enhanced the safety of nuclear reactors.

Question- India has well experienced with the first stage of nuclear reactors i.e., pressurized heavy
water reactors but we are tilting towards fast breeder reactors. Examine?
➢ Plutonium is used as a fuel hence it reduces the dependency on other countries partially.
➢ The second stage of the nuclear reactor's fissility is very high compared to the first stage.
➢ Safety of the second stage of nuclear reactors is more compared to the first stage.
➢ Nuclear waste production is less compared to the first stage.

Note
➢ Deuterium is one of the isotopes of Hydrogen.
➢ It is used in the manufacturing of heavy water i.e., deuterium oxide.
➢ This heavy water is used as a coolant as well as a moderator.
➢ Heavy water has more boiling point than normal water.
➢ hence it has more thermal conduction capacity.
Thermonuclear reactors as well as heavy water reactors
➢ Fuel used in these nuclear reactors is mixed oxides of Thorium 232 and Uranium 233.
➢ In this reactor Thorium transmutes into uranium 233.

Point to be remembered
➢ This transmutation of thorium into Uranium 233 will be done in fast breeder reactors also when
plutonium is totally exhausted.
➢ Thorium is a fertile material from which Uranium 233 fissile material will be extracted.

Question- Why India is looking towards thorium-based nuclear reactors?

➢ One of the world's largest thorium resources is present in India.
➢ To attain self-reliance.
➢ We can fastly enhance the nuclear base of India to reduce the carbon budget as well as ensure
energy security.
➢ Nuclear waste management cost can be reduced, these reactor's maintenance cost is less
compared to the first stage.

Nuclear fusion
➢ Combination of two hydrogen positive atoms at high temperatures and results in the production
of helium, neutrons as well as energy.

Points to be remembered
➢ Hydrogen is the most abundant element existing in three isotopes- protium, deuterium, and
tritium.
➢ High temperatures are required for the fusion of two hydrogen atoms. Fusion generally takes
place in the sun and stars. These are considered natural nuclear reactors.

How it works?
➢ Fuel in the fusion process is heated to high temperatures, due to this gaseous hydrogen atoms
loses electrons and will be converted into a plasma state.
➢ With the help of a strong magnetic field the plasma is kept away from the walls of the reactor to
ensure that it does not cool down and lose its potential to generate a large amount of energy.

Do you know?
➢ The temperature in the plasma state of nuclear fusion reactors is mandatory.
➢ Hydrogen atoms fusion takes place at such a high temperature.

➢ Matter generally exists in 3 stages- solids, liquids, and gases.

➢ Plasma is the fourth state of matter exist in ionic form.

➢ Heat will be transmitted through three methods- conduction, convection, and radiation.
➢ Conduction takes place in solids, convection takes place in both liquids and gases and radiation
takes place in medium and vacuum.
Question- How fusion process is much more beneficial than the fission process?
➢ Fusion presence has no risk of nuclear proliferation, unlike fission.
➢ There is no need for the enrichment of nuclear fuel.
➢ More energy is produced compared to fission.

➢ The output helium is non-radioactive.

➢ Hence there is no need for radioactive waste management techniques.

➢ Fusion reactors are intrinsically safe.

➢ When nuclear reactor accidents happen nuclear fusion process will be halted instantly but if it is
fission it continues in an uncontrolled manner.

ITER- International Thermonuclear Experimental Reactors

➢ It is a group of countries along with India.
➢ The main aim of this group is to promote research and development for establishing a
commercial level of nuclear fusion reactors.
Information and communication technology (ICT)
➢ Tools:
1. Biometric
2. Internet

Biometric
1. Living organisms and their parts (Bio)
2. Measurement (Metric)

➢ Further:
1. Behavioural characters
2. Physiological characters

➢ Under the Behavioural characters:

1. Signature stroke
2. Keypad stroke
3. Gait/ standing posture
4. Voice

➢ Under Physiological characters:

1. DNA
2. Fingerprints
3. Eye (iris & Retina)
4. Facial features
5. Ear shape
6. Body smell
7. Veins pattern in hands

Internet
1. Faster reliable services
2. Transparency in providing
3. Corruption control
4. Control of red tape

➢ This all leads to good governance.

➢ Good governance ➔ E governance and real time governance.

Internet services
1. Wired Services (broadband)
2. Wireless Services

Optical fibre in wired services

➢ It works in the principle of total internal reflection of light.
➢ Uses white light.

Wireless services
➢ Radio and microwave internet services will be provided through satellites, drones, and parachute
balloons.
 ➢ In optical fibre white light of the electromagnetic spectrum is used.
➢ In wireless micro and radio waves are used which are also part of the electromagnetic spectrum.

➢ In broadband seamless reliable services can be provided compared to wireless technologies.

➢ Wireless services of the internet undergo atmospheric influences.
➢ Thick cloudy nature will stop the penetration of radio and microwaves.

➢ In recent times ionospheric disturbances are very high in our Indian communication systems.
➢ Hence India is developing ionospheric modules for better communication services.

➢ Government of India (GoI) has established Bharat Net or National Optical Fibre Network
(NOFN) program.
➢ The objective of this is to provide internet services to 2.5 lakh gram panchayats.

➢ TRAI ➔ Proposed modules ➔ Google, Microsoft, and Facebook.

➢ Google ➔ Project Loon ➔ internet services provided through parachute balloons.
➢ Microsoft ➔ white bands of the electromagnetic spectrum ➔ Whitefi technology
➢ Facebook ➔ Aquila project ➔ solar-powered drones.

Different internet generations

1ST generation
➢ Voice calling.

2ND generation
➢ Voice calling & text messaging.

3RD generation
➢ Voice calling, text, and multimedia messaging.

4TH generation
➢ Also known as LTE- Long-Term Evolution technology.
➢ In this HD (high definition) voice and video calling, multi-media messaging.
➢ Within the fourth generation, there are two types of services:
1. LTE
2. VoLTE

5TH generation
➢ IoT technologies can be used in fifth-generation, drones.

Question: Discuss the differences between LTE and VoLTE technologies.

Question: Discuss the differences between 4G and 5G services.

The topic for the next class is ➔ continuation of ICT.

Science and Technology Class 10
Wireless Data Transmission
1. Infrared Tech.
2. Bluetooth.
3. Wifi.
4. WiMAX.
5. Light Fidelity (Lifi).
6. Radio Frequency Identification Device (RFID).
7. Near Field Communication Technology (NFC).

Infrared technology
❖ In this technology, infrared radiation of electromagnetic spectrum is used.
❖ This technology is used in earlier stages of mobiles for data transmission.
❖ These two devices should be attached to each other for the transmission of data.

Bluetooth Technology
❖ It is a short-range communication technology intended to replace cables.
❖ The range of this technology is up to 10 meters.
❖ The data transmission rate is 1 to 3 Mbps.
❖ The total number of devices connected is 7.
❖ In this technology radio waves of the electromagnetic spectrum will be used for the transmission
of data.

Wireless Fidelity (WiFi)

❖ WiFi is used for Local Area Networks (LAN).
❖ The range of the WiFi network is around 100 meters.
❖ It is considered as a short-range technology.
❖ The transmission speed of WiFi is up to 54 Mbps.
❖ The data transmission takes place through radio waves.

Worldwide Interoperability for the Microwave Access (WiMAX)

❖ Wimax is an updated version of Wifi.
❖ It works based on the wireless Microwave Access Network (MAN) technology.
❖ The range of WiMAX is about 50 to 90 Km.
❖ Thus, it is long-range technology.
❖ The data transmission speed is up to 70 Mbps.

Light Fidelity (LiFi) Technology

❖ It is also a wireless communication technology that transmits data using visible light at
an extremely high speed.
❖ In this LiFi, greater security, as well as a data transmission rate, will be very high.
Difference between WiFi and LiFi
Li-Fi Wi-Fi
Light Fidelity Wireless Fidelity
In Li-Fi, the Visible region of the Electromagnetic In Wi-Fi radio waves of the Electromagnetic
spectrum is used. spectrum are used.
More data transmission rate. Lesser data transmission rate.
LiFi has more robustness (robustness means the
WiFi has less robustness
number of devices that can be used/connected)
The device used in Li-Fi is an LED bulb. The device used is a router.
It is more secure. Less secure as compared to LiFi.
Li-Fi is of short-range services. It has a long range as compared to Li-Fi.

Merits
❖ More data transmission and high-speed data transmission.
❖ It is more secure.
❖ It has robustness.
❖ At the same time light, as well as internet services, can be provided at a time.
❖ It is environmentally friendly due to its high energy efficiency.

Demerits
❖ High input cost of technology.
❖ At the individual level, it is successful but at the commercial level, it is a failure.
❖ More LED bulbs should be utilized which will enhance the power consumption rate.
❖ It has a shorter range thus we need to use more bulbs.

Points to be Remembered
❖ LED is known as Light Emitting Diode.
❖ The diode is the simplest form of semi-conductor.
❖ These Led bulbs are highly energy efficient and environmentally friendly.

Radio-Frequency Identification (RFID)

❖ It was discovered by Charles Walton.
❖ RFID uses electromagnetic field radio waves to automatically identify and capture information
stored on an RFID card/tag attached to objects, where the RFID tag contains electrically stored
information.
❖ A RFID tag be read from up to many meters away depending on the frequency.
❖ Based on the frequency RFID tags are categorized into three types:

Low Frequency
❖ 120 to 150 kHz, low data speed, reading distance about 1 to 10 cm.

High Frequency
❖ 56 MHz, low to moderate data speed, reading distance about 2cm to 1 meter.

Ultra-High Frequency
❖ 865-868 MHz (Europe)/902-928 MHz (North America).
❖ Moderate to high data speed, reading distance about 1 to 12 meters.
Type Frequency Reading distance
Low Frequency 120-150 kHz 1-10 cm
High Frequency 13.56 MHz 2 cm- 1metre
865-868 MHz (Europe); 902-928 MHz (North
Ultra-High Frequency 1mt -12 metre
America)

Based on Power Sources

Active RFID Tag Semi-Passive RFID Tag Passive RFID Tags
Powered by batteries Power is supplied through internal circuits No batteries
Tags will be read through the radio wave
No power
from the source.
But the tag can be read by radio
waves from the source.

Use of RFID
❖ It is used in fast Tag.
❖ Used in animal tracking.
❖ Used in animal husbandry.
❖ It can be used in Vehicles Tracking, Jewellery Tracking.
❖ It can be used in schools and colleges.
❖ It can be used in libraries.
❖ It can be used in logistics as well as retail trade.

Difference between RFID and BAR CODE

RFID Bar Code
The technology used in RFID is radio frequency. Here optical Laser is used.
Line of sight is not required in RFID. Line of sight is required Bar Core.
Read and writing is possible under RFID. Only reading is possible under the Bar Code.
RFID can be read multiple times. Bar code can be read only one time.
RFID can be read from a longer distance. Bar code can be read at shorter distances.
RFID is a unique identity for each of the items/assets Bar code is common for all the items.

Near Field Communication System (NFC)

❖ In this Radio waves of the electromagnetic spectrum are used.
❖ It is a short-range wireless communication technology that works at a distance of four meters.
(Bluetooth at a distance of 10 meters)
❖ It is a safe and secure technology compared to Bluetooth.
4G Technology
Long Term Evolution (LTE) and Voice over long-term Evolution (VoLTE) Technology
LTE VoLTE
During voice call data utilization may or may not
During the voice call data transmission takes place.
takes place.
Voice and video calls can be done with a reduced Both Voice and video calls can be done without
quality. reduction in quality.
Call connection rate/speed is low LTE. Call connection rate/speed is high in VoLTE.

Discussion on the UPSC Previous Years Questions

❖ Question on Fuel Cell.
❖ Question on PSLV and GSLV.
❖ Question on Indian Remote Sensing.

Difference Between 4G and 5G

4G 5G
It has a low data speed. It has high Speed.
Power consumption is high in 4G. Power consumption is low in 5G.
Shorter Battery Life in 4G. Longer Battery Life in 5G.
Latency Period/Response Time will be high in 4G. Latency Period/Response Time will very less in 5G.
Less Robustness in 4G. More robustness in 5G.
Internet of the Things (IoT) technology cannot be Internet of the Things (IoT) technology can be used
used in 4G. in 5G.
The use of 4G is limited. The use of 5G is extensive.

