BME/ BMT/ BEE

PROGRAMMES

BMAE 101: BASIC MECHANICS

TUTU AZAMETI
 MECHANICS

STATICS
Science of rest DYNAMICS
(equilibrium) Science of motion

KINETICS KINEMATICS
The study of the of the motion The study of the description of the
by considering the forces motion without considering the
forces
 MECHANICS
Mechanics
The branch of science which deals with the forces and their
effects on the bodies on which they act is called mechanics
Application of mechanics
Some of the important practical applications of the principles
and laws of mechanics are given below:
1. The motion of vehicles such as trains, buses, etc.
2. The design of buildings and forces on columns and walls.
Branches of Mechanics
• The subject of applied mechanics is broadly divided into the following
two branches:
1. Statics: The branch of applied mechanics which deals with the forces and
their effects while acting upon bodies which are at rest is called statics.
2. Dynamics: The branch of applied mechanics which deals with the forces
and their effects while acting upon bodies which are in motion is called
dynamics. It is further divided into two
types:
• Kinetics: The branch of dynamics that deals with the relationship
between the motion of bodies and forces causing motion is called
kinetics.
• Kinematics: The branch of dynamics that deals with the motion of bodies
without considering the forces that cause motion is called kinematics.
FORCE
• A force may be defined as a push or pull which either changes or tend to
change the state of rest or of uniform motion of a body. Force is a vector
quantity.

FORCE AS A VECTOR
• A vector is a quantity that has both a magnitude and a direction.
• For example; weight, force, moment, position, velocity and acceleration are
the vector quantities frequently used in Statics.
• Vectors are indicated by bold letters (in literature), such as ‘A’ or A. (Bar or
Arrow in handwritten work).
• The magnitude of a vector is always a positive quantity and is symbolized in
Itallic type, written as A or A.
Force as a Vector
• Characteristics of a Force
In order to determine the effects of a force, acting on a body, we must know the
following characteristics of a force :

1. Magnitude of the force (i.e., 100 N, 50 N, 20 kN, 5 kN, etc.)

2. The direction of the line, along which the force acts (i.e., along OX, OY,
at 30° North of East etc.). It is also known as line of action of the force.
3. Nature of the force (i.e., whether the force is push or pull). This is
denoted by placing an arrow head on the line of action of the force.
4. The point at which (or through which) the force acts on the body.
Effects of Force Application
A force acting on a body may have the following effects on
the body:
1. It may change the state of rest or of uniform motion of
a body.
2. It may change the direction of motion of a moving body.
3. It may change the shape of internal stresses in the body.
4. It may produce internal stresses in the body.
System of Forces
• When several forces act on a body, then they are called a force system or a
system of force.
1. Coplanar forces are the forces in a plane.
2. The word collinear stands for the forces that have the same line of action.
3. Concurrent stands for the forces which intersect at a common point.

Coplanar Collinear Concurrent Coplanar

Coplanar Parallel Forces Non-Concurrent Non-
Forces. Forces
Parallel Forces
Resultant of A System of Forces
• If a number of forces, P, Q, R ... etc. are acting simultaneously on a particle,
then it is possible to find out a single force which could replace them i.e.,
which would produce the same effect as produced by all the given forces. This
single force is called resultant force and the given forces R ...,etc. are called
component forces.

• METHODS OF FINDING RESULTANT FORCE

1. Parallelogram Law (Triangle Construction):
It states, “If two forces, acting simultaneously on a particle, be represented in
magnitude and direction by the two adjacent sides of a parallelogram; their
resultant may be represented in magnitude and direction by the diagonal of the
parallelogram, which passes through their point of intersection.”
METHODS OF FINDING RESULTANT FORCE - Parallelogram Law/
Triangle Construction
Using the Cosine and Sine Rules;

r B
A
b a
R=A+B

Cosine Rule
|𝑅|=√ 𝐴2+ 𝐵2 − 2 𝐴𝐵𝑐𝑜𝑠 (𝑟 )

