Statics

1
Statics is the study of bodies, mechanisms and force systems that are at rest. Such
systems are described as being in equilibrium. This does not mean that there are no
forces acting upon an object or system, but it does mean that the sum of all the forces
cancel each other and the object or system does not move over time as the forces
acting upon it are in balance.

The straightforward thought for the conditions of equilibrium is that all the upward
forces equal all the downward forces. However, the more scientific answer is for two
conditions to be met. These are that the vector sum of the

1. external forces on the body must be zero:

∑F = 0

2. torques due to all external forces about any axis must be zero:

∑T = 0

mass, with the symbol m, is a measure of the quantity of matter possessed by a

body. For any given substance, mass is a constant that is proportional to its volume
and density. The unit of mass is kilograms. One kilogram is the unit of mass; however,
1000 kg or 1 Mg is 103 kg which is also one tonne (t). It is important to understand
that a 1-tonne machinery component suspended upon a crane may have its weight
balanced by the crane, but it will still have a mass of 1000 kg. This is important because
if the load is moving sideways then the momentum built up will still be enough to
cause injury or damage to other equipment as this is still moving with the properties
of 1000 kg.

A simple example of this could be any heavy machinery, such as a main engine piston,
that has to be moved about the engine room while the vessel is at sea. The ship will be
moving in the water, which will probably be gently, but the piston will also be moving
backwards and forwards. Another example is lifting a cylinder head; the mass of the
6 • Applied Mechanics

head being lifted will still have the ability to damage the cylinder head studs as it is
lifted.

force, with the symbol F, is a quantity that acts to change the state of motion, size, or
shape of an object. The unit of force is the newton (N). A unit of mass (1 kg) will give a
unit acceleration of l m/s2; 1 kN is 103 N and 1 MN is 106 N.

accelerating force (N) = mass (kg) × acceleration (m/s2 )

F = ma

weight, with the symbol W, of a body describes the gravitational force acting on the
mass of that body; gravitational acceleration (g) is 9.81 m/s2.

weight (N) = mass (kg) × gravitational acceleration

W = mg

Vector and Scalar Quantities

One of the most important reasons for marine engineers to have a full understanding
and appreciation of the theoretical and scientific background of the mechanical
equipment is that they can exchange information and ideas with other engineers in
the correct ways, leaving little chance for misunderstanding.

When engineers and scientists wish to describe the physical qualities or properties
of an object or substance, sometimes it will be enough to describe it by stating the
magnitude. An example will be 5 litres of oil or half a kilogram of chemical powder;
these are scalar quantities.

Other entities will require both magnitude and direction for them to be fully described.
For example, to fully describe a force, we need to specify both its magnitude and also
direction. When two properties are required to define an entity, it is called a vector
quantity, and it can be represented by a vector diagram.

A vector diagram is a line drawn to scale; in the case of a force, the length of the line
represents the magnitude of the force, and the direction in which the line is drawn (with
an arrow on it) represents the line of action of the force. Other vectors are displacement,
velocity, and acceleration.

Figure 1.1 shows three vector diagrams for three different forces (20 N, 15 N, and
12.5 N).
 Statics • 7

W E
12.5 N

15 N
20
S Force of 12.5 N
acting due west

Force of 20 N Force of 15 N
acting north-east acting due south

▲▲ Figure 1.1 Vectors representing forces

A Resultant Force
The resultant force is the one representing a number of coplanar forces. It is the force
that would have the same effect if replaced the combination of co-planer forces.

Figure 1.2 shows three forces of 5 N, 8 N, and 10 N, respectively, all pulling a body in
the same direction; it can be seen that the resultant of these three forces is a single
force of 23 N acting in the same direction. This is a simple case of parallel forces acting
in the same direction, and therefore the resultant involves only the addition of the
magnitude of the three forces. The space diagram is an illustration of the physical
system of forces. The vector diagram is one drawn to scale showing the combination
of the three vectors joined end to end.

If the forces are not parallel, the vector diagram may show a bend at the position
where the vectors join, so that each vector is drawn in the direction in which its
respective force acts. Taking forces of the same magnitude as above but acting in
slightly different directions, the vector diagram is constructed (Figure 1.3).