❖ The government of India has given mandatory guidelines to all mobile manufacturers to
produce 5G-enabled services.
❖ In implementing different smart technology as well as smart concepts 5G technology is very
important.
❖ 5G internet services are mandatory.
❖ Digital India Programme is a flagship programme of India.
❖ All the applications of Digital India will be implemented through 5G technologies.
Digital India
❖ Flagship and Umbrella Programme.
❖ In the flagship scheme, every person should utilize the benefits.
❖ The Umbrella programme includes many schemes under it.

Digital India Programme

❖ Vision to Transform India into a digitally empowered society & knowledge economy.
❖ IT (Indian Talent) + IT (Information Technology) ➔ IT (Indian Tomorrow).
❖ Digital India Programme is a flagship scheme as well as umbrella scheme.

The Vision of the Digital India Programme is centred on 3 key areas

1. Digital Infrastructure as a utility to every citizen.
2. Governance and Services on demand.
3. Digital Empowerment of Citizens.

The vision of the digital India programme are achieved through 9 pillars
1. Establishing broadband highways.
2. Universal Access to phones.
3. Public Internet Access Programme.
4. E-governance: Reforming Governance through technology.
5. E-Kranti Services: Electronic delivery of services.
6. Information for all.
7. Electronic Manufacturing Target: It targets Net Zero Imports.
8. IT for jobs.
9. Early Harvest Programmes.

Applications of Digital India Programme

❖ Ministry of Electronics and Information Technology.
❖ Digital India Programme.

Digi Locker App

❖ Digi-Lockers Authority.
❖ Digital Locker App.
❖ With an Aadhaar Number, a Digital Locker account will be opened.
❖ Based on the usage, space will be extended from 10 Mb to 1 GB.

UMANG App
❖ It means Unified Mobile Application for New-Age Governance.
❖ It is developed by the Ministry of Electronics and Information Technology (Meity) and the
National e-Governance Division (NeGD) to drive Mobile Governance in India.
❖ UMANG provides a single platform for all Indian Citizens to access pan India e-Gov
Services ranging from central to local government bodies.
❖ The UMANG Mobile app (Unified Application for New-age governance) is a government of India
all-in-one single, unified, secure, multi-channel, multi-platform, multi-lingual, multi-services
mobile app, powered by a robust back-end platform providing access to high-impact services of
various organizations (Central and State).
❖ The aim of UMANG is to fast-track mobile governance in India.

BHIM App
❖ Bharat Interface for Money.
❖ It has been developed by the National Payment Corporation of India.
Science and Technology Class 11
BHIM App
➢ BHIM app means Bharat Interface for Money.
➢ This app was developed based on a unified payment Interface.
➢ This app makes simple, easy and quick transactions.
➢ Secured and seamless services could be provided through this App.

➢ In BHIM 2.0 the following new features were added:

1. Transaction limit has been enhanced from 20,000 to 1 lakh.
2. Donation gateways, linking multiple bank accounts.
3. Option of applying Initial Public Offering, gifting money.

➢ BHIM app was developed by NPCI (National Payments Corporation of India).

UPI
➢ It is a simple payment method that allows easy money transfer from one person to other.
➢ Digitally it is similar to IMPS, NEFT, or RTGS transfers.
➢ Developed by NPCI (National Payment corporation of India).
➢ It is an umbrella organisation for operating retail payments and settlement systems in India.
➢ Recently International version of the BHIM App was launched.
➢ First country to accept this is Bhutan.
➢ In Singapore also it is being utilised.

Bharat QR Code
➢ It is the Bharat Quick Response code.
➢ This code was developed by NPCI with international card schemes.

Features of BHARAT QR code

1. Low-cost infrastructure is required.
2. Remote management of merchants as well as customers.
3. Interoperable QR code.
4. Push Based transactions.
5. No need to store any charge slip copy by the merchant.

Difference between normal bar code and QR code

➢ Normal bar code cannot be read with scratches but QR code can be read with scratches.
➢ Bar code can be read either in a vertical or in a horizontal direction but QR code can be read in
any direction.
➢ Fewer digits can be stored in normal bar codes but QR codes can store more digits up to 7000.
➢ Bar code is not dust resistant while the QR code is dust resistant.

➢ Note:
➢ BHIM and Paytm are implementing together.
➢ Paytm has a wallet service while BHIM does not have a wallet service.

National Mission for electronic Toll collection

➢ Launched by the Ministry of Information and technology.
➢ Fast tag is being implemented under this.
➢ Based on RFID technology (Radio Frequency Identification Device).
➢ Saves fuel and also density of vehicles near toll plazas can be assessed (reduced).
Different Emerging Technologies as part of ICT
1. Big data.
2. 3D- Printing.
3. Immersion tech.
4. Internet of Things.
5. Blockchain technology.
6. Quantum Computers.
7. Artificial Intelligence.

➢ 1st Industrial revolution is based upon steam engine technologies.

➢ 2nd Industrial revolution is based on the Electricity utilisation.
➢ 3rd Industrial revolution is based on automation.
➢ 4th industrial revolution is based on AI and automation.

➢ Smart industries are the industries which run with less human assistance and more with
technological interference.
➢ But to implement this Smart industry and smart manufacturing National mission for a Cyber-
physical system was established.

Big data
➢ Big data means a huge volume of data that will be collected and maintained for a longer period.
➢ Information is necessary for every organization to run according to the consumer's needs and
demands.
➢ Big Data is useful in the framing of policies, and manufacturing of products according to the
demand of the customers.
➢ And Faster and more reliable services to the consumers.

Big Data is based upon the following characteristic features

1. Velocity: Analysis of streaming of Data.
2. Volume: Scale of data.
3. Veracity: Uncertainty of data.
4. Value: Value of data.
5. Verity: Different forms of Data.

Constraints the govt. of India facing in analysing the Big data

IT challenge
➢ The storage and computation power.
➢ To analyse such a huge amount of data one should have a superfast computer or should utilise
cloud services.

Computer science
➢ We do not know about Algorithm design, visualization, scalability, Streaming of data, or data
dimension reductions.

Mathematical science
➢ Statistics, optimisation, uncertainty quantification, Model development (statistical, ab initio,
simulation) analysis and system theory.

Multi-disciplinary approach
➢ Contextual problem-solving.
Meghraj cloud services
➢ Ministry of electronics and information technology ➔ National informatics centre ➔
Meghraj Cloud ➔ Data centres ➔ Big data.

Various services under Meghraj cloud services

1. Infrastructure as a service.
2. Platform as a service.
3. Software as a service.
4. Storage as a service.

3-D Printing Technology

➢ Also known as Additive manufacturing.
➢ Additive refers to the successive addition of thin layers between 16 to 180 microns of thickness to
manufacture a particular object.
➢ In this 3-D printing, first the design of the object will be prepared by using software known as
Computer-Aided Design (CAD).

Benefits of 3-D printing

1. Less and more efficient utilisation of raw materials for manufacturing purposes.
2. Within a short period, bulk production is possible to a wider extent (Different variety of products).
3. It can be used for small product manufacturing to the construction of houses and rockets.
4. Cost of the products become cheaper due to its bulk manufacturing.
5. Any innovative design can be manufactured.
6. Entrepreneur skills in India can be enhanced along with the manufacturing base.

Limitations/constraints
1. Lack of technology in India.
2. Cost of technology is very high.
3. Power bills become a burden for the common man.
4. Most people in India are unable to understand and utilise these advanced technologies.
5. Maintenance and operation costs become very high at this point.

➢ Note:
➢ Recently in India 3-D printed liver and 3-D printed eye were manufactured.
➢ These products are known as Bionics.
➢ The manufacturing process is known as Bioprinting.

Immersion Technology
➢ Blending of naturality into virtuality.

Types
1. Augmented Reality.
2. Virtual reality.
3. Mixed reality.
4. Metaverse.

Augmented Reality
➢ In this technology we can differentiate between a real as well as a virtual world.
➢ This augmented reality will be utilised by using tools such as smartphones, tabs, laptops, and
computers.
Virtual Reality
➢ With this technology we cannot differentiate which is a real and virtual one.
➢ It creates a new virtual world.
➢ This technology can be utilised by using helmets as well as goggles.
➢ Virtual reality is a computer generated 3- Dimensional environment.
➢ By using Oculus rift, google cardboard, or Samsung gear we can explore virtual reality.

Difference between AR and VR

Augmented Reality Virtual Reality
➢ In this technology we can differentiate ➢ In this technology we cannot differentiate which is
between the real and virtual world. a real and virtual one.
➢ Users interact with the real world. ➢ Users do not interact with the real world.
➢ This technology can be utilised using tools
➢ This technology can be utilised by using head-
such as smartphones, laptops, tabs, and
mounted helmets as well as goggles.
computers.
➢ In a Virtual reality system, equipment’s are not
➢ An augmented reality system needs sensors
heavily used because users are isolated from the
to collect data from the real world.
real world.

Mixed reality
➢ Interaction of human, computer and environment i.e., computer processing, human input, and
environmental input.
➢ It is developed based on augmented and virtual reality.
➢ It is a superior version of both realities.

(TOPIC FOR THE NEXT CLASS: CONTINUATION OF EMERGING TECHNOLOGIES)

Science and Technology Class 12
A brief Recap on Virtual reality and Augmented reality
➢ National Mission for Cyber-Physical System.

Metaverse
(Explanation)
➢ In the case of the computer, it does not give a response to you but in Metaverse, you will get a
response.

(Dictation)
➢ Metaverse is a combination of augmented virtual as well as mixed reality.
➢ It is considered as the successor of the mobile internet i.e., unlike the normal internet this
Metaverse will be responded to the commands of individuals to create a fabricated or virtual
environment.
➢ Metaverse is totally computer-generated world where we interact and sense the surrounding
environment.
➢ It works based on three key aspects.
➢ The three key aspects of Metaverse are:
1. Presence
2. Interoperability
3. Standardization

➢ The presence will exist in the form of the AVATAR.

➢ Interoperability means inter-connectedness with different devices as well as platforms.
➢ Standardization means, the standardization of different platforms with different technologies.

The Internet of Things (IoTs)

(Explanation)
➢ It is the extended version of the internet.
➢ Sensors and activators will play a key role in IoT.
➢ Industrial IoT.

(Dictation)
The Internet of Things
Anyone Any Service Any path Any Any Place Any Any Time Any Anything Any
Anybody Any Business Network Where contact Device

➢ IoT is inter Network of physical devices, vehicles, buildings, and other items, embedded with
electronics software, sensors, activators, and network connectivity that enable these objects to
collect and exchange data.
➢ IoT is an extended version of the Internet. Hence, we can call it as the future of the internet.
➢ In IoT technologies, communication will be between Human-and-Human, Human-and-Things,
Things-and-Things.

Different Networks, as described below, will be linked to each other

➢ BAN (body Area Network): Wearables.
➢ LAN (Local Area Networks): Smart Homes (Smart Grids).
➢ WAN (Wider Area Network): Connected Cars.
➢ VWAN (Very Wider Area Network): Smart City (Smart Villages).
Points to be remembered
Difference Between Mixed Reality and Metaverse
Mixed reality Metaverse
In Mixed reality is the combination of virtual and It is the combination of virtual, augmented Reality,
augmented Reality. and mixed reality.
Mixed reality is not the successor of mobile internet
It is the successor of mobile internet.
but an application of the internet.
It does have the concept of AVATAR. It has the concept of AVATAR.
It is less interactive compared to Metaverse. It is more interactive as compared to mixed reality.
In the metaverse, Humans in the form of AVATAR
Interaction in virtual form does not take place. will enter into different worlds and will interact with
others.

Blockchain and Virtual Currency

(Dictation)
➢ Blockchain is a digital ledger technology developed by IBM technologies.
➢ On the platform of this blockchain, the cryptocurrencies are bought and sold.
➢ Blockchain technology is an amalgamation of various technologies such as distributed systems,
cryptography, etc.
➢ Data and transactions done on the BC platforms will be stored in the form of blocks in a node of
the network.
➢ These nodes of the network may be of public as well as private.