Sine Rule
𝐴 𝐵 𝑅
= =
sin ⁡( 𝑎) sin ⁡(𝑏) sin ⁡( 𝑟 )
METHODS OF FINDING RESULTANT FORCE - Parallelogram Law/
Triangle Construction

The two forces

P and Q act on
a bolt A .
Determine their
resultant.
METHODS OF FINDING RESULTANT FORCE - Parallelogram Law/
Triangle Construction

Two forces are

applied at point B of
beam AB. Determine
the magnitude and
direction of their
resultant.
METHODS OF FINDING RESULTANT FORCE -
Polygon Rule
• This is an extension of the Parallelogram law and can be used for addition of more than two
vectors.
• Two vectors are actually summed and added to the third and so on...

The Polygon is obtained

by arranging the given
vectors in tip-to-tail
fashion and connecting
the tail of the first vector
with the tip of the last
one.
P + Q + S = (P + Q) + S = P + (Q + S)
This is the Associative Law of Vector Addition
METHODS OF FINDING RESULTANT FORCE –
Resolution of Vectors
• A vector pointing in a random direction in the x-y plane has x and y
components: it can be split into two vectors, one entirely in the x direction
(the x-component) and one entirely in the y-direction (the y component).
Added together, the two components give the original vector.
• Consider the following example: A vector, which we will call A, has a length of
5.00 cm and points at an angle of 25.0° above the positive x axis, The x and y
components of A, Ax and Ay.

𝑨= 𝑨 𝑿 𝒊+ 𝑨 𝒚 𝒋

( )
𝐴= 𝐴 𝑥
𝐴𝑦
Adding many vectors
numerically
The Procedure
• Sketch the vectors on a coordinate
system.
• Find the x and y components of all the
vectors, with the appropriate signs.
• Sum the components in both the x and y Magnitude of Resultant force:
directions.
• Find the magnitude of the resultant
vector from the Pythagorean theorem. Direction, θ, of Resultant force:

• Find the direction of the resultant vector

using the tangent function.
Example 1:
A barge, B, is being pulled by two tugboats A and C as
shown in the figure below. The tension in the cable
attached to A is 3700 N and the tension in the cable
attached to C is 2600 N. If α is 45°, determine the resultant
force with which the barge is being pulled.
Model Solution
Force X – component Y – component
TAB = (3700 N, 060°)
TBC = (2600 N, 135°)
Total Rx = 5042.772 Ry = 11.522

Hence Resultant force, R = (5042.785 N, 090°)

Example 2:
Four co-planar forces act
at a point 0. The values
and direction of the forces
are illustrated in Figure
Q1. Calculate the
magnitude and bearing of
the resultant force.
Figure Q1
Model Solution
Force x-components (N) y-components (N)

(50 N, 090°) 50sin(90°) = 50.00 50cos(90°) = 0.00

(10 N, 180°) 10sin(180°) = 0.00 10cos(180°) = -10.00

(20 N, 240°) 20sin(240°) = -17.321 20cos(240°) = -10.00

Bearing of resultant force = 90° - 19°

(30 N, 330°) 30sin(330°) = -15.00 30cos(330°) = 25.981 = 071°
Resultant force, R = (18.663 N, 071°)

Resultant Rx = 17.679 N Ry = 5.981 N

PARTICLE EQUILIBRIUM
Newton’s First Law of Motion: If the resultant force acting on a particle is zero,
the particle will remain at rest (if originally at rest) or will move with constant
speed in a straight line (if originally in motion).
Hence a particle is said to be at rest when the net external force acting on the
object is zero.

• In other words, the particle is NOT experiencing linear acceleration.