Note how the arrows of the vectors of the given forces form a continuous path in
the vector diagram. The vector diagram is drawn to scale and the resultant force is
represented by the vector addition of the original forces; it measures 21.9 N and is

8N 10 N 8N 10 N 5N

5N Resultant = 23 N
Space diagram Vector diagram

▲▲ Figure 1.2 Three forces pulling in the same direction

8 • Applied Mechanics

8N 8N
23°
10 Re Re
10 N pla sul
tan
5

N Re ces t
N

sul giv 21.

tan en 9N
t= forc
21. e s
9N

5
N
Space Vector
diagram diagram

▲▲ Figure 1.3 The constructed vector diagram

23º south of the 8 N force. This single force can replace the three given forces and have
exactly the same effect.

The Equilibrant Force

The equilibrant is a single force that, if added to a system of forces acting on a body,
would place the body in equilibrium (or at rest). In other words, the equilibrant will
neutralise the other forces.

Taking the last example again, if instead of the resultant, a force of the same magnitude
but opposite in direction to the resultant was added to the three original forces. It
would neutralise the effect of those three forces and place the body in equilibrium.
Figure 1.4 shows the equilibrant. The equilibrant closes the vector diagram and the
direction of its arrow forms a continuous path with the others, referred to as being
nose to tail.

The reference to closing the vector diagram gives an introduction to the theorems of the
triangle and polygon of forces which is to follow.

Equ
ilibra
21.9 nt
8N 8N N 8N

10 10
N 10
5

N Equ N
N

ilibr
ant
=2
1.9
N
5

Space Vector
N

diagram diagram

▲▲ Figure 1.4 The equilibrant

 Statics • 9

The Triangle of Forces

If three forces are acting upon a body that is in equilibrium, the vector diagram drawn
to scale representing the forces in magnitude and direction and taken in order forms a
closed triangle.

The Polygon of Forces

If a number of forces are acting upon a body that is in equilibrium, the vector diagram
drawn to scale representing the forces in magnitude and direction and taken in order
forms a closed polygon.

The above theorems are, therefore, the same except that the triangle of forces refers to
only three forces, and the polygon of forces refers to any number of forces greater than
three.

It can now be seen that where forces are in equilibrium and if all the forces except
one are known in magnitude and direction, then an unknown force can be solved.
When the known forces are taken in order and their vectors are drawn to scale, the
vector required to close the diagram represents the magnitude and direction of the
unknown force. However, instead of the one unknown quantity being represented
in magnitude and direction, the resultant could be the magnitudes of two forces.
The magnitudes could be calculated if the directions of the unknown forces were
determined, or the directions of two forces could be calculated if their magnitudes
were known.

Concurrent and Parallel Coplanar Forces

The lines of action of three coplanar forces in equilibrium – or any number of forces
in equilibrium which can be reduced to three resultants – must either pass through a
common point or be parallel to each other.

Figure 1.5 shows three forces pulling a plate. If this system of forces is balanced, that is,
the plate is not moving or is in equilibrium, the lines of action of the three forces must
pass through a common point because they are not parallel.
10 • Applied Mechanics

▲▲ Figure 1.5 Three forces pulling on a plate

4N 6N

10 N

▲▲ Figure 1.6 Forces in equilibrium

Figure 1.6 also shows forces pulling a plate. These forces can be in equilibrium without
being concurrent because they are parallel and are not placing a turning moment on
the plate.

As explained earlier, a condition of equilibrium is that the algebraic sum of the forces
(or rectangular components) perpendicular and parallel to the plane must equate to
zero (see Chapter 7).

Bow’s Notation
Bow’s notation is a method of defining forces in a force system by using capital letters
between the spaces in the space diagram, such as A, B, C, etc., so that each force can be
referred to by the letters of the two spaces that is separated by the force, such as force
AB, force BC, and so on. The vector of each force in the vector diagram is labelled with
its corresponding small letters on the two ends of the vector, ab, bc, etc., so that the
higher letter is in the direction of the arrow.