This blockchain technology works on the following principles.

1. Transparency.
2. Decentralization.
3. Accountability.
4. Immutability.

Point to be remembered
Blockchain Technology is a novel data structure that is secure, cryptography-based, and stores
transactional records (Known as a block) in databases (known as chains) distributed across a network
through peer-to-peer nodes, allowing the transfer of digital goods.

➢ Cryptographic systems are the end-to-end encryptions i.e., the information will be sent in a
specialized format where the third party cannot visualize it.
➢ The specialized format can be visualized through passwords, codes, etc.

Features of the Blockchain

1. Data replication.
2. Transaction and data verification by the network of nodes. Thus, builds Trust.
3. Transaction immutability.
4. Traceability.
5. Disintermediation i.e., removing the need to depend on a central third party.
6. Adaptability to a variety of use cases.
Applications of the Blockchain
1. Transfer of land records.

2. Digital certification management.

➢ Education certificates, death certificates, digital lockers, etc.

3. Election Procedures.
➢ Elections can be conducted through e-voting.

4. Farm insurance.
➢ Insurance is given to the farmers.

5. Power distributions.
6. Electronic health record management.
7. Public service delivery system.
8. Vehicle life cycle management.
9. Micro-finance for the self-help groups.
10. Chit Funds operation administrations.
11. Digital Evidence management system.
12. Duty payments.
13. Pharmaceutical supply chain management.

Vajra Platform
➢ Established by the National Payment Corporation of India (NPCI).
➢ Manual Processing reduction Purpose.
➢ Vajra framework provides faster resolution of disputes.
➢ E.g., E-Vaccine management system.

Crypto Mining
➢ Mining rewards are paid to the miner who discovers a solution to a complex hashing puzzle first.
➢ The probability that a participant will be the one to discover the solution is related to the portion
of the network's total mining power.
➢ Bitcoin miners receive bitcoin as a reward for completing "blocks" of verified transactions,
which are added to the blockchain.

Quantum Technologies
Do you know
➢ Quantum mechanics is a branch of physics that describes the behaviour of particles such as
atoms, electrons, photons, and almost everything in a molecular and sub-molecular level.
➢ This quantum mechanics is a constituent of:
1. Quantum Entanglement.
2. Quantum Superposition.

➢ Quantum entanglement means it is a phenomenon that explains how two sub-atomic particles
can be intimately linked to each other even if separated by billions of light years of space.
➢ In Quantum entanglement, a small change that happened in a particular area; that information will
distribute to all sub-atomic particles whatever the distance may be.
➢ Quantum Superposition means, the ability of particles to exist across many possible states at the
same time.
➢ In this state some are visible and some are invisible.
Science and Technology Class 13
Quantum Technology
➢ Quantum Technology is based on the principles of Quantum mechanics.
➢ Using quantum superposition, a set of unbreakable codes or super-speedy information
processing, quantum computers can mimic several classical computers working in parallel.
➢ National Mission on Interdisciplinary Cyber-Physical Systems (NM-ICPS)

Application of Quantum Technologies

1. Secure communication.
2. Disaster management through better prediction.
3. Computing.
4. Simulation.
5. In chemistry.
6. In health care.
7. Cryptography.
8. Imaging.

➢ It also helps in understanding biological phenomena like smell, consciousness, enzyme catalysis,
photosynthesis, avian navigation, the origin of life and the effect of coronavirus.

In India we are focusing on Four Domains of Quantum Technologies

1. Quantum Communication.
2. Quantum Simulation.
3. Quantum Computation.
4. Quantum sensing and metrology.

Do You Know
➢ Quantum Simulation is a technology to simulate a real-world system to solve complex problems in
a programmable fashion.
➢ Simulators are special types of devices designed to provide insight about specific physics problems.
➢ To develop this quantum technology National Mission on Quantum Technologies and
Applications (NMQTA) was established with a budget of 8000 crores.
➢ 21 Quantum hubs and 4 quantum research parks will be established.

Conventional Computers Superfast Computers Quantum Computers

Bits/Bytes Flops: Floating Operations Per Second Qubits: Quantum Bits
0,1, 0&1, 0/1, square root of 1/0,
0,1
square root of 0/1

➢ Quantum Computers speed is measured in Quantum Bits or Qubits.

➢ Qubits can be entangled making quantum computers more powerful than classical computers.
➢ Quantum Entanglement is necessary for faster communication purposes.
➢ Superposition is useful for information storage purposes.
➢ In Quantum Bits 0 and 1 digit will be entangled and superposition in many ways such as 0, 1, 0&1,
0/1, square root of 1/0, and the square root of 0/1.
Benefits and Drawbacks of quantum computers
Benefits
➢ High-speed processing.
➢ Complex Problems related to physics can be solved at a faster rate.

Limitations
➢ It needs to be operated at a very cool temperature.
➢ High error rate.
➢ There is no mechanism for standardization and evaluation of quantum calculations and
quantum evaluations/computing.

Do You Know
➢ Quantum Computing:
➢ It is an area of study focused on creating computer technology based on the principles of
quantum theory which describes the nature and behaviour of matter and energy on the quantum
(atomic and subatomic) level.
➢ A classical computer performs operations using classical bits, which can be either 0 or 1.
➢ Now, in contrast, a quantum computer uses quantum bits or qubits.

Points to be remembered
➢ At the current stage, Quantum Computers cannot replace conventional computers, for day-to-
day operations conventional computers are necessary.

➢ In India, for developing a superfast computers National Supercomputing Mission was

established to enhance the research capacity and capability in the country.
➢ This mission is a joint project between the department of science and technology and the
ministry of electronics and information technology.
➢ Centre for Development of Advance Computing (C-DAC) is an organization that is
implementing the supercomputing mission.

➢ The Implementation of this mission has been planned in 3 phases:

1. Phase I: Looking at assembling supercomputers.
2. Phase II: Looking at manufacturing certain components within the country.
3. Phase III: Where a supercomputer is designed by India.

➢ All the superfast computers are interconnected through the super-computing grids and it is
implemented under the national knowledge network.
➢ National Knowledge Network: It is a system of Network where all research and development
centres within India are interconnected and forms a knowledge network.

Semi-Conductor Technologies
Substances
Based on the flow of electron
Conductors Semi-Conductors Insulators
Substances that allow the flow Partially allow the electrons to The substance that does not allow
of electrons. flow through it. electrons to flow through it.
Silver, coppers Silicon, Germanium Plastics, Rubbers
Super Conductors
➢ They are the technology/substances with zero resistance to the flow of electrons.
➢ Super Conductors do not exist naturally.
➢ Currently, we are manufacturing the superconductors.

Semi-Conductors
➢ Semi-Conductors are useful in both hardware as well as in software industries.
➢ These technologies/devices have become the hallmark of innovation and technological
advancement that has enabled transistors tens of thousands of times thinner than a strand of
hair.
➢ For developing this semi-conductor technology National Mission for semi-conductor was
established under this mission Fab-labs are settled.
➢ Semi-conductors are used in the manufacturing of chips, transistors, as well as other electronic
components.

Artificial Intelligence (AI)

➢ It is software used in a machine. It mimics the behaviour of humans and is known as the Robot.
➢ Robot: A machine, that mimics the behaviour of Humans through predetermined Software.

Software Used Artificial Intelligence

Static Robots Dynamic Robots
Performs simple tedious task Rolling Robots Sliding Robots Walking Robots/Humanoid robot

➢ Artificial Intelligence is software that makes machines to behave like humans.

➢ Artificial Intelligence Technology provides an opportunity to complement Human Intelligence
and combat socio-economic issues.

This artificial Intelligence has the following approaches

Human Approach
➢ The system that thinks like humans.
➢ The system that acts like Humans.

Ideal Approach
➢ The system that thinks rationally.
➢ The system that acts rationally.

➢ AI has two sub-sets i.e., machine learning and deep learning.

➢ More accurately, deep learning is a subset of machine learning and machine learning is a subset
of artificial intelligence.

All these have the following functions

Deep Learning
➢ Subset of machine learning which makes the computation of multilayer neural network feasible.
➢ Thus, AI is an artificial neural network useful for computation/processing.

Machine Learning
➢ Subset of AI techniques which use statistical methods to enable machines to improve with
experience.
➢ Machine learning uses deep learning to enable the robot to improve with experience.
Artificial Intelligence
➢ A technique that enables machines to mimic human behaviour.
➢ It mimics the behaviour of humans.

Difference Between Machine Learning and Deep/Deep Neural Learning

Machine Learning Deep Learning/Deep Neural Learning
Deep Learning is a subset of machine learning in AI
Machine learning involves the use of algorithms
that has a network capable of learning unsupervised
to parse data and learn from it.
from data that is unstructured or unlabelled.
It provides systems with the ability to
Deep Learning is a technique for implementing
automatically learn and improve from experience
machine learning.
without being explicitly programmed.
Deep learning is an AI function that imitates the
This enables deciding or prediction. working of the human brain in processing data and
creating patterns for use in decision-making.

Types of Artificial Intelligence

Artificial Intelligence
Categories
Based on Thinking Based on Task Performance Based on Human Intelligence
Weak AI Strong AI Narrow AI Broad/General Ai Super Human AI
❖ It has actual
thinking.
❖ Weak AI ❖ Systems
means it has behave ❖ It is
❖ It is used to refer to general
simulated intelligently limited
❖ It is and strong AI at the point at
thinking. and think like to a
multitasking. which it surpasses human
❖ An example humans. single
intelligence, if it ever does.
is the ❖ It has task.
chatbot. consciousness.
❖ Example Chat
debating.

➢ Simulated Thinking:
➢ The system appears to behave intelligently but does not have any consciousness.

Application of the AI
Potential use cases of AI in healthcare
Keeping well
➢ Monitoring blood sugar levels, blood pressure levels, and heartbeat rate through an artificial
intelligence device.

Early Detection of diseases

➢ Diabetes, cancer, etc.

Diagnosis
➢ of diseases without chemical tests.
Decision Making
➢ Regarding the prescription of medicines by the artificial robot.
➢ Suggestion for the surgery and operation.

Treatment

End of Life Care

➢ Intensive care units

Research

Training
➢ of doctors and para-medical staff.

The topic for the next class discussion: Artificial Intelligence will be continued
Science and Technology Class 14
Biotechnology
(Explanation)
❖ Biotechnology refers to the synthesis and production of useful things using living organisms
(plants, microorganisms, and animals).
❖ Biotechnology is a very old concept and recently we have seen much progress in the field.

Classifications of biotechnology as per time Diagram

❖ It refers to the use of living organisms such as plants, animals, and microorganisms for the
production of useful matter.

Ancient
❖ Knowledge of food, shelter and domestication.
❖ Example ➔ Fermentation through Lactobacillus delbrukii produced curd from milk.

Medieval/ Classical
❖ Fermentation based food production, medicine.
❖ Example ➔ Fermentation through yeast fungus made alcohol from sugar.
❖ Yeast fungus was also used to make bread.

Modern
❖ Genetic engineering and molecular level manipulation.
❖ Multidisciplinary in nature.

Types of Modern Biotech

1. Red Biotech: Production of drugs & vaccines
2. Green Biotech: Agricultural applications.
3. Blue Biotech: Aquatic applications.
4. White Biotech: Industrial production.
5. Grey Biotech: Environmental application.

Biotechnology
(dictation)
❖ Biotechnology means the technical use of living organisms for the production of useful products.
❖ Here the living organisms may include plants, animals, and microorganisms.
❖ Biotechnology is not a new concept and it existed since the starting stages of civilization.
❖ Modern biotechnology has a multidisciplinary approach.

Tools of biotechnology
1. Cloning Technique.
2. Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR) Technique.
3. Genome Sequencing.
4. Genetic Engineering.
A. Gene therapy.
B. R-DNA technique.
C. Genome editing.
5. DNA Finger Printing.
Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR) Diagram
❖ Less amount of DNA will be converted into large amount of DNA.

Applications of PCR
❖ It is useful in establishing artificial DNA libraries.
❖ It is used as a tool in DNA fingerprinting techniques to identify criminals and culprits.
❖ It is used in the diagnosis of diseases caused due to genes.
❖ It is used in the testing of genetic mutations.
❖ Gene mapping studies.
❖ Fossil studies.

