OLABISI ONABANJO UNIVERSITY, AGO-IWOYE

FACULTY OF EDUCATION
DEPARTMENT OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY EDUCATION
COURSE CODE: EDU 206
COURSE TITLE: SPECIAL METHODS (SCIENCE AND MATHEMATICS
METHODS)
COURSE LECTURERS: DR. ADEBOLA S. IFAMUYIWA & DR. ADEWALE O. SAKA
COURSE OUTLINE
1. Definitions and assumptions of science
2. Why Teach Science
3. Some myths about science
4. History of Science Education in Nigeria
5. Philosophy of Science and Science Education
6. Nature of Mathematics as a school subject
7. The Methods of teaching:
a. Science;
i. Basic Science and Technology;
ii. Physics
iii. Chemistry
iv. Biology
v. Computer Science
b. Mathematics
c. Physical and Education
8. Science Teaching and Laboratory Innovations in Science Education
Definitions of Science

Science is a complex and multifaceted field encompassing a wide range of disciplines

and approaches. There are many different definitions of science, each reflecting different
aspects of the field and the diverse perspectives of those studying it.
One popular definition of science is that it is a systematic and empirical approach to
understanding the natural world. This definition emphasizes the use of scientific methods,
such as observation, experimentation, and hypothesis testing, to gather data and generate
knowledge about the world around us. Under this definition, science is seen as a way of
discovering and describing the laws and principles that govern the behaviour of the
universe.
Another definition of science is that it is a body of knowledge that is systematically
organized and based on empirical evidence. This definition emphasizes the cumulative
nature of scientific knowledge, with new discoveries building upon and refining existing
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theories and models. Under this definition, science is seen as a way of organizing and
synthesizing knowledge about the natural world and providing explanations for the
phenomena we observe.
A third definition of science is that it is a social institution that encompasses a set of
practices, norms, and values. This definition emphasizes how science is embedded within
broader social and cultural contexts and how scientific inquiry is shaped by factors such
as funding, politics, and ethics. Under this definition, science is seen as a way of
generating socially and culturally situated knowledge and addressing societal problems
and issues.
While these are just a few examples, it is clear that science can be defined in many ways,
each highlighting different aspects of the field. Ultimately, the most appropriate
definition of science depends on the context and perspective of the individual or group
using it. Regardless of how science is defined, however, it is clear that it plays a crucial
role in advancing our understanding of the world around us and addressing the complex
challenges and issues we face as a society.
Assumptions of Science
Science is built upon a set of underlying assumptions that provide the foundation for
scientific inquiry and the development of scientific knowledge. These assumptions are
often taken for granted, but they are essential to the scientific method and the practice of
science.
One of the key assumptions of science is that the natural world is governed by laws and
principles that can be discovered and understood through observation and
experimentation. This assumption is based on the idea that the universe operates
according to consistent and predictable patterns and that these patterns can be discovered
and described using scientific methods.
Another assumption of science is that the natural world is knowable and that scientific
knowledge is based on empirical evidence. This means that scientific knowledge is
derived from observations and experiments that can be verified through repeated testing
and measurement. Under this assumption, scientific claims must be based on objective
evidence and open to scrutiny and revision based on new data and discoveries.
A third assumption of science is that scientific theories must be falsifiable. This means
that scientific hypotheses and theories must be capable of being tested and potentially
proven false through empirical evidence. This assumption is based on the idea that
scientific knowledge is always provisional and subject to revision, and that scientific
inquiry must be based on a willingness to challenge and revise existing theories in light
of new evidence.
Another key assumption of science is that scientific inquiry should be value-neutral and
objective. This means that scientific research should be free from bias or personal beliefs

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and that scientific results should be evaluated based on their merits rather than on the
beliefs or values of the researchers.
Finally, science assumes that scientific knowledge is cumulative and progressive. This
means that scientific discoveries build upon and refine existing theories and models, and
scientific knowledge continually expands and improves over time. Under this
assumption, scientific knowledge is seen as a collective achievement, with each new
discovery contributing to a broader and deeper understanding of the natural world.
These assumptions of science provide the foundation for scientific inquiry and the
development of scientific knowledge. They reflect the core values and practices of the
scientific method, and they are essential for ensuring that scientific research is objective,
rigorous, and reliable. While they are not always explicitly stated or discussed, they are
implicit in the work of scientists and the broader scientific community.
Other assumptions are:
Science is an enterprise: Science is human activity that has “personal, social and
institutional dimensions
i. Ethics binds scientific enterprise: All activities of scientists are generally
guided by the ethical norms of science. These include:
a. Openness – providing free access to information for use by others and/ or
peer review
b. Objectivity – providing unbiased evidence that is not influenced by
personal judgment or expectation
c. Replication – providing evidence that can be repeated and compared in
another context
d. Honesty and precision – providing accurate and non-falsified data and
complete information about an event.
Besides, the standard ethical norms guiding the use of animals and humans in
experiments are as follows:
- No harm or discomfort should be inflicted on the health or life of animals or
humans
- Research involving humans must be conducted with the consent of participants
- All potential risks and benefits of research must be fully disclosed to the study
participants
- Application of scientific knowledge must not constitute risk to humanity.
Understanding the fundamental assumptions of science is necessary if a teacher must help
students to embrace the underlying values in it. This is necessary due to connection
between such values and the acquisition of scientific literacy (Erinosho, 2008).

Why Teach Science?

Primary School Level

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Teaching science in primary schools is essential for a number of reasons. First and
foremost, science education helps to build the foundation of scientific knowledge and
skills that students will need as they progress through their education and into adulthood.
By introducing young children to basic scientific concepts and principles, we can help
them to develop critical thinking and problem-solving skills that will serve them well
throughout their lives.
Another important reason for teaching science in primary schools is to foster curiosity
and interest in the natural world. Young children are naturally curious and eager to
explore and discover new things. By providing them with opportunities to observe and
investigate the world around them, we can help to cultivate a love of learning and a
passion for science that can last a lifetime.
In addition to building knowledge and skills, teaching science in primary schools also has
practical applications in everyday life. Many of the technologies and innovations that we
rely on today are based on scientific discoveries and principles. By teaching children
about science and how it relates to their daily lives, we can help them to develop a better
understanding of the world around them and to make informed decisions about their
health, environment, and future.
Teaching science in primary schools also helps to address broader societal issues, such as
environmental sustainability and public health. By introducing children to concepts such
as climate change, pollution, and disease prevention, we can help to build a generation of
informed and engaged citizens who are better equipped to address these complex
challenges.
Finally, teaching science in primary schools can also help to promote equity and
inclusion in education. By providing all students with access to high-quality science
education, regardless of their background or socioeconomic status, we can help to level
the playing field and ensure that every child has the opportunity to reach their full
potential.
In summary, teaching science in primary schools is essential for building knowledge and
skills, fostering curiosity and interest in the natural world, promoting practical
applications in everyday life, addressing broader societal issues, and promoting equity
and inclusion in education. By investing in science education at the primary level, we can
help to build a strong foundation for the future success of our children and our society as
a whole.
Secondary School Level
Teaching science in secondary schools serves a number of important purposes. Here are
some of the key reasons why science education is essential at the secondary level:
i. Preparation for higher education: Science is a critical component of many
higher education programs, including those in medicine, engineering, and other
STEM (science, technology, engineering, and math) fields. By teaching science
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 in secondary schools, we can help students build a foundation of knowledge
and skills that will prepare them for future studies in these areas.

ii. Critical thinking and problem-solving: Science education is an excellent way to

promote critical thinking and problem-solving skills. Secondary school
students are at an age where they can begin to explore more complex scientific
concepts and principles, and to apply them to real-world problems. This helps
them to develop their analytical and creative thinking abilities, as well as their
ability to collaborate and communicate effectively with others.

iii. Career preparation: Science education can also help students prepare for
careers in various fields. In addition to STEM fields, science education can be
valuable for students who are interested in careers in health care,
environmental science, biotechnology, and other related fields. By providing
students with a strong foundation in science, we can help them to explore and
prepare for a wide range of future career paths.