Figure 1.7 illustrates this method of notation. The spaces between the forces
are lettered in a continuous (clockwise or anticlockwise) direction, preferably
 Statics • 11

b
A B
Vector
C d
E diagram
D

Space diagram e

▲▲ Figure 1.7 Method of notation

commencing with a vertical or horizontal force for convenience of beginning the

construction of the vector diagram. The vector diagram is constructed by first
drawing vector ab to represent force AB, then vector bc to represent force BC, and
so on. Although the lettering of the space diagram for one system of forces can be
clockwise or anticlockwise so long as it is continuous, it is advisable to adopt one
method, say clockwise, for all problems. This is essential when combining vector
diagrams of more than one system of forces in framed structures.

Components of a Force
A force can be resolved into two components, these being two forces that could replace
the given force on a body and have the same effect. It will be realised that to find the
two components of a given force is the reverse of finding the resultant of two given
forces. Although components in any direction can be found, the most useful are usually
the rectangular components, that is, those which are at right angles to each other.

Figure 1.8 illustrates a force of 100 N inclined at 60° to the horizontal pulling on a
body. The rectangular components of this force are the horizontal and vertical pulling
86.6 N
Vertical component
0N
10

N0
10

60° 60°
50 N
Horizontal
component

▲▲ Figure 1.8 Components of an inclined force

12 • Applied Mechanics

effects, for instance, the applied force of 100 N tends to (1) pull the body horizontally
to the right and (2) lift the body upwards. From the vector diagram, the horizontal
pull is 100 × cos 60° = 50 N, and the vertical lift is 100 × sin 60° = 86.6 N; therefore,
these horizontal and vertical components can take the place of a single inclined force
of 100 N.

Slings
On board a ship, there are many practical applications where the consideration of
different component forces must be taken into account; for example, two wire strops are
slung from a beam and their lower ends are connected by a shackle from which a load
of 400 N hangs. If the strops make angles of 50° and 60°, respectively, to the vertical,
find the pull in each strop.

Firstly, a space diagram is drawn (figure 1.9) to illustrate the actual connections of
the strops and the load in the real world. The shackle joining the two is considered
the node, which is where the three forces meet and arrows are inserted on the space
diagram to indicate the directions in which the forces pull this node.

Using Bow’s notation, the vector diagram is constructed. Draw to scale vector ab
vertically downwards to represent force AB, which is 400 N. From point b on the vector
diagram, draw a line parallel to BC on the space diagram, which will be at 50° to the
vertical; as the magnitude of this force, i.e. the length of bc, is not known, it is drawn a
little longer than required in the final drawing. Now ca finishes at point a as it is to form
a closed figure; therefore, draw from point a in the direction of 60° to the vertical until
it cuts the previous vector. This fixes point c on the vector diagram.

60°

50° 60°
c Vector
C
diagram 400 N
B A

Load
400 N 50°
Space diagram
b

▲▲ Figure 1.9 Space diagram for a load suspended by two ropes

 Statics • 13

The forces in the strops may now be found by measuring the lengths of the
vectors bc and ca.
To calculate the forces, we have to first find the angle opposite the 400 N vector. This is,
angle acb = 180o – (60o + 50o) = 70o
Therefore,

ac 400
=
sin 50° sin 70°
400 × 0.766
ac =
0.9397
= 326 N
bc 400
=
sin 60° sin 70°
400 × 0.866
bc =
0.9397
= 368.6 N

∴ force in rope ac = 326 N

force in rope Bc = 368.6 N
On board a ship, this concept is important to understand because the Safe Working
Load (SWL) for each strop chosen for the task must be estimated accurately.

Consider one example. Two wire strops, each 2 m long, are used to lift a small engine
bedplate of mass 3.058 t. The suitable attachments to the bedplate are 2.5 m apart
horizontally and the top ends of the strops are connected to a common ring on the
crane’s hook. Find the tension in each of the strops.

Crane b
rope
Force in crane rope 30 kN

A B
C Vector
c
diagram
2
m
m
2

θ
1.25 m
2.5 m
Space diagram a

▲▲ Figure 1.10 Space diagram for lifting a small bedplate

14 • Applied Mechanics

From the space diagram (figure 1.10), the ring on the crane hook is a node where three
forces meet. The crane’s wire pulls upwards on this ring, the force being equal to the
total weight of the bedplate, and the top ends of each wire strop pull downwards on
this ring. Note that the bottom ends of the strops pull upwards on the connections at
the bedplate.