Do you know? Diagram

❖ A cell consists of a nucleus.

❖ A cell is the basic structural and functional unit of life because every living organism on the
earth has to start life with a single cell.
❖ Viruses are the only living organism that is not made up of cells, so they are called acellular.
❖ Living organisms may be single-cellular or multicellular.
❖ This single cell (zygote) is a result of the fusion of egg and sperm which fertilizes to become a
zygote.
❖ This zygote later undergoes cell division and we get an embryo.
❖ Nucleus consists of chromosomes.
❖ Upon the chromosomes DNA is present.
❖ On the DNA, the gene is present.
❖ The nucleus is known as the brain of the cell because it controls and coordinates every activity in
the cell.
❖ Chromosomes are hereditary vehicles because they transfer DNA from one generation to
another.
❖ The chromosomal number remains constant within the same species but varies from one species
to another.
❖ DNA is the genetic/ hereditary material.
❖ Gene is the hereditary unit.
❖ DNA is present on the surface of the chromosomes.
❖ The whole DNA present on the chromosomes or inside the nucleus is known as the Genome.
❖ DNA is the only molecule on the earth that can self-replicate on its own.
❖ DNA is known as genetic material because the whole information regarding life is stored in it.
 ❖ DNA is known as hereditary material as it transfers information from one generation to another.
❖ Almost all living organisms on the earth will have DNA as genetic material, except a few viruses.
❖ Examples of viruses with RNA as genetic material- are HIV, Corona, Dengue, etc.
❖ In some bacteria, circular-shaped DNA is present which is known as a plasmid.
❖ A gene is a hereditary unit of DNA that represents characters.
❖ More genes mean more generic diversity.
❖ DNA and RNA are together present in the nucleus and they are basically acidic in nature.
❖ So, they are termed nucleic acids.

Features of DNA/RNA (Deoxy Ribo Nucleic Acid) Diagram

❖ DNA classification.

Sugar Base Nitrogenous Bases Phosphate group

1. Adenine (A)
2. Guanine (G)
Deoxyribose sugar
3. Thymine (T)
4. Cytosine(C)

❖ In the DNA, information will be stored in the form of triplet code made up of nitrogenous bases
such as Adenine, Guanine, Thymine, and Cytosine.
❖ Each and every triplet code quotes for amino acids.
❖ All these groups of amino acids are together known as polypeptide chains, also known
as proteins.
❖ Information present in DNA will be sent to any body part or organ in the form of proteins.
❖ That mechanism is known as Gene expression.

Central Dogma/Gene Expression Diagram

(Explanation)
❖ It refers to the flow of genetic information only in one direction, from DNA to RNA, to protein, or
RNA directly to protein.
❖ Transcription is the process by which a cell makes an RNA copy of a piece of DNA.
❖ This RNA copy, called messenger RNA (mRNA), carries the genetic information needed to make
proteins in a cell.
❖ The translation is the process by which a protein is synthesized from the information contained in
a molecule of mRNA.

Reverse transcription
❖ This is the process through which an enzyme makes a copy of DNA from RNA.
❖ Viruses which are having reverse transcription mechanisms are known as retroviruses.
❖ These viruses are detected through RTPCR- Reverse Transcription Polymerase Chain Reaction.

Differences between DNA & RNA Diagram

DNA RNA
Deoxyribonucleic Acid Ribonucleic Acid
It is a double helical structure. It is a single helical structure.
Consists of Thymine, Adenine, Guanine, and
Consists of Uracil, Adenine, Guanine, and Cytosine.
Cytosine.
Cloning
Natural Cloning Artificial Cloning
For example- Twins:
1. Gene cloning.
1. Monozygotic.
2. Therapeutic cloning.
2. Heterozygotic.
3. Reproductive cloning.
3. Siamese (co-joint) twins.

❖ Clones are genetically similar but physically different organisms.

❖ Natural clones are also known as identical twins which occur in humans and other mammals.

❖ In plants, cloning takes place through asexual reproduction.

❖ For example- Potato reproduces asexually by growing tubers from which new plants will grow.
❖ In nature, single-celled organisms such as bacteria produce genetically identical offspring.

Fertilization in humans
❖ Eggs and sperm fertilize to form a zygote.
❖ In vitro fertilization happens in the test tube in a lab.
❖ In vivo fertilization happens inside the body.

Natural Cloning
Monozygotic twins
❖ Twins are produced from a single zygote.
❖ Twins can be male-male or female-female.

Heterozygotic twins
❖ Two eggs and two sperm cells fertilize simultaneously in the mother's foetus.
❖ Two different zygotes (twins) will be formed in a single womb.
❖ The genders can be male-female, male-male, and female-female.

Co-Joint/ Siamese twins

❖ Two twins are joined together.
❖ They may or may not be separated.
❖ They may be homozygous or heterozygous.

Surrogacy
❖ When the fusion of egg and sperm takes place inside the test tube in the laboratory, then it is
known as in vitro fertilization (IVF).
❖ As a result of this fusion, an embryo will be developed from the zygote.
❖ At the 32-celled stage, if the embryo is transferred to the original mother, then the resultant
baby is known as a test-tube baby or cloned baby.
❖ If the 32-celled stage embryo is transferred into a rented mother's womb, then it is known
as surrogacy.
Artificial Cloning
Gene/DNA cloning
❖ It produces copies of genes or segments of DNA which are identical in nature.
❖ The production of large quantities of genes is called gene cloning.
❖ Since any gene is a segment of DNA having a particular segment of four nitrogenous bases (A, T,
G, C).
❖ Multiple copies of a particular gene may be obtained by the means of Recombinant DNA
technology, popularly known as genetic engineering.

Therapeutic cloning
❖ It involves the creation of a cloned embryo for the sole purpose of producing embryonic stem
cells with the same DNA as the donor cells.
❖ These stem cells can be used in experiments aimed at understanding diseases and developing
new treatments for the diseases.
❖ To date, there is no evidence that human embryos have been produced for therapeutic cloning.

Reproductive cloning
❖ Production of a whole living organism through cloning.
❖ For example- Dolly sheep, Samrupa (the world's first cloned buffalo calf), and Pashmina goat kid
cloned in Kashmir.

DNA Fingerprinting/ Profiling Diagram

❖ 99.9 % genome (complete set of DNA) is same for all humans.
❖ The 0.1 % variation in DNA has the following things:
1. Single Nucleotide Polymers.
2. Variable Number Tandem Repeats.
3. Polymorphism (Repetition of the same kind of nucleotides in the genome).
4. Repetitive DNA (DNA sequences that are repeated many times).
5. Satellite DNA (Secondary DNA, rather than the main DNA).

The above samples are used in DNA fingerprinting technique for the following purposes:
❖ Genetic variations between living organisms.
Point to be remembered: In monozygotic twins, genetic variations are not possible.
❖ Murder and rape cases can be solved easily.
❖ Maternity (J. Jayalalithaa) and Paternity (N.D. Tiwari) cases can be solved.
❖ Identification of Genes that cause hereditary diseases.
❖ Helps to identify racial groups, their origin, historical migration, and invasion.

Samples that are collected for DNA fingerprinting

1. Blood samples.
2. Saliva.
3. Semen.
4. Any body part- bone, tissue, hair with roots, etc.

The topic for the next class is the continuation of biotechnology.

Science and Technology Class 15
Genome Sequencing
Do You Know
❖ Genome is the entire set of DNA instructions found in a cell.
❖ In humans, the genome consists of 23 pairs of chromosomes, located in cell nuclei as well as small
chromosomes in cell mitochondria.
❖ Some genomes are incredibly small that are present in bacteria and viruses.
❖ Human genome contains about 3 billion nucleotides.

Sequencing
Genome sequencing
❖ Genome sequencing means sequencing the genome of a particular organ or a particular tissue.
❖ This genome sequencing will be done by clone-by-clone approach.

Whole Genome sequencing

❖ Whole genome sequencing means sequencing the whole genome present in a particular living
organism.
❖ It will be done by using the whole genome shotgun method.

❖ Clone by clone approach means the genome will be broken down into relatively large pieces called
clones.
❖ These clones were sequenced one by one; hence it is known as a clone-by-clone approach.
❖ It is a very lengthy and time taking process.

❖ In the whole genome shotgun method, the genome will be broken into small pieces of sequences
and all these small pieces will be decoded at a time, which is a simple and faster method.

Point to be remembered
❖ A single living organism will have many genes but has only one genome.

Applications of Genome Sequencing

Preparing DNA barcoding (biological passports)
❖ DNA barcoding includes small pieces of DNA tags or bar code to identify which piece of sheared DNA
belongs to which organism (Bacteria, Plant, and Animal).

Developing of vaccines

Tracing of mutations
❖ Mutations mean a sudden change in the genes of living organisms.
❖ These mutations may be positive as well as negative.

Studying Efficiency
❖ Studying efficacy means the efficiency of the vaccine is known, as well as the efficiency of the virus
can be known.
❖ Efficiency of the virus means the virulent nature of the virus/disease-causing nature.

Diagnosis of diseases
❖ Diagnosis of diseases based on the genome sequence of particular micro-organisms.

Pathogenic evolution studies

❖ Pathogenic evolution studies, for instance, drug-resistant studies.
Origin and distribution of pathogenic studies can be done.

Precision medicine (tailored medicine) can be designed for a particular disease.

Human Genome Project (HGP)

❖ HGP was the international collaborative research program.
❖ Many countries are involved in this HGP.
❖ It was first started in the USA.

The 3 key aspects of HGP are

1. To determine how all the bases of DNA for our genome are ordered or sequenced.
2. To create maps that show genes' position in major parts of all our chromosomes.
3. To produce so-called connective maps that can be used over generations to track inherited traits
(such as those for genetic diseases.)

HGP is implemented in 2 phases

HGP Read
❖ HGP Read means decoding the information present in the genome.

HGP Write
❖ HGP Write means assembling the sheared DNA into a normal genome and maintaining the database.

❖ India is not a part of the Human Genome Project Read, but India took part in HGP Write.

Within India, for human genome sequencing two projects were launched
Genome India project
❖ Genome India Project is for cataloging the genetic variations within India, i.e.,
1. Reference Genome for India.
2. Disease Gene Identification.
3. Capacity Building, and Networking.
4. Genetic basis for adverse effects and response to drugs.
5. Resources for large and cheaper genetic studies.
❖ By M. Science and Technology ➔ Department of Biotechnology ➔ GIP

Indi-Gen project
❖ Indi-Gen project aim is to undertake whole genome sequencing of 1000s of individuals representing
diverse ethnic groups from India.
❖ CSIR is implementing this project.
Genetic Engineering (GE)
❖ Genetic Engineering is also known as genetic modification or genetic alteration or genetic
manipulation.
❖ Genetic Engineering is a process that uses laboratory-based technologies to alter the DNA makeup of
an organism.
❖ This may involve changing a single base pair (A-T or C-G), deleting a region of DNA, or adding a new
segment of DNA.
❖ Genetic Engineering may involve adding a gene from one species to an organism from a different
species to produce a desired trait.
❖ Genetic Engineering is multidisciplinary in nature, which means it is used in research and industry,
used in cancer therapy, and used in fermentation, and the production of hybrid varieties of plants and
animals.

Do You Know
❖ Genetic Engineering is a successor of the Selective Breeding technique.

These both techniques differ in the following ways:

❖ In Selective Breeding we have to cross the parents for many generations to get the desired traits but
in Genetic Engineering, within one generation, we can get desired traits.
❖ Selective Breeding is time taking process but Genetic Engineering is a fast and simple mechanism.
❖ In Selective breeding we may or may not get desired traits within one generation, hence we have to
cross the parents for many generations until we get desired characteristics but in Genetic
Engineering, we deal directly with genes, hence with high accuracy, we can get the desired characters
within one generation.

❖ Transfer of genes from one species to another species is known as transgenesis.