iv. Understanding of the natural world: Science education is essential for

promoting an understanding of the natural world and the complex systems that
govern it. This includes topics such as ecology, climate change, and the impact
of human activities on the environment. Teaching these topics in secondary
schools can help students develop a deeper appreciation for the natural world
and the need for sustainability.

v. Scientific literacy: Finally, science education is essential for promoting

scientific literacy and informed decision-making. In today’s world, we are
constantly bombarded with scientific information and technology, and it is
critical that we are able to understand and evaluate this information effectively.
By teaching science in secondary schools, we can help students to develop the
skills and knowledge they need to make informed decisions about their health,
the environment, and other critical issues.
In summary, teaching science in secondary schools is essential for preparing students for
higher education and future careers, promoting critical thinking and problem-solving,
fostering an understanding of the natural world, and promoting scientific literacy and
informed decision-making. By investing in science education at the secondary level, we
can help to prepare the next generation of leaders, innovators, and problem-solvers.
Tertiary Education Level
Teaching science at the tertiary level is important for several reasons. Here are some of
the key reasons why science education is essential at the tertiary level:
1. Advanced knowledge and skills: At the tertiary level, science education builds on
the foundational knowledge and skills developed in primary and secondary
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 schools. Tertiary-level science education provides students with a deeper
understanding of scientific concepts and principles, as well as advanced skills such
as laboratory techniques, data analysis, and research methods. This prepares them
for future careers in science, technology, engineering, and math (STEM) fields, as
well as other related fields.

2. Research and innovation: Tertiary-level science education is essential for

advancing scientific research and innovation. Many scientific discoveries and
technological innovations are the result of research conducted by scientists and
researchers at the tertiary level. By providing students with opportunities to
engage in scientific research and inquiry, tertiary-level science education helps to
promote scientific progress and innovation.

3. Applied science and technology: Tertiary-level science education also plays a

critical role in developing and applying scientific knowledge and technology to
real-world problems. This includes fields such as medicine, environmental
science, biotechnology, and engineering. By providing students with advanced
knowledge and skills in these fields, tertiary-level science education helps to
address complex societal challenges and promote sustainable development.

4. Global challenges: Tertiary-level science education is also essential for addressing

global challenges such as climate change, emerging infectious diseases, and
sustainable development. By providing students with a comprehensive
understanding of these complex issues, as well as the knowledge and skills needed
to address them, tertiary-level science education helps to develop the next
generation of leaders and innovators who are equipped to tackle these critical
challenges.

5. Lifelong learning: Finally, tertiary-level science education promotes lifelong

learning and personal development. By providing students with opportunities to
engage in scientific inquiry, critical thinking, and problem-solving, tertiary-level
science education helps to foster a lifelong love of learning and curiosity about the
world around us.
In summary, tertiary-level science education is essential for developing advanced
knowledge and skills, promoting scientific research and innovation, addressing real-
world problems, tackling global challenges, and promoting lifelong learning and personal
development. By investing in tertiary-level science education, we can help to build a
more sustainable and prosperous future for individuals, communities, and societies
around the world.
The Scientific Method

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Scientific methods refer to the systematic approach used by scientists to investigate and
understand the natural world. It involves a series of steps that are designed to be
objective, rigorous, and replicable, in order to ensure that scientific findings are reliable
and trustworthy. Here is a more detailed description of the scientific method:
Observation: The scientific method begins with observation. This involves using the
senses to gather data about the natural world. Observations can be qualitative
(descriptive) or quantitative (numerical), and may involve the use of instruments such as
microscopes or sensors.
Question: Based on their observations, scientists formulate questions about the natural
world. These questions should be clear, specific, and testable, in order to guide the
scientific investigation.
Hypothesis: A hypothesis is a tentative explanation for an observation or set of
observations. It is a testable statement that predicts the relationship between variables. A
good hypothesis should be based on prior knowledge, be clear and specific, and be
capable of being tested through experimentation.
Experimentation: Experiments are designed to test the hypothesis. They involve
manipulating one or more variables while keeping others constant, in order to determine
the effect of the manipulated variable(s) on the outcome. Experiments should be designed
to be objective, rigorous, and replicable.
Data Analysis: After conducting the experiment, scientists collect and analyze the data
that has been generated. Data analysis involves organizing, summarizing, and interpreting
the data in order to determine if the hypothesis has been supported or not.
Conclusion: Based on the data analysis, scientists draw conclusions about the natural
world. If the hypothesis is supported by the data, the scientist can accept it as a plausible
explanation. If the hypothesis is not supported, the scientist must revise or reject it.
Communication: Finally, scientists communicate their findings to the scientific
community and the public. This can involve publishing research papers, giving
presentations, or engaging in public outreach. Communication is an essential aspect of
the scientific method, as it allows for scientific findings to be shared, evaluated, and
replicated by others.
Overall, the scientific method is a systematic and rigorous approach to investigating the
natural world. It involves a series of steps that are designed to be objective, testable, and
replicable, in order to ensure that scientific findings are reliable and trustworthy. By
following the scientific method, scientists can make meaningful and important
discoveries about the natural world.

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Myths and Dogmas about Science
Science is a systematic approach to acquiring knowledge and understanding of the natural
world through observation, experimentation, and the use of rigorous methods. However,
there are a number of myths or misconceptions about science that persist despite
scientific evidence to the contrary. Here are some common myths of science:
a. Science is a fixed body of knowledge: Some people believe that science is a fixed
body of knowledge that is determined by consensus among scientists. However,
science is a dynamic process of inquiry and discovery, and scientific knowledge is
constantly evolving as new evidence is discovered and theories are refined.
b. Science is objective and value-free: While science aims to be objective and
impartial, it is not value-free. Scientific research is influenced by a range of social,
cultural, and political factors, and scientific findings can be shaped by the values
and assumptions of the researchers conducting the study.

c. Science can answer all questions: While science has made remarkable progress in
explaining many natural phenomena, there are still many questions that science
cannot answer. For example, science cannot answer questions about morality,
aesthetics, and other subjective experiences.

d. Science is a solitary pursuit: While scientific research often involves solitary work,
it is also a highly collaborative endeavor. Scientists work together in research
teams, share ideas and findings, and engage in peer review to ensure the accuracy
and validity of their results.

e. Science is always accurate and infallible: While scientific research is based on

rigorous methods and standards of evidence, it is not infallible. Scientists can
make mistakes, and scientific findings can be influenced by factors such as bias,
flawed methodologies, or incomplete data.

f. Science is only for scientists: Science is not just for scientists. Everyone can
benefit from a basic understanding of scientific principles and methods, and many
scientific discoveries have practical applications that impact our daily lives.
The history of science in Africa has been complex, with many myths and dogmas
surrounding the practice of science on the continent. Here are some common myths and
dogmas of science in Africa:
i. Science is a Western concept: One of the most persistent myths about science
in Africa is that it is a Western concept that is incompatible with African
culture and traditions. This myth ignores the fact that many African societies
have a long history of scientific inquiry and innovation, such as the use of
herbal medicines and agricultural practices.

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 ii. Science is only for the elite: Another myth is that science is only for the elite
and that ordinary people cannot participate in scientific inquiry or benefit from
scientific discoveries. This myth ignores the fact that many scientific
discoveries have practical applications that impact the lives of ordinary people,
such as advances in healthcare, agriculture, and technology.

iii. Science is a luxury: Some people view science as a luxury that Africa cannot
afford, given the continent’s many pressing economic and social challenges.
However, science and technology are essential for addressing these challenges
and promoting sustainable development.
iv. Science is divorced from spirituality: In some African societies, there is a
belief that science is divorced from spirituality and that the two are
incompatible. However, many African scientists integrate their scientific work
with their spiritual beliefs, and there is growing recognition of the need to
bridge the gap between science and spirituality in African contexts.

v. Science is a male-dominated field: Finally, there is a perception that science is

a male-dominated field that is not welcoming to women. While this has been
true historically, there are now many initiatives aimed at promoting gender
equity in science and technology in Africa.
In conclusion, the myths and dogmas of science in Africa reflect a complex and evolving
history of scientific inquiry on the continent. By recognizing and addressing these myths,
we can promote a more accurate and nuanced understanding of the role of science and
technology in African societies and promote greater participation and engagement in
scientific inquiry among all members of society.
History of Science Education in Nigeria
The history of science education in Nigeria will be reviewed under two different periods,
the colonial masters (pre-independence) and post-independence periods.