mass of bedplate = 3.058 × 103 kg

Force applied by the crane’s wire will be the force required to overcome gravitational
force on bedplate, i.e.,

weight of bedplate = 3.058 × 103 × 9.81 = 30 × 103 N = 30 kN

1.25
cos θ = = 0.625
2
∴θ = 51° 19′
Referring to the vector diagram,
angles bac and abc = 90° − 51° 19′ = 38° 41′
15
= cos 38° 41′
ac
15
ac =
0.7806
= 19.22 kN
∴ tension in each rope sling = 19.22 kN

A similar principle may be applied to keeping a vessel on station at a point in the

ocean. Four forces pull on a point; the magnitudes and directions of three are 12 N due
north, 15 N at 30° east of north, and 20 N at 40° east of south. Find the magnitude and
direction of the fourth force so that the system will be in equilibrium (a) by graphical
means, (b) by calculation.

(i) To construct the vector diagram (figure 1.11), choose a suitable scale and draw
vertically upwards vector ab to represent the force of 12 N due north; from b draw
bc to represent 15 N at 30° to the vertical; from c draw cd representing 20 N at 40° to
the vertical. As the system is balanced, the vector diagram must form a closed figure;
therefore, the fourth force must be represented by the vector from d to a, which closes
the diagram.

da measures 2221 N and the angle at a measures 64 21 °.

∴ equilibrant = 2221 N at S 64.5° w

 Statics • 15

N c

W E

N
S

20
15

N
12 N
15 N

b
A B
30° Vector diagram
d
C

D
40° 12 N

20 N
Space
diagram a

▲▲ Figure 1.11 Space and vector diagrams for forces on a ship

(ii) To calculate da from the vector diagram, divide the figure into two triangles by
drawing a line from b to d, calculating bd from triangle bcd, then calculating da from
triangle bda. However, an easier method of calculation is to resolve all forces into their
north-south and east-west components and reduce the problem to a triangle of forces
and then find the equilibrant of those two resultants, as follows:

40°
30°
North-south
North-south

component
component

20
N

N
15

East-west East-west
component component

▲▲ Figure 1.12 North-south and east-west components

North-south component of 15 = 15 cos 30o = 12.99 north

East-west component of 15 = 15 sin 30o = 7.5 east
North-south component of 20 = 20 cos 40o = 15.32 south
East-west component of 20 = 20 sin 40o = 12.856 east
North-south component of 12 = 12 north
East-west component of 12 = Nil
16 • Applied Mechanics

resultant of north-south components = 12.99 north + 12 north − 15.32 south

= 9.67 N due north

resultant of east-west components = 7.5 east + 12.856 east

= 20.3
356 N due east

20.356 N

9.67 N
ant
uilibr
Eq
α

▲▲ Figure 1.13 Resultant

equilibrant = 9.672 + 20.3562 = 22.54 N

20.356
tan α = = 2.105
9.67
∴α = 64° 36′
∴ force = 22.54 N at S 64° 36′ w

Jib Cranes
A simple jib crane, such as one used for loading stores, consists of a post, a jib, and a tie.
The post is usually vertical, the jib is hinged at its lowest end to the bottom of the post,
and the tie connects the top of the jib with the top of the post. The junction of the tie
and the jib is the crane head.

When solving problems for jib cranes, it is sometimes taken that the load is suspended
directly from a fixture at the crane head and the problem is then solved as a simple
triangle of forces. In other cases, the cranes are described as having a pulley at their
head; the lifting rope passes over this pulley and down to a winch behind the crane.
These cases will involve more than three forces at the crane head.

Example 1.1. The angle between the jib and the vertical post of a jib crane is 42°, and
between the tie and the jib is 36°. Find the forces in the jib and the tie when a mass of
3.822×103 kg is suspended from the crane head.

vertical downward force on crane head = 3.822 × 103 × 9.81N

= 37.5 × 103 N = 37.5 kN
 Statics • 17

c
tie 36°
Pull in
a
A
Tie 36°
C Vector
B diagram

Load 37.5 kN

jib
Post

37.5 kN

in
Jib

st
ru
Th
42°

Space 42°
diagram
b

▲▲ Figure 1.14 Space and vector diagrams for a jib crane

At the crane head (see space diagram of figure 1.14), three forces meet, which are in
equilibrium. It is obvious that the jib must push upwards on the crane head to support
the hanging load and the tie must pull to the left to support the top of the jib. The
arrows are inserted accordingly, and the vector diagram is constructed to represent
these three forces at the crane head.