❖ The products that are produced through this process are known as Transgenic plants or transgenic
animals or GMO (Genetically Modified Organism) or LMO (Living Modified Organism).
❖ These GMOs or LMOs or Transgenic plants or Transgenic Animals can also be produced
through recombinant DNA (rDNA) technology.
❖ rDNA is a part of Genetic Engineering.
❖ In this method DNA from different species is taken and created a new gene with new functions and
the resultant copies are often referred to as recombinant DNA or Chimeric DNA.
Application of Genetic Engineering and Recombinant DNA technology
❖ Note: refer to the diagram as drawn in the class for Insulin gene production.

❖ Insulin produced through rDNA technology is known as Humulin.

❖ Production of BT-cotton (Bacillus Turin genesis Bacteria- transgenesis gene to cotton plant= BT
cotton).

❖ Production of BT-mustard (Bacillus Amylo Liquifaciens- transgenesis gene to mustard plant= GM

Mustard).
❖ GM Mustard is a self-pollinating plant.
Pollination
❖ Transfer of pollen grains from one flower to another flower/ one plant to another plant.

Self-pollination
❖ Transfer of pollen grains within the same flower.
❖ Hybrids cannot be produced due to transfer of same genes.

Cross pollination
❖ Transfer of pollen grain from one plant to another.
❖ Hybrid can be produced easily due to cross transfer of genes.

❖ Barnase gene was extracted from the soil bacteria and was introduced into the mustard plant to
make the male part of the flower sterile.
❖ From the European Union variety, pollen grains were transferred to the Indian Dhar variety of
mustard plant.
❖ Hence it is possible to develop a hybrid variety.
❖ For the first time, to produce a hybrid variety from self-pollinating plants Barnes's technology or
Barstar technology was used.
❖ This technology is used only for self-pollinating plants.

Do you know
❖ Environmental Protection Act 1986 ➔ Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change ➔ Genetic
Engineering Appraisal committee ➔ Provides permission for GMO crops commercial cultivation.
❖ And permission will be approved by MoEFCC.
Gene Therapy
❖ Gene Therapy is a laboratory technique practices in order to cure genetic disorders by replacing a
defective gene with a normal one.
❖ With this gene therapy, both inherited genetic diseases such as Hemophilia and sickle cell disease,
and acquired disorders such as Leukemia have been treated with gene therapy.

This gene therapy can be performed in two ways:

1. In-vivo (in body cells directly).
2. Ex-vivo (in the laboratory).

Application of Gene Therapy

1. To replace a fully mutated gene.
2. To introduce a new gene or DNA sequence that is missing.
3. To inactivate the mutant gene.
4. To insert a totally new gene.

Question: What is genetic engineering? Discuss its merits and demerits.

Merits of genetic engineering
1. Hybrid variety of plants can be produced both in self-pollinating and cross-pollinating plants.
2. Biotic-resistant plants can be developed, i.e., pest resistant plants/ biopesticide plants, for example,
BT Cotton.
3. Abiotic-resistant plants can be developed like drought and flood resistant.
4. High-yielding varieties of plants and animals like GM Mustard, and cattle population.
5. New living organisms can be created to clean up the environment, for example, through the
bioremediation technique.
6. Longer shelf-life vegetables and fruits can be developed, for example, flavr Savr tomato variety which
has a longer life span.

Challenges/ Demerits of genetic engineering

1. Naturality will be lost (playing with God).
2. Environmental impacts in long run.
3. Ethical issues such as patenting of life forms and controlling food intake.
4. Due to the composing culture of India, vegetarian people's feelings will be hurt.
5. Super weeds (unwanted plants) may develop and it shows impacts on crops.
6. Input cost of agriculture will increase.
7. New species developments such as plants, animals, and micro-organisms may have hazardous
impacts on human health and the environment.

Next Class Topic: genome editing technology.

Science and Technology Class 16
Genome editing Diagram
❖ CRISPR- Clustered Regularly Interspaced short palindromic repeats.
❖ Cas-9- Clustered Associated Protein-9.
❖ Genome editing is a part of genetic engineering in which the genome can be modified and edited
through insertion and deletion.

There are 3 types of Genome editing methods

1. CRISPR CAs9.
2. TALENs- Transcription activators like endonucleases.
3. Zinc finger nucleases.

❖ Among the above 3 methods, CRISPR CAS 9 is the most widely accepted method.
❖ It is simpler, faster, cheaper, and more accurate than older genome editing methods.

CRISPR-Cas 9 genome editing tool consists of the following 2 components

1. Single guide RNA that contains a sequence that can bind to DNA.
2. CAS-9 enzyme act as a molecular scissor that can cleave DNA.

In India, Genome editing technology was given permission to bring desired changes in agriculture by
using site-directed nucleases.

3 Categories
Site-directed nuclease 1
❖ Introducing the changes in the host genome's DNA through small insertions and deletions
without the introduction of foreign genetic material.

Site-directed nuclease 2
❖ SDN 2 involves using a small DNA template to generate specific changes.
❖ SDN 1 and SDN 2 do not involve alien genetic material but the end result is indistinguishable from
the conventional breed crop varieties.

Site-directed nuclease 3
❖ Large DNA can be transferred from 1 species to another ➔ like a GMO.

❖ When any hybrid plants were developed by using SDN 1 and SDN 2, there is no need to get
permission from the genetic engineering appraisal committee.
❖ But they come under the supervision of the institutional biosafety committee to exclude
exogenous materials.
❖ Plant hybrids developed from SDN 3 technology should require permission from the genetic
engineering appraisal committee ➔ because it is similar to GMOs.

Do you know?
❖ SDN 1, and SDN 2 are not totally exempted from the environmental protection act of 1986.
❖ It is exempted from rules 7 to 11 which come under the GEAC.
❖ An institutional biosafety committee was established under EPA which was entrusted to certify
that the genome-edited crop is devoid of any foreign DNA.
Applications of genome editing
1. Extinct animals can be recreated.
2. Designer babies can be produced.
3. Diseases such as cancer and HIV can be treated.
4. Neurological disorders such as Alzheimer's and Parkinson's disease can be cured.
5. Developing hybrid variety in animals and plants.
6. Genetically inherited diseases can be cured through genome editing technology.

Do you know?
❖ The basic difference between genetic engineering and genome editing is that the former does not
involve the introduction of foreign genetic material.
❖ SDN 3 and Recombinant DNA Technology are the same.
❖ The products are called GMOs or LMOs.

Stem cells
Normal cells
❖ Cell division.
❖ Self-renewal.
❖ No differentiation.

Stem cells
❖ Cell division.
❖ Self-renewal.
❖ Differentiation capacity is there.

❖ Stem cells are the mother cells which has the capacity to differentiate into any type of cell when
the situation arises.
❖ They provide new cells for the body as it grows and replace specialized cells that are damaged or
lost.

Stem cells
Based on the source
Embryonic stem cells
❖ Blastocyst stage of the embryo.

Umbilical cord blood stem cells

❖ Extracted from the umbilical cord.

Adult stem cells

❖ Extracted from new-born children to 35 years of age.

Induced pluripotent stem cells

❖ Normal cells through genetic reprogramming will be converted into stem cells.

Points to be remembered
❖ No country so far has given permission for research on embryonic stem cells.
❖ Doing research on 13 to 14 days embryos is considered a crime because once it was disturbed,
the nervous system will be damaged.
❖ Different types of stem cell collections were banned in India except for umbilical cord blood
stem cells cause of well-developed technology.
❖ Stem cells present in both plants and animals
Stem cells
Stem cells based on potentiality
❖ Stem cell differentiation capability.

Unipotent stem cells

❖ Single stem cell is differentiated into any one type of cell either heart, liver, or lung.
❖ Example ➔ Adult stem cells.

Multipotent stem cells

❖ Single stem cell is divided into different types of cells but all belong to the same category like
Haematopoietic cells, RBCs, WBCs, and Platelets.
❖ Examples ➔ Embryonic stem cells and Umbilical cord blood stem cells.

Pluripotent stem cells

❖ Single stem cell is divided into different types of cells such as heart cells, blood cells, etc.

Totipotent stem cells

❖ From a single stem cell, the whole living organism will be developed.
❖ Examples ➔ Embryonic stem cells and Umbilical cord blood stem cells.

Applications of stem cells

❖ Developing new organs which can replace defective organs.
❖ These kinds of organs do not show any kind of immuno reception.
❖ In India as well as globally to treat blood cancers as well as blood disorders, only blood stem cells
from bone marrow are permitted.
❖ In India, according to new drug and clinical trial rules 2019, stem cells derived products are to
be used as a new drug as a part of regenerative therapy and therapeutic cloning.
❖ Stem cell-derived organs called organoids are permitted to use in clinical trials.
❖ Stem cells are widely used in hair transplantation.

Do you know
❖ Stem cell culturing from plant extract is known as tissue culture.
❖ Culturing of stem cells from animal products ➔ Animal stem cell culture.
❖ Stem cells in both animals and plants are basically immature in nature.
❖ They are responsible for the repair and regeneration of tissues.
❖ They are preserved in the stem cell banks at a very cold temperature known as cryopreservation.
Vaccines
❖ Vaccines are liquid suspensions that consist of the same microorganisms and their parts.
❖ When they are administered through injections, nasal and orally, it triggers the human immune
system and produces antibodies.
❖ Intentionally, the human immune system is triggered to get rid of different diseases during their
lifetime.
❖ Administering of vaccines is known as vaccination or immunization.
❖ Some vaccines show permanent solutions but some other vaccines need to be administered
frequently in booster doses.
❖ The government of India is focussing on developing vaccines for all long-term life claiming
diseases as a part of prevention is better than cure initiatives.

Do you know
❖ When bacteria, viruses, fungi, and protozoa enter the human body it causes diseases.
❖ To kill this pathogenic microorganism or pathogens human body produces antibodies ➔ called
Immunity.
❖ Based on this concept vaccines have been developed.
❖ Immunity may be natural and acquired.
❖ Acquired immunity may be through vaccines.

Types of vaccines
Inactive vaccines
❖ Contain killed pathogens.
❖ Killed pathogens by use of chemicals, heat, or radiation.
❖ Examples ➔ Hepatitis A, Rabies vaccine, and Inactive polio vaccine.

Live attenuated vaccine

❖ Contain Pathogens in a living condition.
❖ Example ➔ BCG vaccine, yellow fever, Rotavirus, Oral polio vaccine, etc.
❖ Attenuation means removing the bad character of microorganisms.

Acellular/ Subunit vaccine

❖ Instead of the entire pathogen subunit vaccines include only the components of a virus or
bacteria that best stimulate the immune system.
❖ Several types:
1. Protein subunit vaccines.
2. Polysaccharide vaccines.
3. Conjugate subunit vaccines.

❖ Example ➔ HIB, Hepatitis B, Human papilloma virus, etc.

Next class- Continuation of vaccines.

Science and Technology Class 17
Conjugate vaccines
❖ Initially, they were manufactured with sugar molecules that is polysaccharides but it seems to be
less effective.
❖ Later to make it more effective, they took proteins from the concerned microorganisms which
have a strong impact on the immune system.
❖ Examples ➔ Hemophilus influenza vaccine, and the Pneumococcal conjugate vaccine.

Toxoid vaccines
❖ Contain toxins (harmful products) made by the germ that causes the disease.
❖ They create immunity to the part of the germ that causes a disease instead of the germ itself.
❖ The antigens in toxoid vaccines are chemically inactive toxins known as toxoids.
❖ Examples ➔ Diphtheria, and Tetanus.

Nucleic acid vaccines

❖ By taking the DNA and RNA of viruses and bacteria, these vaccines will be manufactured.
❖ Examples ➔ West Nile virus vaccine.

Recombinant vaccine
❖ A small piece of DNA is taken from disease causing bacteria or viruses.
❖ A particular gene is incorporated in the plasmid or a carrier vehicle that enables the production of
large quantities of well-defined proteins which are then used as vaccines.

Viral vector-based vaccines

❖ Use a harmless virus or bacterium as a vector to introduce genetic materials into cells triggering
protective immunity against it.