Pre-independence Period
The history of science education in Nigeria before independence was significantly
influenced by the activities of the Christian missionaries and the colonial government.
The missionaries played a vital role in establishing schools in Nigeria and promoting
Western education, including science education.
In the late 19th century, the Christian missionaries, including the Church Missionary
Society (CMS) and the Roman Catholic Church, established schools across Nigeria.
These schools provided primary and secondary education, and the curriculum included
science subjects such as Mathematics, Physics, Chemistry, and Biology. The missionaries
believed that education was a means of evangelizing and civilizing the Nigerians and
promoting Western values.

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The colonial government also played a significant role in developing science education in
Nigeria. The government established a system of education that was designed to serve the
needs of the colonial administration. In 1882, the colonial government established the
first government school, the CMS Grammar School in Lagos. The curriculum included
science subjects, and the school became a model for other government schools in the
country.
In 1932, the Yaba Higher College was established, which provided higher education in
science, engineering, and medicine. The college was the precursor to the University of
Lagos, which was established in 1962.
The missionaries and the colonial government’s efforts led to the establishment of a
significant number of schools in Nigeria, including primary, secondary, and tertiary
institutions. Science education was a significant component of the curriculum in these
schools, and many Nigerians were trained in science-related fields.
Oni (2009) reported that during the missionary era there was no consideration for quality
of education, no barrier for admission of students into schools, no classrooms; the same
buildings were used for religious and academic activities. There was also no common
syllabus for academic activities. Science was taught in abstraction right from the primary
school level; contents of science taught includes the external structure of birds, foreign
plants and animals, and gardening were also studied. There was absence of common
science syllabus and laboratories. Teachers of science during these periods were the
colonial masters who used British science curriculum and styles to impart scientific
knowledge, the contents of the science curriculum were foreign with foreign textbooks
with absence of instructional materials, teaching strategies were teachers centered and
expatriates were science teachers at the secondary school level. Nature study was
mandatory at the primary level while General Sciences at the secondary level, very few
privileged secondary schools taught biology, chemistry and physics. Health science was
taught as alternative to biology and examinations on it are taken at the school certificate
level. Also, there were no orientations of such science subjects toward solving problems
of Nigerian society.

Therefore, as evidence of these, the results of science at external examinations were

abysmal. It is worth mentioning that there was no post-secondary school for learning
science from 1848 to 1933 except the specialized medical institution attached to the CMS
Theological Institute founded in Abeokuta. The science subjects were offered by few able
students known as geniuses. The science students at the tertiary level then depended on
the products from secondary schools. There was a wide gap between ordinary and
advance level which made few science students to qualify for university admission and
only a few science graduates returned to classes to teach science. These inadequacies
were observed by the Ashby report of 1959 and recommended an enriched curriculum to
ensure relevance of students to the local manpower development. The teaching of science
gained better ground in 1920 as a result of the visit of the Phelps-strokes funded

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education commission to Africa who found that science education was deficient. They
therefore, recommended the inclusion of science subjects in the curriculum of all
secondary schools in Nigeria. Even then, very few qualified science teachers were in
schools and methods of teaching were unsatisfactory (Omolewa, 1977). The contents of
science was dictated by external examination board (Cambridge and London) with little
or no regards to the Nigeria environment. The education ordinances of 1960 brought
slight improvement in the content of science education in Nigeria. Different examination
bodies were set up in 1952, with its headquarter in Accra, Ghana followed the Jeffrey
report of 1950. The board later became the West Africa Examination Board (WAEC)
which revised the curriculum of school subjects including science and had its first
examination in 1955.

Professional bodies such as the Science Teachers’ Association (STAN) were also
established on 30th November 1957. These bodies reviewed the WAEC and HSC science
curriculum in 1958. Other colleges were established by the Federal Government of
Nigeria; the Federal College of Arts, Science and Technology was established in 1950 in
Ibadan, Zaria in 1952, and Enugu in 1954.These colleges administered fairly
comprehensive curriculum in science education and science related fields such as
architecture, engineering, pharmacy etc.

The launch into space of the satellite (Sputnik) by Soviet Union in 1957 was a
remarkable development of science in the world and this resulted into the development of
the science curriculum effort by the Western World. This innovation led to the awareness
of re-examining the school science curriculum objectives, content and evaluation. In
Nigeria’s early 60s, the science curriculum was geared towards the fulfillment of
overseas examination requirement. However, recently, a clear pattern for science project
development at the Primary and Junior secondary level has been integrated. However, at
the Senior Secondary School, inquiry and problem-solving activities have been
emphasized.

Post-independence
After independence there were several conferences to identify problems of science
education and to deliberate on how to improve the teaching and learning of science. One
of such conferences is the national curriculum conference of 8-12 September 1969 and it
gave birth to the science curriculum and other different types of curriculum reforms in
education. It also brought about the new National policy on education in 1977 revised in
1981, 1998 and 2004. The innovations in the fourth edition were: the introduction of
information and technology education (ICT), the repositioning of science technology and
vocational education.

The national policy ushered in the 6-3-3-4 system and universal primary education
(Wasagu, 2011). Many materials in science were produced for primary and secondary
levels. These include the Nigeria Secondary School Science Project (NSSSP), and

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Science Teacher Association of Nigeria (STAN) for secondary schools. The Nigerian
Integrated Science Project (NISP) and the National Primary Science and Mathematics
Project (NPSMP) for primary school science were also produced. This curriculum was
student-activity based. There were innovations on theory and practical in the student-
activity based curriculum. Training science teachers during the long vacation holiday and
developing standard equipment as the minimum standard for science education in Nigeria
are the two major undertakings embarked upon by STAN and NERDC. The training of
teachers was mainly on methodology and improvisation of instructional materials.
Government policies were aimed at encouraging science education at all levels (Ivowi,
1990).

The National Policy on Education (NPE) emphasized the importance of science and
technology education at all levels. At the primary school level, the objective of science
education is to lay a sound knowledge in scientific and reflective thinking (FRN, 1989;8).
There was inculcation of literacy and numeracy and the study of science and introductory
technology. Government planned to provide materials and teachers for the teaching of
science and technology. At the secondary school level, the aim is for the preparation of
students for useful living in the society and for higher education. The objective of the
science policy is to equip students with adequate scientific knowledge to live effectively
in modern age of science and technology. To achieve this, integrated science is offered as
a core subject at the Junior Secondary School (JSS) and science subjects (physics,
chemistry biology) as parts of core subjects and technical subjects at the Senior
Secondary School (SSS) level. At the higher education level, the aim is the development
of higher-level manpower. Government policy at this level is that course content of
science and technology is with professional career and it must reflect the national
requirement through consultation among universities.

A broad-based and strong scientific background is expected of a university system.

Hence a greater portion of education expenditure will be devoted to science and
technology and University admission was fixed at ratio 60:40 for science students against
liberal arts. Government has consistently given priority attention to science and
technology. To these effects; there were establishment of educational bodies which
played important roles in policy formulation, implementation and quality control. These
are: National Universities Commission (NUC), National Board for Technical Education
(NBTE) and the National Commission for Colleges of Education (NCCE). The National
Education Technology Centre (NETC) produced learning and teaching materials for
technical subjects. Bodies were also established to handle examinations. Such bodies are
West African Examination Council (WAEC) National Business and Technical
Examination Board (NABTEB) and the National Board for Educational Measurement
(NBEM). NABTEB) were to conduct examinations and award technical certificates.