It will also be seen that the vector diagram of the forces is a triangle similar to the
framework of the crane. Being able to visualize these forces, especially when working
with cargo or taking on stores, will be very important for both engineers and deck
officers alike.

Referring to the vector diagram,

angle bac = 180° − ( 42° + 36°)
= 102°
force in jib 37.5
=
sin 102° sin 36°
37.5 × 0.9781
force in jib =
0.5878
= 62.38 kN ans. (i)
force in tie 37.5
=
sin 42° sin 36°
37.5 × 0.6691
force in tie =
0.5878
= 42.69 kN ans. (ii)
18 • Applied Mechanics

Example 1.2. The lengths of the vertical post and the jib of a jib crane are 6.5 m and
7 m, respectively, and the angle between the post and the jib is 40°. A mass of 2.854 t is
suspended from a wire rope, which passes over a pulley at the crane head and then is
led down at an angle of 50° to the vertical to a winch behind the post. Draw the vector
diagram of the forces at the crane head and measure the forces in the jib and the tie.

Tie D

C A

B
Post 6.5 m

Wire
rope kN
pe 28
ro
ire 28 kN
W
m
7

Load a Rearranged
28 kN space
Jib

diagram
50° 40°
28 kN

Space
diagram
jib
in
st

Vector
ru

diagram
Th

kN
28
d
Pull in
tie c

▲▲ Figure 1.15 Rearranged space diagram for the jib crane

mass = 2.854 t = 2.854 × 103 kg

load = 2.854 × 103 × 9.81N
= 28 × 103 N = 28 kN

The space diagram can be drawn using the data given about the lengths of the post and
jib and the angle between them. The vector diagram can then be constructed by drawing
the force vectors parallel to the wire ropes, jib, and tie. Alternatively, the remaining
angles of the space diagram could be measured and the vector diagram drawn. Note
that the force in the wire rope must be the same throughout its length, that is, in the
hanging part and in the portion leading down from crane head to winch; therefore, a
defect anywhere along the line of the wire could prove to be a failure point.
 Statics • 19

It is much easier to construct the vector diagram when the two known forces are
next to each other – and not separated by an unknown force. For instance, take
the original space diagram as it is, with the downward pull of 28 kN on the crane
head by the hanging part of the wire rope; next to this there is the upward inclined
thrust of the jib, the magnitude of which is unknown; next in turn is the pull of 28
kN in the wire, which leads down to the winch, then the pull in the tie, which is
unknown. Therefore, rearrange the space diagram by extending the line of action of
the force of the jib and consider it as a pulling force on the opposite side of the crane
head instead of a pushing force under the head; the effect is the same and now
there are two known forces of the wire ropes together. The rearranged equivalent
space diagram is drawn and lettered and the vector diagram constructed as shown
in figure 1.15.

Actually measuring the unknown vectors will give the following results:

force in jib = 55.4 kN

force in tie = 14.6 kN

Reciprocating Engine (Running Gear)

Mechanism
The connecting rod and crank of a two-stroke crosshead reciprocating engine converts
the reciprocating motion of the piston to a rotary motion in the crank shaft at the
crosshead bearing.

Referring to figure 1.16 and considering the forces meeting at the crosshead bearing,
the lower end of the piston rod pushes vertically downwards on the crosshead; the
thrust in the connecting rod appears as an upward resisting force at its top end; however,
it is inclined to the vertical, and the crosshead guide exerts a horizontal force to balance
the horizontal component of the resisting thrust in the connecting rod.

As the piston effort always acts vertically, and the guide force always horizontally, the
vector diagram of the forces at the crosshead bearing is always a right-angled triangle.
Note that the angle between the centreline of the engine and the connecting rod,
indicated by ϕ in the space diagram, is the same as the angle between the piston force
and the force in the connecting rod. Turning moment is considered in Chapter 3.

Example 1.3. The piston of a reciprocating engine exerts a force of 160 kN on the
crosshead when the crank is 35° past top dead centre. If the stroke of the piston is
900 mm and the length of the connecting rod is 1.65 m, find the guide force and the
force in the connecting rod.