2 types of viral vector-based vaccines

1. Non-replicating vector vaccines.
2. Replicating vector vaccines.
❖ Examples ➔ Ebola and corona vaccine.
Do you know
Bacteria vs Virus
❖ Bacteria ➔ single cell to multicellular, Virus ➔ acellular.
❖ Bacteria ➔ Ubiquitous/ omnipresent, Virus ➔ Sustains within the host only.
❖ Bacteria ➔ can live without a host, Virus ➔ cannot live without a host.
❖ Bacteria ➔ replicate on their own, Virus ➔ cannot replicate on their own, it uses cell division
mechanism of host.
❖ Bacteria ➔ Sustain at any temperature, Virus ➔ cannot sustain at normal temperatures.
❖ Bacteria ➔ Circular shaped DNA called a plasmid, Virus ➔ DNA as genetic material except for
some viruses.

Some vaccines
❖ India's indigenously developed Covaxin comes under inactive virus.
❖ Covishield is under the category of viral vector vaccine.
❖ Sputnik is under the category of Viral vector vaccine.
❖ Pfizer is under the category of RNA vaccine.
❖ Novavax is under the category of protein-based vaccine.

Bioremediation
❖ A biotechnological application where the natural degradation process takes place at a faster rate.
❖ In this technique through biotechnological applications i.e., genetic engineering techniques, new
living organisms will be designed which has a capability to clean up an environment.
❖ Iodonella Sakinen sis degrades plastics.
❖ Oil zappers for cleaning oil spills.

Do you know
❖ Among all the 5 types of microorganisms, only bacteria and fungi are involved in decomposition
and degradation.
❖ The only microorganism that causes cancer is the virus.
❖ Human papilloma virus ➔ Cervical cancer.

Fortification
❖ Enhancing nutritional values.

2 types
Food fortification
❖ Adultering (Adding) the food products.
❖ Example:
1. Vitamin D added to milk.
2. Fat Soluble vitamin A, D, E, K in oils.
3. Iron and iodized salt.

Bio Fortification
❖ Desired genes are transferred from one plant to another plant especially staple food plants to
produce nutrients in an inbuilt manner.
❖ Example:
1. Golden rice.
2. Zinc variety of rice.
3. Wheat.
Defence
Based on the path
Cruise missile
❖ Missile travelling in linear path within the atmosphere.

Ballistic missile
❖ Travels in a parabolic path.

Based on the launch mode

❖ Surface-to-Surface missile ➔ Agni, Prithvi.
❖ Surface-to-Air missile ➔ Akash.
❖ Air to Surface missile ➔ Helina missile.
❖ Air-to-air Missile ➔ Astra.
❖ Water to Water missile ➔ Torpedo.
❖ Water to Surface missile ➔ Kay missile.
❖ Anti-Tank missile ➔ Nag.
❖ Anti-Satellite missile ➔ Mission shakti.
❖ Anti-Radiation missile ➔ Rudram missile.

Based on warhead
Conventional missile
❖ Which carries conventional chemical warhead.

Strategic missile
❖ Which carries nuclear warhead.

Cruise missile based on the speed of sound

Sonic missile
❖ Missile traveling equally to the speed of sound.

Subsonic missile
❖ Missile traveling below the speed of sound.
❖ Example ➔ Nirbhay missile.

Supersonic
❖ Missile traveling above the speed of sound.
❖ 2- 5 Mach number speed.
❖ Example ➔ Brahmos 1 missile.

Hypersonic
❖ Missile traveling 5 times the speed of sound.
❖ Example ➔ Brahmos 2 missile.
Ballistic missile based on the range
Short-range ballistic missile
❖ Range ➔100-2000Km

Medium-range ballistic missile

❖ Range ➔ 2000- 4000 Km.

Intermediate-range ballistic missile

❖ Range ➔ 4000- 5500 Km.

Intercontinental range ballistic missile

❖ The range is above 5500 Km.

Do you know
❖ The speed of the missile is always measured in Mach numbers (Especially Cruise Missile).
❖ Mach number ➔ Speed of object / Speed of sound.
❖ It is a dimension less and a unit less quantity.
❖ Only 2 intercontinental missiles in India, Agni 5 and Agni 6.

Cruise vs ballistic missile

❖ Cruise missile ➔ travels in linear path, Ballistic missile ➔ travels in parabolic path.
❖ Cruise missile ➔ sorter in range, Ballistic missile ➔ longer in range.
❖ Cruise missile ➔ target specific, Ballistic missile ➔ non-target specific.
❖ Cruise missile ➔ Lesser payloads, Ballistic missile ➔ heavier payloads.

Brahmos Missile
❖ India- Brahmaputra River.
❖ Russia- Moskov River.

Brahmos Versions
1. Brahmos 1 ➔ Supersonic cruise stealth missile.
2. Brahmos 2 (K) ➔ Hypersonic cruise stealth missile.
3. Brahmos Next Generation ➔

Brahmos 1 missile can be launched in different variants:

Ship-based weapon system
❖ Brahmos has been deployed on Indian navy frontline surface combat platforms including
destroyers, and frigates.

Air-based weapon system

❖ Sukhoi 30 MKI Aircraft.
❖ Tejas lightweight Aircraft.

Submarine-based weapon system

❖ INS Arihant.

Land-based weapon system

❖ Brahmos 2 (Underdevelopment) ➔ Hypersonic stealth missile.

❖ The range of the Brahmos missile is 290 Km.
❖ It can carry a payload of 300 kg.
Brahmos Next Generation
❖ An updated version of a supersonic cruise missile system in a lighter, compact configuration
without compromising on its high speed, existing strike range, lethality, and stealth characters.

Key features of Brahmos Next Generation

1. Reduced dimension and weight for widespread usage that means it can be launched from a wider
range of platforms.
2. Advanced Next-generation stealth technology that means enemy radars cannot detect.
3. It is effective against electronic counter-counter measure system.
4. High versatility in underwater combat applications.
5. Launch readiness from Torpedo tube and vertical orientation.

Nirbhay missile
❖ Long-range subsonic cruise missile.
❖ The capability of reaching the target day and night in all weather conditions.
❖ Travels at a lower altitude.
❖ Also called a tree-top flying missile.
❖ Range up to 1000 km.
❖ A payload of 300 kg can be carried.
❖ It carries both nuclear and conventional warheads.

Ballistic missile

❖ Ballistic Missile while travelling in a parabolic path requires fuel from starting point to the
maximum height it reaches.
❖ The remaining part is guided by natural laws.
❖ Ballistic Missile move out of the atmosphere, travel into space, and will re-enter the atmosphere.
Defence Research Developmental Laboratory (DRDL) has established 2 projects
Project valiant
❖ Aim is to developing long-range ballistic missiles.
❖ Terminated in 1974.

Project devil
❖ Aim is to developing short-range surface-to-air missiles.
❖ Terminated in 1980.

❖ After the termination of these 2 projects, in 1983 under APJ Abdul kalam, Integrated Guided
missile development programme (IGMDP) was launched to develop different ranges of missiles
to strengthen India.

The 5 missile systems were taken up

1. Prithvi missile.
2. Agni missile.
3. Trishul missile.
4. Nag missile.
5. Akash missile.

Trishul missile
❖ It is the first generation of missiles under IGMDP.
❖ Surface-to-Air missile.
❖ 12 kms of range.
❖ The project was terminated due to multiple failures.
❖ To fill this gap Barak missiles (Israel) were introduced.

Akash missile
Conventional Akash/ Normal Akash
❖ Surface-to-Air missile.
❖ Range of 30 km.

Akash prime
❖ Equipped with indigenous active radio frequency seeker for improved accuracy.
❖ More reliable performance under low temperatures environment at higher altitudes.
❖ Intercept aerial targets by mimicking enemy aircraft.
❖ We have not updated the range.

Akash Next Generation

❖ Range of 60 km.

The topic for next class- Continuation of missile technology.

Science and Technology Class 18

BALLISTIC MISSILE SYSTEM

Anti-Tank missile
❖ To destroy defence tanker.

NAG Missile
❖ It is a top attack missile system that is fitted with an infrared image seeker.
❖ Fire and forget system.
❖ Range ➔ 500 m to 4 km.

HELINA
❖ Helicopter launched NAG.
❖ Range ➔ 7-10 km.
❖ Fitted with highly advanced infrared image seeker for accuracy purposes.
❖ The superior version of HELINA is the SANT missile (stand-off anti-tank missile system) which is
fitted with a millimetre wave seeker.

NAMICA
❖ Land-based NAG.
❖ Range ➔ 500 m to 4 km.

KONKURS Missile
❖ Within the anti-tank it is the 2nd generation missile.
❖ It was developed to destroy vehicles equipped with Explosive Reactive Armour, either moving
or stationary targets.
❖ Range ➔ 4 km.

Man Portable Anti-Tank Guided Missile

❖ It is for infantry as well as parachute special forces of the Indian army.
❖ Range ➔ 2.5 km.

Milan 2T
❖ Milan 2T is a man-portable 2nd generation anti-tank guided missile.
❖ To destroy tanks fitted with Explosive Reactive Armour, either moving or stationary targets.
❖ It is highly reliable.
❖ Range ➔ 2.5 km.

AMOGHA III
❖ This is 3rd generation anti-tank missile that has a range of 2.8 km, developed by Bharat
Dynamics Limited.

AGNI MISSILE SYSTEM

❖ It is surface to surface missile system.
❖ It works on fire-forget technology.
❖ It is a strategic missile of India as it carries both nuclear and chemical warheads.
❖ Agni- I, II, III & IV are in service.
❖ Agni - V & VI are at the experimental stage and have a range of above 5500 km therefore called
inter-continental ballistic missiles.
❖ Agni missile varies from short-range to inter-continental range.
Agni missile Range (km) Payload (kg)
❖ I ❖ 700 ❖ 1000
❖ II ❖ 2500 ❖ 1000
❖ III ❖ 3000 ❖ 1500
❖ IV ❖ 4000 ❖ 800-1000
❖ V ❖ above 5500 km up to 10000 km ❖ --
❖ VI ❖ 10000-12000km ❖ --

❖ Agni - V and VI are fitted with MIRV technology (multiple independently targetable re-entry
vehicle systems).
❖ MIRV payload basically means a single missile capable of carrying several nuclear warheads
targeting multiple targets.

Agni Prime
❖ Agni prime is an updated version of existing Agni missiles.
❖ It is of two-stage canister solid propellant missile with dual redundant navigation and a guided
system.
❖ Redundant navigation means the user can use different paths to reach an accurate target i.e.,
missiles will have a functionality of more than normal.
❖ Compared to the normal variant it has improved parameters including high manoeuvring and
accuracy.
❖ It is a surface-to-surface missile with a range of 1000-2000 km.

PRITHVI MISSILE
❖ Surface to Surface missile.
❖ Under integrated guided missile development program (IGMDP) the first missile that was
manufactured totally indigenously is the Prithvi missile.

Prithvi-I
❖ Range of 150 km
❖ payload carrying capacity is 1000 kg
❖ Army version

Prithvi -II
❖ Range -250 km
❖ Payload 500 kg
❖ Air force version

Prithvi-III
❖ Range - 350 km
❖ Payload 1000km
❖ Navy version

❖ Prithvi missiles are short-range ballistic missiles capable of carrying both nuclear as well as
conventional warheads.
K-Missiles (Kalam)
❖ These are submarine-launched ballistic missiles ➔ Arihanth.
❖ These missiles are jointly developed by DRDO and Bharat Dynamics Limited.
❖ K4 ➔ 4000 km
❖ K5 ➔ 5000 km
❖ K6 ➔ 6000 km
❖ K15 ➔ 750 km also known as Sagarika missile.
❖ A land variant of Sagarika missile is known as the Shaurya missile which is a short-range
ballistic missile.
❖ Capable of carrying payloads of 200kg to 1000 kg.

Astra Missile
❖ It is an air-to-air beyond the visible-range missile system.
❖ Variants ➔ It has Astra Mk- I (110 km), II (160 km) & III (350 km).
❖ Launched through Tejas and MIG airplanes.
❖ Astra is capable of engaging targets at varying ranges and altitudes allowing for engagement of
both short as well long ranges.
❖ It travels at a speed of more than four times that of sound.