In 1973 there were seminars to compile the National policy on education, in 1976 there
was the launching of the Universal Primary Education, in 1981, there was a national

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workshop on planning for JSS and finally, the JSS curriculum was launched and the
implementation took up in ten states and Federal government colleges. In 1984, there was
a workshop on planning for SSS in Kaduna and in 1986 the curriculum was launched in
some states and the Federal government colleges. There were equipment supplies by
government and communities were involved in building workshops and installing
materials. Also, there was a group commissioning for technical staff training, and
seminars were organised by government and Universities for proper understanding of the
policy.

The Universal Primary Education (UPE) of 1996 by the Babangida military regime made
primary education compulsory and free for all primary school children in Nigeria. This
resulted in an increase in pupils’ enrolment at this level. The UPE was improved upon
with the expansion of its scope from 6 to 9 years basic education and was changed from
UPE to Universal Basic Education (UBE) in September 1999 by Obasanjo democratic
administration. This is in line with the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) and the
Education For All (EFA) goal which are to ensure the realizations of government reforms
in science and technology as a vehicle for national development.

The National Economic Empowerment and Development Strategy (NEEDS) was

introduced in 2004 (Ugwu, Ofuebe & Etiubon,2011). This new scheme made free and
compulsory education extend to Junior Secondary Schools. This implies that children will
receive 9 years of un-interrupting formal education for 9years (6years at the primary and
3 years at the Junior secondary) The UBE is Education For All (EFA) and it is meant for
children from 6 to 14years.

This form of education de-articulated the Junior Secondary School component and
aligned it with the primary school component (Awofala & Shopekan (2013). On
completion of the 9years a certificate known as the Basic Education Certificate
Examination (BECE) is issued. This is the minimum qualification of a Nigerian. Hence
the existing Primary and Junior Secondary School curriculum was reworked to
accommodate the new scheme and ensure the goal of the UBE. The (NERDC)
successfully produced the 9 year basic education curriculum and the new senior school
curriculum tagged 2007. This was approved by the National Council on Education (NCE)
in 2005. There is lower basic science and technology curriculum for primary 1-3 and
middle basic science curriculum for primary 4-6 and upper science basic curriculum for
junior secondary school.

At the senior secondary level there is senior secondary school education (science
/Mathematics curriculum and senior secondary school education (technology)
curriculum. The new curriculum was pilot tested in 2008-2011 and the lower, middle and
upper science curriculum was found to be overloaded (Awofala & Shopekan 2013).
Hence, it was rectified and a new curriculum was formulated for implementation in 2013.

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Summary of science policy in Nigeria
1. The laying of sound knowledge in scientific and reflective thinking

2. To equip students with adequate scientific knowledge to live comfortably in the world
of science and technology

3. Science shall be taught to all children in primary and secondary school levels

4. The teaching and learning of science shall be towards the development of students in
the cognitive affective and psycomotive domains
5. There shall be equal opportunities in terms of provision of curriculum materials
resources persons and laboratory materials.

6. At least one science is compulsory for every child at the end of secondary school
7. Local provisions of instructional materials shall be encouraged.

A detailed analysis of the implementation of the above policy showed a mismatch

between policy formulation and implementation. The implementation has been major
problem of the science policy. For example, government wants all students to be exposed
to science but resources in terms of personnel’s and materials are not available. How then
will such objectives be achieved? Also, there are no provisions for instructional materials
for the development of the psychomotor domain of the students; available laboratories are
in state of mess; having absolutely no materials.

Philosophy of Science.
The philosophy of science is a branch of philosophy that examines the nature and
methods of scientific inquiry. It asks fundamental questions about how scientific
knowledge is acquired, what counts as scientific evidence, and how scientific theories are
tested and evaluated. This field of study also explores the relationship between science
and other areas of human knowledge, such as ethics, politics, and religion.
One of the key issues in the philosophy of science is the nature of scientific knowledge.
This question concerns what we mean by “knowledge” and how we can be sure that what
we know is true. Philosophers of science explore the different ways in which scientific
knowledge is acquired, such as observation, experimentation, and theory building, and
debate the epistemological foundations of each.
Epistemology is the branch of philosophy concerned with the nature of knowledge,
belief, and justification. It seeks to answer questions such as "What is knowledge?",
"How is knowledge acquired?", and "What makes beliefs justified or unjustified?"
There are several different epistemological foundations, or ways of approaching these
questions. Here are some of the most common:

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Rationalism: This epistemological foundation holds that knowledge can be acquired
through reason alone, without relying on empirical evidence. Rationalists believe that
there are certain innate ideas or principles that are self-evident and do not require
experience to be known.
Empiricism: Empiricists, on the other hand, hold that knowledge comes primarily from
sensory experience. They argue that all knowledge ultimately comes from observation
and that beliefs can only be justified if they are based on empirical evidence.
Skepticism: Skepticism is the view that we can never be certain of anything, and that all
knowledge claims are subject to doubt. Skeptics argue that even our most fundamental
beliefs might be false or mistaken.
Pragmatism: Pragmatists believe that the truth or falsity of a belief is determined by its
practical consequences. They argue that what matters most is not whether a belief is
objectively true, but whether it is useful in practice.
Constructivism: Constructivists hold that knowledge is actively constructed by
individuals or communities, rather than simply discovered or observed. They argue that
knowledge is shaped by our prior beliefs, social context, and personal experiences.
These are just a few of the many epistemological foundations that exist. Each has its own
strengths and weaknesses, and philosophers continue to debate which approach is the
most fruitful for understanding the nature of knowledge and belief.
Another central issue in the philosophy of science is the relationship between theories
and evidence. Scientists often use observations and experiments to test their theories, but
how do we know when a theory has been adequately tested? Philosophers of science
examine the criteria for evaluating scientific evidence and the role that different types of
evidence play in testing scientific theories.
The philosophy of science also explores the relationship between scientific theories and
reality. Some philosophers argue that scientific theories are just models that approximate
reality, while others believe that theories accurately describe the way the world really is.
Debates about the ontological status of scientific theories often center around questions of
realism and anti-realism.
Philosophers of science also study the social and cultural factors that influence scientific
inquiry. They explore the ways in which scientific research is shaped by cultural and
historical context, as well as the role that values and biases play in shaping scientific
theories and research programs.
Finally, the philosophy of science examines the relationship between science and other
areas of human knowledge, such as ethics, politics, and religion. Philosophers of science
explore questions about the ethical implications of scientific research, the political and

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social implications of scientific knowledge, and the relationship between science and
religious belief.
Overall, the philosophy of science is a diverse and multifaceted field that encompasses a
wide range of questions about the nature and methods of scientific inquiry. By exploring
these questions, philosophers of science help us to better understand the strengths and
limitations of scientific knowledge, and to appreciate the complex relationship between
science and other areas of human knowledge and experience.
The relationship between science and philosophy

The relationship between science and philosophy is complex and multifaceted. While
science and philosophy are distinct fields of inquiry, they are also deeply intertwined and
have a long history of influencing one another.
One way to understand the relationship between science and philosophy is to consider the
role of philosophy in shaping the development of science. Many of the great scientists
throughout history were also philosophers, and they often relied on philosophical ideas
and methods to guide their scientific research. For example, Francis Bacon, often
considered the father of the scientific method, was also a philosopher who believed in the
importance of empiricism and induction in scientific inquiry. Similarly, Isaac Newton,
who made major contributions to physics and mathematics, was also deeply interested in
philosophy and wrote extensively on topics such as the nature of space and time.
Philosophy has also played a key role in shaping the way that we think about science and
scientific knowledge. Philosophers of science have developed frameworks for
understanding how scientific theories are constructed, evaluated, and revised, as well as
for analyzing the relationship between scientific knowledge and the world it describes. In
this way, philosophy has helped to establish the epistemological foundations of science
and to guide scientific research.
At the same time, science has also had a significant impact on philosophy. For example,
scientific discoveries have challenged many traditional philosophical ideas about the
nature of reality, such as the idea that the world is composed of discrete, indivisible
particles. Science has also influenced philosophy by providing new empirical data that
can be used to test philosophical theories and hypotheses.
In recent years, there has been growing interest in the relationship between science and
philosophy, particularly in areas such as the philosophy of science, the philosophy of
mind, and the philosophy of biology. These areas of inquiry explore questions about the
nature of scientific knowledge, the relationship between the mind and the brain, and the
nature of life and biological systems, among others.
Overall, the relationship between science and philosophy is complex and multifaceted,
with each field influencing and shaping the other in numerous ways. While they are
distinct fields of inquiry, they share a common goal of seeking to understand the world