Anti-Radiation Missile
❖ Air to surface missiles.
❖ Rudram ➔ It can detect, track, and neutralize radar and communication assets.
❖ Launched from an airplane ➔ Tejas, MIG, Su-30 Mki.
❖ Variants ➔ Rudram- I (250 km), II (350 km) & III (550 km).
❖ It was the first that is anti-radiation missile that was developed indigenously in India.

Anti- Satellite Missiles

❖ Mission shakti.
❖ It was developed to destroy satellites in Lower Earth Orbit and to avoid the impact of space
debris on Indian satellite assets.
❖ India is the 4th country in the world to have anti-satellite missile systems.
❖ The other countries are USA, China, and Russia.

Points to be Remembered
❖ Under IGMDP the 1st generation of missile is TRISHUL.
❖ The 2nd generation missile is Aakash.
❖ The 3rd generation is the NAG missile.
❖ 4th generation Prithvi missile.
❖ 5th generation AGNI missile.
❖ The Trishul missile is a surface-to-air missile and it is short-range (9 km).
❖ This project was terminated in the 1980s due to multiple failures.
❖ To fill this gap, we introduced the Barak missile system from Israel, it is a joint venture project
between India and Israel.
❖ It is of the long and short-range missile system.
DO YOU KNOW
❖ Radar means radio detection ranging.
❖ It uses radio waves.
❖ Used above the water (Atmosphere).
❖ Example ➔ Missile

❖ Sonar means sound navigation ranging.

❖ It used Ultrasonic sound waves.
❖ It is used in underwater for surveying and mapping of sea floors, surveillance, and underwater
communications.
❖ Example ➔ Torpedo and submarines

❖ Both Radar and Sonars are used for surveillance as well as remote sensing.
❖ Normal range of sounds ➔ 20HZ (infra sonics) to 20000 HZ (ultrasonic sounds).
❖ These sound waves have the capacity to travel in greater depths of the ocean (water) but radio
waves do not, which leads to a scattering effect in the water.

Torpedo System of India

❖ They are Cigar shaped, self-propelled, water-to-water missile system.
❖ Two types are based on weight:
1. Heavyweight torpedo (Ex ➔ Varunastra)
2. Lightweight torpedo (Ex ➔ Shyena)

❖ Launched from Air Plane, Submarine and Surface vessels (Ships).

❖ Varunastra is one of the world's fastest and it is the only torpedo in the world using a GPS
system.
❖ Varunastra is a heavy-weight anti-submarine Torpedo.
❖ These Torpedoes can be operated in shallow as well as deep waters.
❖ Lightweight Torpedo Shyena is India's first indigenously developed advanced lightweight anti-
submarine torpedo.
SUBMARINE SYSTEMS OF INDIA
❖ The submarine is a watercraft capable of independent operations underwater.
❖ It is used for surveillance purposes, patrolling, and attacking purposes.

Types based on fuel usage

Conventional Submarines
❖ Diesel Based and Electrically Powered.
❖ For example,
1. Shishumar Class (Germany)
2. Sindhughosh Class (Russia)
3. Scorpene Class (France)

Strategic Submarines
❖ Nuclear Powered.
❖ For example,
1. INS Arihant
2. INS Arighat

Question: Why nuclear-powered submarines and why not diesel and electrical submarines?
❖ Nuclear reactors used in submarines are known as defence nuclear reactors.
❖ The use of nuclear energy will reduce the cost of the operation of submarines.
❖ Long endurance of submarines is possible.
❖ The threat of nuclear-powered submarines is very less.

Nuclear-Powered Submarines
❖ The nuclear-powered submarines are manufactured under an advanced technology vessel
project.
❖ India's first indigenously developed nuclear-powered submarine is INS Arihant.
❖ All this nuclear-powered submarine manufacturing is happening at Vishakapatnam.

Diesel and electrical submarines

❖ Scorpene class.
❖ P-75 ➔ INS Kalvari
❖ P-75 I ➔ INS Khanderi, INS Karanj, INS Vela, INS Vagir, INS Vagsheer (yet to be commissioned).
❖ This diesel and electrical-powered submarine manufacturing is taking place at Mazagaon dock
limited in Mumbai.
❖ Currently, in India, there are two submarine bases one on the East coast of Vishakaptnam, and
another on the West coast i.e., Mumbai.
What is AIP and why India need it?
❖ AIP means Air independent propulsion.
❖ This technology was developed by the DRDO wing i.e., naval material research laboratory with
the support of industry partners L&T and Thermax.
❖ India is thinking of introducing this technology into non-nuclear submarines.
❖ AIP depends on fuel cells ➔ Hydrogen and Oxygen.

Benefits of the AIP system

❖ It does not cause any marine pollution because the end product is water.
❖ These cells are highly efficient and do not have moving parts thus ensuring that the submarine
has low acoustic emission of sound.
❖ Long endurance under water hence maintenance and operation cost also reduces.
❖ There is no need for submarines to reach surface water frequently.
❖ AIP has a force multiplier effect which means the lethality of submarines will be very high.

Do you know
❖ Submarines work on the principle of Archimedes.
❖ The submarine system of India is popularly knowns as a silent wing of the Indian navy.

AIRCRAFT CARRIERSHIPS IN INDIA

❖ These are used in war circumstances.
❖ Historical Aircraft Carriers ➔ INS Vikrant, INS Viraat.
❖ Operational Aircraft Carrier ➔ INS Vikrant, INS Vikram Aditya.
❖ Futuristic Aircraft Carrier ➔ INS Vishal.
❖ India's first indigenously built aircraft carriership is INS Vikrant, it was built at the Cochin
shipyard in Kerala.
❖ It was the first larger ship ever built in the maritime history of India.
❖ It comes under the category of STOBAR.
❖ INS Vikram Aditya is leased from Russia and it also comes under the category of STOBAR.
❖ These aircraft carrierships play a crucial role during war situations.

Aircraft ships are categorized into the following types based on configuration
❖ COTABAR ➔ Catapult-assisted take-off barrier arrested recovery.
❖ STOBAR ➔ Short take-off but arrested recovery.
❖ STOVL ➔ Short take-off vertical landing.
❖ Helicopter carriers.

The topic for the next class- Continuation of the topic 'Defence technology and nanotechnology
Science and Technology Class 19

LIGHTWEIGHT AIRCRAFT TECHNOLOGY

(Hindustan Aeronautics Limited)
Materials used for constructing lightweight Aircraft technology
❖ Lithium
❖ Lithium and Aluminium alloys
❖ Titanium
❖ Carbon fibres and carbon Nanotubes
❖ Stainless steel.

APPLICATION OF LIGHTWEIGHT TECHNOLOGIES

❖ It has shorter landing and take-offs.
❖ Easy to manufacture and maintenance and operation cost becomes very cheap.
❖ Easy to manufacture with 3D printing technologies.
❖ Reliable in all weather conditions.
❖ They are mostly unmanned aerial vehicles, hence loss of life during war situations can be
controlled.
❖ There is no need of purchasing from other countries because we are manufacturing within India.

It includes
❖ Aeroplanes, Helicopters, Drones.
❖ Refer to the flowchart drawn on the digital board

TEJAS
❖ It is India's first indigenously developed lightweight aircraft.
❖ It was developed to replace the MIG aeroplanes.

It has the following features

❖ Smallest and lightest aircraft.
❖ Excellent flight safety record.
❖ It is able to accommodate a variety of weapons such as Astra missiles, Anti-radiation missiles etc.
❖ Inflight refuelling probe.

Drones
❖ Unmanned air vehicles.
❖ Remotely operated air vehicles.

Drones are categorized into

1. Civilian Drones
2. Defence Drones

❖ Civilian drones are used for day-to-day operations.

❖ Before operating the Drones, permission has to be taken from the Director general of civil
aviation.
Drones Categories in India
The unmanned aircraft systems shall be categorised into the following three categories:
1. Aeroplane
2. Rotorcraft
3. Hybrid unmanned aircraft systems.

The above drones are further divided into three categories:

1. Remotely piloted aircraft system.
2. Model remotely piloted aircraft system.
3. Autonomous unmanned aircraft system.

Unmanned aircraft systems based on their weight it is categorised into the following:
Nano unmanned aircraft system
❖ Weight less than or equal to 250 gms.
❖ No permit is required.

Micro unmanned aircraft systems

❖ Weight more than 250 gms but less than or equal to 2kgs.
❖ No permit is required for non-commercial usage only.

Small unmanned aircraft

❖ Weight more than 2kgs but less than equal to 25 kgs.

Medium unmanned aircraft systems

❖ Weight more than 25 kgs but less than equal to 150 kgs.

Large unmanned aircraft system

❖ Weight more than 150 kgs.
❖ Registration is required for all but the nano category.

Application of Civil Aviation

❖ Defence sector ➔ For safety and security of civilians.
❖ Health sector ➔ Vaccine delivery to remote and rural areas, Blood sample collections.
❖ Wildlife monitoring and survey ➔ Tracking of wild animal's movements, Monitoring the health
of wild animals.
❖ Forest management ➔ Surveying and mapping of unique animal and plant species. For
example: Red Sanders and Elephant Corridors.
❖ Agricultural applications ➔ Spraying of fertilizers and pesticides, Estimating the humidity
levels, Soil health management.
❖ Industrial Applications ➔ Transportation of construction material (Bricks) from ground level to
top floor.
❖ Disaster management ➔ Search and Rescue operations or transportation of food and medicine
supplies.
❖ Logistics ➔ Supplies of essential commodities to each and every house, for example: In Mumbai,
dabbawala is replaced by Drones.
Defence Drone
❖ Panchi
❖ Nishanth ➔ (Wheeled version of Panchi)
❖ Rustom I & II

Use of Defence Drones

❖ Surveillance purpose (Safety and security).
❖ Surveying within the boundaries of India.
❖ Deployment of weapons.

Question: What are the challenges that the Government of India is facing in the modernization of
the defence sector?
Challenges in Indigenization of Defence
❖ Lack of funds, because most of the budget allotted for defence is utilised for salaries and
pensions.
❖ Lack of basic infrastructure facilities hence we are unable to manufacture spare parts of defence
equipment.
❖ Delay in the decision-making process while procuring the equipment from other countries.
❖ Corruption speculation during the modernization of the defence sector.
❖ Lack of public sector manufacturing capabilities.
❖ Lack of skilled human resources.

Question: What are the initiatives that GOI is taking in modernization of defence sector?
Initiatives
❖ To reduce the salary and pension burden, GOI is came up with the Agni veer Concept.
❖ To ban imports of defence equipment’s from other countries, the Indigenization list was released
by the government of India (The name is the positive Indigenization list).
❖ To attract young mines DRDO has established 5 DRDO young scientist labs.
❖ To attract investment from foreign countries 100% FDI through the government route and 74%
from the automatic route.
❖ To promote startup companies as well as to facilitate indigenization in MSMEs, Srijan portal was
launched.
❖ To establish startup companies in India innovative defence excellence scheme was launched.
❖ Out of the total budget that is allotted 25% of the funds are utilized for R&D purposes.
Surface Ships
❖ Surface ships are designed under Project 15 (Delhi Class).
❖ Under Project 15 we have two classes
1. Project 15 A
2. Project 15 B

❖ Project 15 A is a Kolkata class destroyer and Project 15 B is of Visakhapatnam class destroyer.

❖ Delhi class destroyer was manufactured by Mazgaon dock limited which includes Mysore,
Delhi, and Mumbai class.
❖ Kolkata class comes under 15 A, under which Kolkata, Coachin and Chennai class of destroyers
were included.
❖ Visakhapatnam class under 15 B, is again manufactured at Mazagon dock limited.

DO YOU KNOW
Frigates ships of defence are used for
❖ Surveillance across the post line.
❖ Patrolling purpose.

Frigates in India are

Shivalik Class
❖ Which is manufactured at Mazagon dock limited.
❖ Under the Shivalik class, we have Shayadri, Shivalik, and Satpura classes.

Talwar Class of Frigates

❖ It is an Indo-Russian Join project.
❖ It includes Talwar, Trishul, and Tabar classes.
❖ These are primarily used for finding and eliminating enemy submarines and large ships.

Tej Class of Frigates

❖ It is also India Russian joint project.
❖ These are also primarily used for enemy submarines and large surface ships, finding and
elimination.
❖ It includes Teg, Tarkash, and Trikand.

Kamorta Class of Submarines

❖ Under project 28 it is being developed.
❖ This class of frigates are fitted with anti-submarines rockets and torpedoes.
❖ Under this class the following ships are included:
1. Kamorta
2. Kadmatt
3. Kiltan
4. Kavaratti
Intellectual Property Rights (IPR)
Categorised into two types:
1. Industrial Rights
2. Copyrights

Within Industrial rights:

1. Patents
2. Industrial design
3. Geographical indication
4. Plant variety protectants
5. Trademark
6. Semiconductor layout design act

Why IPR and what is the use

❖ The world's first IPR were introduced through the Paris Convention for the production of
industrial property in 1883.
❖ Berne convention for the protection of literary and artistic work.
❖ In India, we have implemented this IPR, according to the WTO rules and regulations.

Why to Promote IPR

❖ Progress and well-being of humanity, rest on its capacity to create and invent new works.
❖ Legal protection of new creations and encouraging the commitment of additional resources for
further innovation.
❖ The promotion and protection of IPR are useful for the creation of new jobs, and industries,
enhancing the quality and enjoyment of life and economic growth.

How does an average person benefit

❖ This IPR makes a common man think innovatively.
❖ The Innovativeness of the common man results in inventions.
❖ Any invented product of the common man will be protected through IPRs to avoid middleman or
third-person looting.
❖ IPR to a common man makes other people think innovatively.

Trademarks
❖ Trademarks in India are governed by the trademarks act 1999 which was amended in 2010.
❖ A trademark is a sign capable of distinguishing the goods or services of one enterprise from those
of another enterprise.
❖ Example: Logo, Name, Colour combinations and sound is protected.

Patent Rights
❖ Patent rights are provided under the Patent act 1970.

To provide patent rights to any product, following things are necessary

❖ Usefulness ➔ Invention must have industrial applicability or be applied for practical purposes.
❖ Novelty ➔ Invention must be of new technology, which means that a particular product should
not be available in a prior manner elsewhere in the world.
❖ Non-obviousness ➔ It should be of extraordinary invention.
Patent rights are categorised into four types
1. Utility patent
2. Design patent
3. Plant patent
4. Reissue patent

❖ Patent protection is granted for 20 years and a grace period of five years.
❖ Utility and plant patents are granted for 20 years.
❖ Design patents are granted for 14-15 years.

Section 3 D of the patent act has the following important clauses:

Evergreening of patents
❖ It is a strategy adopted by corporate legal businesses for extending or elongating the term of
granted patents in a jurisdiction that is about to expire.
❖ The Indian government is not allowing this evergreening of patents until there is innovation
and invention.

Compulsory licensing
❖ It is a grant of permission by the government to the entities to use, manufacture, import or sell a
patented invention without the patent owner's consent.
❖ Within India, we have used compulsory licensing in the following circumstances:
1. By considering the large public interest.
2. When there is a national health emergency.
3. When a large section of people are suffering from a particular disease.

Industrial Designs
❖ Industrial design is promoted by the department of Industrial policy and promotion under the
ministry of industries.
❖ These are protected under the act, Designs act 2000.
❖ Under these three dimensional and four-dimensional features such as patterns, lines, colours,
and shape of the surface are protected.
❖ Example, Car design, and Apple iPhone design.

Plant Variety Protectants

❖ New plant varieties that are developed by the farmers and breeders are protected through the
protection of plant varieties and farmer rights act 2001, Under the Ministry of Agriculture.

Trademark
❖ A trademark will have a time duration/tenure of 10 years, which can be renewed every 10 years.

Industrial Design
❖ It will have a tenure of 10 years, once after completing 10 years they have to renew it every 5
years.

Plant Varieties Protection

❖ For trees and vines, tenure is 9 years.
❖ In the case of any crops, including GMOs, it is 6 years.
❖ They can go for renewal after completion of this.
Copyrights
❖ It is provided for 60 years, after the death of a person.
❖ After its life span, it will be provided for 60 years.
❖ It is provided for literature.
❖ Copyrights in India are governed by the Copyright Act of 1957.
❖ Copyright was introduced in India by becoming a member of the Berne Convention.
(Internationally copyrights were introduced through that convention).
❖ Copyrights are provided for authors of literary and artistic works such as Books and other
writings (like research papers,) musical compositions, paintings, sculptures, computer programs
(software, data storage, apps), and films (new varieties of songs, tunes).

Geographical indications (10 Years)

❖ A geographical indication is a sign used on products that have a specific geographical origin and
possess qualities or reputations that are due to that origin.
❖ The geographical indication will be provided for the products such as agricultural goods, and
natural or manufactured goods.
❖ Agricultural goods ➔ such as Nilambur teak in Kerala, naturally it is termite resistant teak.
❖ Food Products ➔Handicraft goods, manufactured goods such as textiles, and natural goods
(Pashmina wool of Kashmir).

Benefits of Geographical Indication

❖ Protecting the concerned families and manufacturers from commercial exploitation by third
parties or industrialists.
❖ That means, no person should manufacture those particular products without the government of
India's concern.
❖ Promoting those products nationally and internationally.
❖ Ensuring the quality of products.
❖ Protecting the reputation of the product.
❖ Tenure is 10 years with the option of renewing and extending such protection for a further tenure
of 10 years.
❖ The First GI product is Darjeeling tea from India.
❖ The First plant in India to get a GI tag is Nilambur teak.

SEMICONDUCTOR DEVICES
❖ Semiconductor And Integrated Layout Design Act 2000.
❖ It is implemented under the ministry of electronics and information technology.
❖ These rights are provided for a tenure of 10 years after registration.
❖ These rights help in the development of new semiconductor technologies as a part of the
National Semiconductor Mission.

It includes
1. Layout of transistors.
2. Circuit designs.
3. New Semiconductor chips.
4. New lighting systems like LED. (Diode is the simplest form of semi-conductor).
Science and Technology Class 20

NANOTECHNOLOGY
❖ Nano means 10 to a power of -9.
❖ Dealing with different products at a size of 10 to the power of -9 with different technological
additions.
❖ Nanotechnology is also known as Nano science or Dwarf science.
❖ Nanotechnology is a new world.
❖ It was referred to like that because every atom and molecule are behaving differently and
exhibiting different properties at 10 to the power of -9 size.
❖ Nanotechnology deals at an atomic level, molecular level, and supramolecular level.
❖ At this particular size physical, chemical, biological, and optical properties are changing.

Nanotechnology products are manufactured by using two approaches

Top-down approach
❖ Top-down means creating nano-scale materials by physically or chemically breaking down larger
materials.
❖ For example, Graphene is produced from multilayers of graphite.

Bottom-up approach
❖ Assembling nanomaterials atom by atom and molecule by molecule.
❖ For example, Buckminsterfullerene.
❖ In this, 60 carbon atoms are arranged together like a soccer ball.

NANO MATERIALS OR NANO PRODUCTS

By utilizing the above two approaches the following nanomaterial produced and manufactured
Graphene (Diagram)
❖ Graphite is made up of a multi-layer of carbon atoms.
❖ A single layer of carbon atoms is separated and that is known as Graphene.
❖ In graphene, Carbon atoms are arranged in hexagonal OR Honeycomb shapes.

Characteristics features of Graphene

❖ It is 200 times stronger than steel. Hence it can be used in construction industries, buildings, etc.
❖ It is transparent at one atom thickness. Hence it is used in display screens, touch screens, solar
panels, etc.
❖ Thermally more conductive. Hence it is used in electronic industries, and energy storage such as
batteries and capacitors, and the core of nuclear reactors.
❖ Electrically more conductive. Hence it is used in electrical circuits, batteries, and other storage
devices.
❖ High surface area. Hence it is used in the cosmetic industry to give more brightness to the colours
by reflecting light due to the large surface area.
❖ Very low surface shear. Hence it is used as a lubricant, i.e., in grease and engine oil.
❖ Graphene is completely hydrophobic. Hence it is used in water-resistant screens and waterproof
designs.
Liposomes
❖ Liposomes are small spherical shapes, artificially manufactured substances.
❖ Liposomes are made up of cholesterol and naturally non-toxic phospholipids.

Basic characteristics
❖ They are Hydrophobic and hydrophilic in nature.
❖ Smaller in size.
❖ It is bio-compatibility.

Because of the above characteristics, Liposomes are used in the following industries-
1. Drug delivery and drug targeting in the health sector.
2. Highly advanced and super-quality detergents and soaps. (Bio-detergents).
3. Used in the manufacturing of Bio-polymers.

Carbon Nanotubes and Carbon Nanofibers

❖ Carbon nanotubes are the cylindrical molecules that consists of rolled up sheets of single layer of
carbon atom i.e., graphene.
❖ Carbon nanotubes are a kind of carbon allotrope.

Based on the number of layers, it is categorized into two types -

1. Single-walled nanotubes (SWNTs).
2. Multi-walled nanotubes (MWCNTs).

Carbon nanotubes are a kind of Carbon allotrope, which has the following applications
❖ Carbon nanotubes tend to be tough which means as hard as diamonds. Hence it is used in the
aviation industry like lightweight helicopters and other lightweight technology.
❖ Carbon nanotubes are biodegradable. Hence it is used in vitro and in vivo conditions like
manufacturing artificial bones, and muscles.
❖ Carbon nanotubes are chemically neutral which means they do not show corrosion effects when
exposed to humidity or water. Because of these properties, it is used in automobile and aviation
manufacturing.
❖ Carbon nanotubes are chemically and electrically conductive. Hence it is used in metal and
electrical industries.

Buckminsterfullerene
❖ In this, 60 carbon atoms are arranged like a soccer ball.
❖ In the Buckminsterfullerene carbon atoms are arranged in hexagonal and pentagonal shapes.
❖ In nature carbon atoms are arranged in the form of Soot (C-60).

The followings are the properties and Applications of Buckminsterfullerene

❖ Buckminsterfullerene is used as a conductor.
❖ It is used as an absorbent for gases.
❖ Used as a lubricant.
❖ Used as an organic photovoltaic (OPV).
❖ Used as anti-oxidants, Biopharmaceuticals.
❖ Used for water purification and biohazard protection catalyst (pollution control).
❖ Portable power devices.
❖ For medical purposes.
APPLICATIONS OF NANOTECHNOLOGY
Agriculture
❖ Nano urea was manufactured by Indian Farmers Fertilizer Corporation LTD.

Nano urea has the following benefits

❖ Reduce input cost.
❖ Environment friendly.
❖ Improved nutritional value.
❖ Cheaper than conventional urea.
❖ Increased farmer income.
❖ Enhanced crop productivity.

In Health Sector
Drug Delivery
❖ It is a new system developed to release drugs gradually according to daily requirements.

Benefits
❖ Reduce tablet intake burden.
❖ Cost of the medicine will reduce.
❖ Side effects will reduce.
❖ Efficiency of the drug can be enhanced.

Drug Targeting
❖ Release of drug wherever it is necessary.

It includes the following technology

❖ Nanorobots ➔ used in drug delivery, and disease diagnosis.
❖ Nano bandage ➔ release drug directly to the wound.
❖ Nanotechnology detectors ➔ for heart attacks as well as clots in hearts as well as blood vessels.

DO YOU KNOW
❖ Carbon can form a wide range of compounds that property is known as catenation properties.
❖ Carbon-containing compounds are known as organic compounds.
❖ Carbon exists in different forms that are known as an allotrope of carbons (Diamonds, Graphite,
Buckminsterfullerene).
❖ Graphene and carbon nanotubes are artificially produced but Buckminsterfullerene are
naturally and artificially produced.

DO YOU KNOW
Agriculture
Based on farming
❖ Horizontal farming ➔ Conventional farming practice.
❖ Vertical farming ➔ The raising of plants in vertically raised buildings - without soil.
1. Hydroponics ➔ The cultivation of plants with water.
2. Aeroponics ➔ The cultivation of plants with aerosol.

❖ Precision farming ➔ Artificial intelligence + Mechanization.

SCIENTISTS
❖ To be covered from NCERT - Ancient + Medieval + 21st century.
❖ Bhaskar, Charak, Sushrut, CV Raman, JC Bose.