16
around us and our place in it, and both are essential for advancing our understanding of
the natural world and the human experience.
Mathematics as a School Subject
Mathematics is a fundamental subject taught in schools around the world. It is the study
of numbers, quantities, and shapes, as well as their relationships and properties.
Mathematics is important for many reasons, including its role in science, technology,
engineering, and economics. In this essay, we will elaborate on the importance of
mathematics as a school subject.
Firstly, mathematics is a core subject in many school curricula around the world. This is
because mathematics teaches students a wide range of skills and knowledge that are
useful in many different areas of life. For example, mathematics teaches students how to
think logically and critically, how to solve problems, and how to use data and statistics to
make informed decisions. These skills are important not only for academic success but
also for success in many careers and professions.
Secondly, mathematics plays a critical role in science, technology, engineering, and
mathematics (STEM) fields. These fields are becoming increasingly important in the
global economy, and many of the most important innovations and discoveries are made
by people with a strong background in mathematics. For example, mathematics is used
extensively in physics, chemistry, and engineering, and is also important in fields like
computer science and data analysis.
Thirdly, mathematics is a subject that can be enjoyed and appreciated for its own sake.
Mathematics is often seen as a challenging and abstract subject, but it can also be
beautiful and fascinating. Many mathematicians find great pleasure in solving complex
problems and discovering new mathematical concepts and theories. By studying
mathematics, students can develop an appreciation for the beauty and elegance of
mathematical concepts and how they relate to the world around them.
Finally, mathematics is a subject that can be taught in many different ways. While
traditional classroom instruction is still common, there are many other approaches that
can be used to teach mathematics. For example, students can learn mathematics through
games, puzzles, and interactive software. This can make learning mathematics more
engaging and enjoyable for students, and can also help to build their confidence and
enthusiasm for the subject.
In conclusion, mathematics is an important and fundamental subject taught in schools
around the world. It teaches students a wide range of skills and knowledge that are useful
in many different areas of life, including science, technology, engineering, and
economics. Additionally, mathematics is a subject that can be enjoyed for its own sake,
and can be taught in many different ways to make learning more engaging and enjoyable
for students.
Nature of Mathematics as a school subject
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Mathematics is a subject that is studied in schools around the world, and its nature as a
school subject is multifaceted. On one hand, mathematics is a subject that is based on
logical and abstract reasoning, with a focus on solving problems and understanding the
relationships between numbers, quantities, and shapes. On the other hand, mathematics is
a subject that is constantly evolving and developing, with new discoveries and theories
being made all the time.
One of the defining characteristics of mathematics as a school subject is its emphasis on
logical reasoning and problem-solving. In mathematics, students are taught to think
critically and logically, to analyze problems and find solutions, and to use mathematical
concepts and formulas to solve real-world problems. This emphasis on logical reasoning
can help students develop important skills that are useful in many other areas of life, such
as critical thinking, problem-solving, and decision-making.
Another important aspect of mathematics as a school subject is its focus on the
relationships between numbers, quantities, and shapes. Mathematics is a subject that is
concerned with patterns and relationships, and students learn to recognize these patterns
and relationships in a wide range of contexts. For example, students may learn about the
relationship between the sides and angles of a triangle, or the relationship between the
circumference and diameter of a circle. By understanding these relationships, students
can develop a deeper understanding of the world around them and how different concepts
are interconnected.
Additionally, mathematics is a subject that is constantly evolving and developing, with
new discoveries and theories being made all the time. This means that mathematics as a
school subject is never static or fixed, but is always changing and developing as new
ideas and theories emerge. This can make mathematics a challenging subject for students,
but it can also be an exciting and rewarding one, as students are constantly learning new
things and discovering new concepts.
In conclusion, mathematics is a multifaceted subject that is taught in schools around the
world. It is a subject that is based on logical and abstract reasoning, with a focus on
problem-solving and understanding the relationships between numbers, quantities, and
shapes. Mathematics is also a subject that is constantly evolving and developing, with
new discoveries and theories being made all the time. By studying mathematics, students
can develop important skills and knowledge that are useful in many different areas of life,
and can also gain a deeper understanding of the world around them.
Methods of Teaching
Integrated Science
Integrated Science is a subject that combines various aspects of science, such as biology,
chemistry, and physics, into a single curriculum. Here are five methods of teaching
integrated science in secondary schools, along with their strengths and limitations:
Inquiry-based learning:

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This approach involves encouraging students to ask questions and investigate scientific
concepts through experiments, observations, and research.
Strengths of inquiry-based learning include promoting critical thinking and problem-
solving skills, encouraging student engagement, and fostering a deeper understanding of
scientific concepts.
Limitations can include the need for adequate resources and equipment, and the potential
for students to become frustrated if they don’t understand the material.
Problem-based learning:
In this method, students are presented with real-world problems that require them to
apply scientific concepts to find solutions.
Strengths of problem-based learning include promoting collaborative learning and
communication skills, providing practical applications of scientific concepts, and
encouraging critical thinking.
Limitations can include the need for well-crafted and relevant problems, and the potential
for students to become frustrated if they cannot find a solution.
Lecture-based learning:
This approach involves the teacher presenting information to students through lectures
and demonstrations.
Strengths of lecture-based learning include the ability to cover a large amount of material
in a short amount of time, the potential for effective teacher feedback, and the ability to
cater to different learning styles.
Limitations can include the potential for students to become disengaged, a lack of
interactivity, and a lack of opportunity for students to practice skills and apply
knowledge.
Experiential learning:
This method involves students participating in hands-on activities, such as experiments
and simulations, to better understand scientific concepts.
Strengths of experiential learning include promoting engagement and active
participation, providing practical applications of scientific concepts, and encouraging
critical thinking and problem-solving skills.
Limitations can include the need for adequate resources and equipment, and the potential
for safety concerns during experiments.
Collaborative learning:

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This approach involves students working together in groups to complete assignments and
projects. Strengths of collaborative learning include promoting communication and
teamwork skills, fostering a sense of community and belonging, and providing
opportunities for students to learn from one another.
Limitations can include the potential for conflict within groups, the need for effective
group management and coordination, and the potential for some students to rely too
heavily on others for work.
Mathematics
Lecture-based teaching:
In this method, the teacher presents mathematical concepts and problems through lectures
and demonstrations. Strengths: Allows the teacher to cover a lot of material quickly and
efficiently; provides a clear structure for the lesson; allows the teacher to model
mathematical thinking and problem-solving strategies. Limitations: Can be passive and
unengaging for students; may not provide opportunities for students to engage with the
material or develop problem-solving skills actively; may not be effective for students
who have different learning styles.
Inquiry-based learning:
This method focuses on student-centered learning, where students are encouraged to
explore mathematical concepts and problems on their own through guided inquiry.
Strengths: Encourages active engagement with mathematical concepts and problems;
allows students to work collaboratively and develop problem-solving skills; promotes
critical thinking and creativity.
Limitations: Can be time-consuming and may not cover as much material as other
methods; may be difficult to assess student learning and progress; may require a
significant amount of preparation time for the teacher.
Project-based learning:
In this method, students work on projects that require them to apply mathematical
concepts to real-world problems.
Strengths: Provides opportunities for students to apply mathematical concepts to real-
world problems; encourages collaboration and teamwork; allows for creativity and
innovation.
Limitations: May not cover as much material as other methods; may be difficult to assess
student learning and progress; may require a significant amount of preparation time for
the teacher.
Technology-based learning:

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This method uses technology such as computer programs, simulations, or interactive
whiteboards to engage students in mathematical learning.
Strengths: Can provide a more interactive and engaging learning experience for students;
can allow for personalized learning and differentiation; can provide immediate feedback
to students.
Limitations: Can be expensive and require specialized equipment or software; may not be
accessible to all students; may require additional training for teachers.
Flipped classroom:
In this method, students watch lectures or other instructional materials at home and then
come to class to work on problem sets or engage in collaborative activities.
Strengths: Allows for more hands-on and interactive learning in the classroom; frees up
class time for problem-solving and collaborative activities; can promote student-centered
learning.
Limitations: May not be effective for all students; requires students to have access to
technology outside of school; may require additional preparation time for the teacher.
Chemistry
Demonstration-based teaching:
This method involves the teacher performing experiments or demonstrations in front of
the class to illustrate chemical concepts and reactions.
Strengths: Can be engaging and captivating for students; allows for hands-on observation
of chemical reactions and phenomena; can promote critical thinking and inquiry.
Limitations: May not provide opportunities for students to actively engage with the
material or develop problem-solving skills; may not be effective for students who have
different learning styles; may not cover all required content.
Inquiry-based learning:
This method involves students investigating chemical concepts and reactions on their
own through guided inquiry.
Strengths: Encourages active engagement with chemical concepts and problems; allows
students to work collaboratively and develop problem-solving skills; promotes critical
thinking and creativity.
Limitations: Can be time-consuming and may not cover as much material as other
methods; may be difficult to assess student learning and progress; may require a
significant amount of preparation time for the teacher.
Laboratory-based learning:

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This method involves students conducting experiments and investigations in a laboratory
setting to observe and explore chemical concepts and reactions.
Strengths: Provides hands-on experience with chemical concepts and phenomena;
promotes critical thinking and problem-solving skills; encourages collaboration and
teamwork.
Limitations: Can be expensive and require specialized equipment or materials; can be
time-consuming to set up and supervise; may not be feasible for all schools or classes.
Lecture-based teaching:
In this method, the teacher presents chemical concepts and problems through lectures and
demonstrations.
Strengths: Allows the teacher to cover a lot of material quickly and efficiently; provides a
clear structure for the lesson; allows the teacher to model chemical thinking and problem-
solving strategies.
Limitations: Can be passive and unengaging for students; may not provide opportunities
for students to actively engage with the material or develop problem-solving skills; may
not be effective for students who have different learning styles.
Technology-based learning:
This method uses technology such as computer programs, simulations, or interactive
whiteboards to engage students in chemical learning.
Strengths: Can provide a more interactive and engaging learning experience for students;
can allow for personalized learning and differentiation; can provide immediate feedback
to students.
Limitations: Can be expensive and require specialized equipment or software; may not be
accessible to all students; may require additional training for teachers.
Physics
Inquiry-based learning:
This method involves students investigating physical concepts and phenomena on their
own through guided inquiry.
Strengths: Encourages active engagement with physical concepts and problems; allows
students to work collaboratively and develop problem-solving skills; promotes critical
thinking and creativity.
Limitations: Can be time-consuming and may not cover as much material as other
methods; may be difficult to assess student learning and progress; may require a
significant amount of preparation time for the teacher.

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Laboratory-based learning:
This method involves students conducting experiments and investigations in a laboratory
setting to observe and explore physical concepts and phenomena.
Strengths: Provides hands-on experience with physical concepts and phenomena;
promotes critical thinking and problem-solving skills; encourages collaboration and
teamwork.
Limitations: Can be expensive and require specialized equipment or materials; can be
time-consuming to set up and supervise; may not be feasible for all schools or classes.
Lecture-based teaching:
In this method, the teacher presents physical concepts and problems through lectures and
demonstrations.
Strengths: Allows the teacher to cover a lot of material quickly and efficiently; provides a
clear structure for the lesson; allows the teacher to model physical thinking and problem-
solving strategies.
Limitations: Can be passive and unengaging for students; may not provide opportunities
for students to actively engage with the material or develop problem-solving skills; may
not be effective for students who have different learning styles.
Technology-based learning:
This method uses technology such as computer programs, simulations, or interactive
whiteboards to engage students in physical learning.
Strengths: Can provide a more interactive and engaging learning experience for students;
can allow for personalized learning and differentiation; can provide immediate feedback
to students.
Limitations: Can be expensive and require specialized equipment or software; may not
be accessible to all students; may require additional training for teachers.
Problem-based learning:
In this method, students work on open-ended problems or projects that require them to
apply physical concepts to real-world problems.
Strengths: Provides opportunities for students to apply physical concepts to real-world
problems; encourages collaboration and teamwork; allows for creativity and innovation.
Limitations: May not cover as much material as other methods; may be difficult to assess
student learning and progress; may require a significant amount of preparation time for
the teacher.
Computer Science

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Project-based learning:
In this method, students work on a project that requires them to apply computer science
concepts to solve a real-world problem.
Strengths: Provides opportunities for students to apply computer science concepts to real-
world problems; encourages collaboration and teamwork; allows for creativity and
innovation.
Limitations: May not cover as much material as other methods; may be difficult to assess
student learning and progress; may require a significant amount of preparation time for
the teacher.
Coding competitions:
This method involves students participating in coding competitions to solve problems and
challenges.
Strengths: Encourages students to apply their coding skills to real-world problems;
provides opportunities for students to work collaboratively and develop problem-solving
skills; can be engaging and fun for students.
Limitations: May be competitive and discouraging for some students; may not cover all
aspects of computer science education; may require extra time outside of regular class
hours.
Flipped classroom:
In this method, students watch instructional videos and complete interactive activities
outside of class, then work on collaborative projects and problem-solving activities in
class.
Strengths: Allows for personalized and self-paced learning; encourages collaboration and
teamwork; provides opportunities for the teacher to work more closely with students
during in-class activities.
Limitations: May require a lot of preparation time for the teacher; may not be effective
for students who have different learning styles; requires reliable access to technology and
internet outside of school.
Gamification:
Gamification is a teaching method that involves using game design elements and
mechanics to engage students in learning computer science concepts. This approach aims
to make learning fun and engaging for students by incorporating elements such as points,
badges, levels, and leaderboards into educational activities.
The main idea behind gamification is to motivate students to learn by making the learning
process more enjoyable and interactive. By incorporating elements of games into the

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learning process, students are more likely to stay engaged and interested in the material,
which can lead to better learning outcomes.
One example of gamification in computer science education is the use of coding games,
which are designed to teach programming concepts through interactive gameplay. These
games can be used to teach a wide range of topics, from basic programming concepts to
more advanced algorithms and data structures.
Another example of gamification in computer science education is the use of reward
systems, such as badges or points, to encourage students to complete programming
assignments or participate in online forums. By earning rewards, students are motivated
to continue their learning and engage more deeply with the material.
One of the main strengths of gamification is its ability to make learning fun and engaging
for students. By incorporating game elements into educational activities, students are
more likely to stay motivated and interested in the material, which can lead to better
learning outcomes. Additionally, gamification can be personalized and adaptive to
individual student needs, providing a more tailored and effective learning experience.
However, one limitation of gamification is that it may not cover as much material as
other teaching methods. While gamification can be effective for teaching specific
concepts or skills, it may not provide a comprehensive education in computer science.
Additionally, gamification may not be effective for all students, as some students may not
respond well to game-like elements in educational activities. Finally, gamification may
require specialized software or equipment, which may not be available in all educational
settings.
Collaborative coding:
In collaborative coding, students work together in pairs or groups to write, test, and
debug programs. This approach encourages collaboration and teamwork and provides
opportunities for students to develop problem-solving and communication skills.
During the collaborative coding process, students discuss and explain their thought
processes, helping them to better understand the concepts and algorithms involved. They
can also work through difficult problems together, offering different perspectives and
ideas. Additionally, students can learn from one another’s mistakes and improve their
own coding skills through peer feedback.
Collaborative coding can be implemented in various ways, such as pair programming,
where one student writes the code while the other provides feedback and suggestions, or
group programming, where students work together on a larger project, with each member
contributing a different part.
Strengths: Encourages collaboration and teamwork; provides opportunities for students to
develop problem-solving and communication skills; can be engaging and fun for

25
students. Effective for students who may struggle with independent work, as it provides
support and guidance from peers
Limitations: May not be effective for students who prefer to work independently; may
not cover all aspects of computer science education; requires access to reliable
technology and the internet.
Physical and Health Education
Physical and Health Education (PHE) is a subject that focuses on promoting physical
activity, healthy lifestyle choices, and overall wellness. Here are five methods of teaching
PHE in secondary schools, along with their strengths and limitations:
Direct Instruction: This method involves the teacher providing clear instructions on
physical activities, fitness routines, and healthy lifestyle choices. Strengths of direct
instruction include the ability to effectively teach skills and techniques, providing clear
guidelines and expectations, and promoting safety during physical activities. Limitations
can include the potential for disengagement among some students, and a lack of
opportunities for students to explore and develop their own ideas and approaches.
Cooperative Learning: In this method, students work together in groups to develop and
execute physical activities, fitness routines, and health-related projects. Strengths of
cooperative learning include promoting communication and teamwork skills, fostering a
sense of community and belonging, and providing opportunities for students to learn
from one another. Limitations can include the potential for conflict within groups, the
need for effective group management and coordination, and the potential for some
students to rely too heavily on others for work.
Problem-based Learning: This approach involves presenting students with real-world
health problems or issues, and guiding them to develop solutions through research and
collaboration. Strengths of problem-based learning include promoting critical thinking
and problem-solving skills, providing practical applications of health concepts, and
fostering a deeper understanding of health issues. Limitations can include the need for
well-crafted and relevant problems, and the potential for students to become frustrated if
they cannot find a solution.
Game-based Learning: In this method, physical activities and fitness routines are turned
into games, encouraging students to be active and engage in physical activity while
having fun. Strengths of game-based learning include promoting engagement and active
participation, providing opportunities for students to learn through trial and error, and
fostering a positive attitude towards physical activity. Limitations can include the
potential for some students to become too competitive, and a lack of opportunities for
students to explore and develop their own ideas and approaches.
Outdoor Learning: This approach involves taking students outside to engage in physical
activities, explore nature, and learn about the environment. Strengths of outdoor learning
include providing opportunities for students to connect with nature, promoting physical
26
activity, and fostering a deeper understanding of the environment. Limitations can
include the potential for safety concerns during outdoor activities, and the need for
appropriate clothing and equipment to be provided.
Lesson Plan
Lesson plan is a daily guide to the teacher. It is a guide to the teacher in presenting a
good and effective lesson in class. Lesson plan is said to be a guide to effective teaching
as it directs the science teacher in the same manner a compass gives a navigator his or her
bearing. It is a daily outline of learning activity for students usually drawn up after the
preceding lesson. Lesson plans are not prepared for a long time due to new innovative
approaches that can emerge for use to teach science.
Lesson Plan Example
Subject: Computer Science
Topic: Data Types
Class: SS 1
Objectives: At the end of the lesson, students should be able to:
i. explain the concept of data types
ii. mention their significance in programming
iii. use data types appropriately in programming.
Instructional Materials Needed: Computer with an IDE, projector, whiteboard,
markers, handouts
Reference Materials: Severance, C. (2016). Python for Everybody: Exploring Data in
Python 3. CreateSpace Independent Publishing Platform.
Perry, G., & Miller, D. (2013). C Programming Absolute Beginner’s Guide. Que
Publishing.
Introduction (5 minutes):
i. Begin the lesson by asking students if they know what data types are and why
they are important in programming.
ii. Write down their responses on the board.
iii. Introduce the concept of data types and explain that they are used to classify
different types of data so that the computer can understand and process them
correctly.
iv. Give examples of different data types (e.g. integers, floating-point numbers,
strings) and explain how they are used.
Body (25 minutes):
i. Using a projector, demonstrate the use of different data types in a programming
language (e.g. Python).

27
 ii. Use code examples to show how data types are declared and used in a program.
iii. Discuss the significance of declaring data types in a program, including how it
can impact the program’s performance.
iv. Introduce the concept of type casting and how it can be used to convert one
data type to another.
v. Have students work on handouts with code snippets, and ask them to identify
the data types of the variables used in each snippet.
Conclusion (10 minutes):
i. Review the different data types discussed in the lesson and ask students to
identify their characteristics.
ii. Discuss the significance of choosing the appropriate data type for a particular
programming task.
iii. Ask students to write a short program that demonstrates their understanding of
data types, and to present their code to the class.
iv. Finally, have students reflect on what they have learned and how they can
apply this knowledge in future programming projects.
Assessment:
i. Handout activity to identify data types of variables in code snippets
ii. Short program created by students to demonstrate their understanding of data
types
iii. Class participation during the lesson and discussion
Difference between lesson plan and lesson note.
A lesson note is a detailed description of all learning activities by the teacher and students
selected for a particular lesson. It shows how the lesson will be delivered, previous
knowledge of the learner, descriptions of the different methods to be used, and questions
to be asked will be included. The form of lesson notes depends on the subject, category of
learner and available resources. Thus, the difference between a lesson plan and a lesson
note is a matter of details. An Integrated Science lesson plan is easier to write and short to
read quickly, but lesson note clearly indicates the lesson’s content and method and aids
the teacher’s memory. The lesson plan is an outline of the teacher’s business, and the
lesson note gives full account of the instruction step by step.

A Specimen of Basic Science and Technology Lesson Note on Plant and Animal
School: Name of the School
Date: day/month/year
Subject: Basic Science and Technology
Class: JSSI
Time: 40mins
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Unit: Living things in the environment
Topic: Plant and Animal
Objectives: At the end of the lesson, the students will be able to:
• Differentiate between plants and animals

• Classify animals according to their food-herbivores, carnivores and omnivores

• Classify animals according to backbones vertebrates and invertebrates

• Classify plants into flowering and non-flowering plants

Previous Knowledge: Students have learnt the characteristics of living things
Teaching Resources: Each student will to come to school with a plant. The teacher brings
to class bottles containing some living animals.
Introduction: The teacher introduces the lesson by asking the students the following
questions:
(i) Name one characteristics of living things

(ii) Give examples of living things in the school compound

The teacher links the answers given by students to today’s lesson and then writes the
topic on the chalk board.
Presentation:
Step 1: The teacher asks the students to name different animals and the food they eat.
Step 2: The teacher asks the students to group the animals mentioned into the type of
food they eat. The teacher uses the students’ grouping of the animals to give each group
its biological terminology carnivores, herbivores and omnivores
Step3: From the students’ list of animals, the teacher asks the students to group the
animals into backbone and those without backbone. The teacher explains what is meant
by backbone. The teacher builds on the students grouping to explain and give each group
their terminology-vertebrates and invertebrates
Step 4: The teacher told the students look at their plants and decide if they can bear
flower. The teacher uses their reply to group the plants into flowering and non-flowering
plant

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SUMMARY
These are what the teacher should leave on the chalkboard for students to copy in their
note:
• Both plants and animals show all characteristics of living things(they grow, feed,
breathe, excrete, reproduce and respond to stimulus)

• Animals are grouped into carnivores (those that feed on flesh example- dog, lion)
herbivores ( those that feed on grass example- goat, cow) and omnivores ( those that feed
on both grass and flesh example- human being)

• Animals with backbones are called vertebrate animal example- fish, goat, man

• Animals without backbones are called invertebrates example- snake, spider

• Plants that can bear/produce flower are called flowering plants example- maize, paw-
paw, orange

• Plants that cannot produce flower are called non-flowering plants example- palm tree.
Evaluation: The teacher asks the students the following questions orally
(i) Distinguish between plant and animal

(ii) Name two invertebrates and vertebrates animals in your compound

Assignment: The teacher gives the students the following assignment as home work
List 10 herbivores, omnivores and herbivores animals in your village.

Use of Laboratory for Science Teaching

Laboratory plays an important function in the teaching of chemistry. This is because

practical exercises take their positions in the curriculum of the subject. All areas of the
curriculum are loaded with activities which are expected to be demonstrated by the
teachers. For the teachers to be able to make effective use of the laboratory, he has to
maintain both human and material resources of the laboratory very well.

The Science Laboratory

The science laboratory is that school building or block specifically designed to carry out
experiments. ‘Safety’ is the watch-word, when setting up a science laboratory, hence it
must be well sited to facilitate movement of human and material resources and safety
gadgets must be provided. For example, a laboratory should be far from places used for

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sports or food. A laboratory should be large enough to allow students have no difficulty
in seeking the chalkboard, as well as what is happening on the demonstration desk,
otherwise the students will be restless, in the process of which they may cause
preventable accident. For the same reason, the teacher should be on a raised platform so
as to see what the students are doing on their various desks. Normal laboratory must have
at least two doors one on either side. There should be windows on opposite sides and the
windows should not be burglary proofed to ensure easy escape of students in case of
explosion, fire etc.
The facilities provided must include:

Storage Room
In an ideal situation, a laboratory should be provided with two stores. One for flammables
and the other for corrosive materials. In storing materials, chemicals that can react with
each other must never be stored close together. Substances that are poisonous should be
kept in cabinets that can be locked and only the teacher should have a key. Acids or
corrosive materials should be placed on the ground or in cabinets and not on the top of
constructed shells.

Preparatory Room
This is a room used by the teacher to try out experiments before a demonstration or can
actual laboratory session. The prep-room is a mini- lab. Hence, it should be provided with
sinks, gas, electricity, water supply, etc.

Darkroom
This is a room where light experiments are carried out.

Balance Room
Balances are very sensitive. The movement of air can affect readings while using
chemical balance. Hence, the need for a room to keep the balances. The balance room
should be provided with concrete or heavy wooden benches. The room should be
provided with good lighting. If possible, it should be air conditioned.

Fume Cupboard
A fume cupboard reduces the risk of exposing laboratory users to a high risk or dosage of
poisonous gases e.g. H2S, NH3 and Cl2 etc.
Benches and Stools
The bench tops depend on the type of laboratory. Concrete are preferable in chemistry.
The stools should be four legged with flat seats and smooth edges.
Other facilities
These include chalkboard, electricity, water supply, sinks and good draining system.
Water shower must be provided to wash off corrosive materials in case of spillage. There
must be fire extinguishers, and buckets and blankets.

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Laboratory Management
The science laboratory is usually a center of scientific activities where staff, students and
materials are always in a dynamic interaction. The science teacher, as the sole
administrator of a science laboratory has the responsibility of managing these interacting
factors, in such a way that accidents are reduced to the barest minimum level. The
science teacher must make sure that all those who use the laboratory perform their work
efficiently and those who have nothing doing should not be in the laboratory.

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Management of Laboratory Staff
Involving staff in laboratory management is very easy. Not only can staff, though
consultation, have a hand in planning safety policy for a particular laboratory but their
involvement can be on-going through staff meetings where everybody is reminded of his
or her responsibilities. In other words, it is part of an efficient management technique for
science teachers to hold regular science staff meetings with all those who work in the
laboratory.

Laboratory Technicians/Attendants
The primary duty of technicians is to maintain and repair damaged equipment. Apart
from this, they also perform the following tasks, in the maintenance process;
- Keeping the apparatus clean and tidy
- Setting up or dismantling demonstration apparatus
- Ordering of apparatus
- Storing of apparatus in accordance to a regular order
- Preparing diluted solutions from stock solutions, stains or mount specimen.
- Keeping adequate records of purchases and damages. Improvising apparatus
- Make minor repairs
- Experienced technicians or attendants also serve as resource person to students.
The work of the laboratory technicians/attendants reduces to that of errand boys when
they are not well trained.

Management of Students
Involving students in a meaningful way is not so easy. One way of doing this is to
familiarize students with the apparatus in the laboratory. Another way is to develop
laboratory rules that will ensure safety.

Rules
Every laboratory should have few but strict rules to be followed. Students should be
made to be aware of possible consequences of their actions in the laboratory. For
instance, students should be told that they will pay for any apparatus they damage. Other
rules may include:
1. Laboratory materials are to be used only in the laboratory.
2. Laboratory materials must be used for only the purposes sanctioned by the teacher.
Students should do only experiments assigned or approved by the teacher.
3. There should be no horse play in the laboratory. Walk around. Do not run.
4. Nothing should be tasted or eaten in the laboratory. Anything accidentally taken
into the mouth must be washed with water.
5. Bottles should never be held by the neck.
6. Keep the floor and the bench clean and dry always.

These rules and some others, depending on the situation at hand, could be pasted in
conspicuous places for students to see. However, there is a world of difference between

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pasting a list of laboratory rules and seeing that they are obeyed. Working safely in the
science laboratory is a serious business. It requires a lot of ingenuity on the teacher's and
other laboratory staff's part.

The Use of Posters

Another way of involving students meaningfully in ensuring safety is to ask them to
design safety posters. Such posters aim to draw people’s attention to unsafe practices in
the laboratory. However, most teachers frequently misuse posters. If you are lucky to
have a set of such posters, do not make the mistake exhibiting them all at once. Instead,
show only a few at a time. Change them regularly and also change their position. If a
poster remains fixed in one place for too long a time, students soon ‘look but do not see’.

Management of Materials
Science materials are in terms of chemicals and apparatus chemicals Science laboratories
house a lot of chemicals that could endanger life of laboratory users. Working in a
laboratory therefore, involves a lot of risk. Safety in the laboratory is a coefficient of
common sense, knowledge of physical and chemical effects of substances and knowledge
of human behaviour.

3.2 Nature of Chemicals

The science teacher needs to understand the nature of chemicals he or she is working
with. Some chemicals, if not properly handled could constitute a source of hazard,
For example, fire could result from
Uncontrolled chemical reactions
Storing hot places with flammables
Storing in the same place chemicals that violently react together e.g. alkali metals and
their peroxides.

Handling of Chemicals
In order to prevent self poisoning, it is advisable to handle chemicals with care. Most
bottle labels have warning about possible hazards of the chemical they contain. It is
advisable to read these labels before you handle them or give such chemicals to students.
Certain chemicals which are handle carelessly could cause permanent damages, which
could even be transferred to the next generation. For example. All barium salts are
poisonous. Benzene, carbon tetrachloride chloroforms, phosphine are not only
carcinogenic but some like phosphine can attack the kidney and nervous system.
Bromine, chlorine and iodine can damage the skin, eyes respiratory system. H2S
paralysis olfactory organ Mercury vapors is a cumulative poison to all tissues, it is a
mutagent. Even the so called common salt (NaCl) in large quantity becomes toxic.
Perhaps we can conclude that when chemicals are improperly handled, they could be
hazardous.

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Apparatus
Since science apparatus are generally delicate and expensive, it is the duty of the science
teacher to see that:
The apparatus that are bought are actually needed
That the teacher should consult good laboratory manuals and catalogues in order to
identify the address of suppliers and their condition of sale.
The teacher makes direct contact with suppliers so as to reduce cost. When ordering
equipment, the science teacher should give a clear and specific description of desired
apparatus.

Maintenance of Apparatus
It is one thing to purchase an apparatus, it is another thing to be able to maintain the
apparatus. The way we handle or set up an apparatus, to a large extent determine how
long the apparatus will last. It will surfice to say that good laboratory maintenance
depend, above all on great care and a demonstration of responsible behaviour by those
who use the laboratory.

Supervision
Another aspect of laboratory management is thorough supervision. This means direct
inspection of laboratory materials. From our discussion so far, it is clear that the
responsibility of laboratory safety rests solely on the teacher. It is his duty to see that
laboratory activities are carried out smoothly and with minimum risks. Without carefully
planned and coordinated supervisory activities, the laboratory becomes an unsafe place to
work in. It is the duty of a science teacher to see that faults are corrected and that
necessary repairs are carried out to enhance safety in the laboratory.

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