• Equilibrium also implies the object is at rest (static equilibrium) or its center of
mass moves with a constant velocity (dynamic equilibrium).
• An object is in “Static Equilibrium” when it is NOT MOVING.
• An object is in “Dynamic Equilibrium” when it is MOVING with constant linear
velocity.
PARTICLE EQUILIBRIUM
PRINCIPLES OF EQUILIBRIUM
1. Two force principle. As per this principle, if a body in equilibrium is
acted upon by two forces, then they must be equal, opposite and
collinear.
2. Three force principle. As per this principle, if a body in equilibrium
is acted upon by three forces, then the resultant of any two forces
must be equal, opposite and collinear with the third force.
3. Four force principle. As per this principle, if a body in equilibrium is
acted upon by four forces, then the resultant of any two forces
must be equal, opposite and collinear with the resultant of the
other two forces.
PARTICLE EQUILIBRIUM
ANALYTICAL METHOD FOR THE EQUILIBRIUM OF COPLANAR FORCES

1. Resolution of Forces (as studied earlier)

2. Lami’s Theorem:
If three coplanar forces acting at a point be in equilibrium, then each
force is proportional to the sine of the angle between the other two.
PARTICLE EQUILIBRIUM
• Draw a sketch, decide what is in or out FREE-BODY DIAGRAMS
the system A free-body diagram is a diagram
• Draw a free body diagram (FBD) showing the chosen body/particle
• Show and label all external forces acting by itself “free” of its surroundings,
on the object. The external forces with vectors drawn to show the
should be pointing away from the
magnitudes and directions of all
object.
the forces applied to the body by
• Indicate the locations of all the forces
the other bodies.
• Establish a convenient coordinate • Free-body diagrams are essential
system
to help identify the relevant
• Find the components of the forces along
forces acting on a body/particle.
the two axes
• Apply the first condition for equilibrium Fnet , x  Fext , x 0

• Be careful of signs Fnet , y  Fext , y 0

PARTICLE EQUILIBRIUM

PRINCIPLE OF TRANSMISSIBILITY
• The principle states that a force may be applied at any
point on its given line of action without altering the
resultant effects of the force external to the rigid body
on which it acts.
• Principle of Transmissibility
Conditions of equilibrium or motion are
not affected by transmitting a force
along its line of action.
NOTE: F and F’ are equivalent forces.
PARTICLE EQUILIBRIUM
FREE-BODY DIAGRAM - Example

Free-Body Diagram: A sketch

Space Diagram: A sketch
showing only the forces on
showing the physical
the
conditions
selected particle.
of the problem.
PARTICLE EQUILIBRIUM
An electric light fixture weighting 15 N A light string ABCDE whose extremity A is fixed,
hangs from a point C, by two strings AC has weights W1 and W2 attached to it at B and C.
and BC. The string AC is inclined at 60° It passes round a small smooth peg at D carrying a
weight of 300 N at the free end E as shown in the
to the horizontal and BC at 45° to the
figure. If in the equilibrium position, BC is horizontal and AB
horizontal as shown in the figure below. and CD make 150° and 120° with BC,
Determine the forces in the strings AC and BC. find (i) Tensions in the portion AB, BC and CD of the string and
(ii) Magnitudes of W1 and W2.
Example: Equilibrant

The diagram shows

three forces acting on
a body at a point. Find
the fourth force that
will put the whole
system in equilibrium.
Model Solution
Force x-component (N) y-component (N)
F1 = (780 N, 113°) 780sin(113°) = 717.994 780cos(113°) = -304.770
F2 = (500 N, 217°) 500sin(217°) = -300.907 500cos(217°) = -399.318
F = (725 N, (314°) 725sin(314°) = -521.521 725cos(314°) = 503.627
Total Rx = -104.435 Ry = -200.461

F4 = (226.034 N, 028°)
RIGID BODY EQUILIBRIUM
A rigid body is a body that will not deform under the applied load.

CONDITIONS FOR RIGID BODY EQUILIBRIUM

1. The net force equals zero.

 
Fnet  Fext 0
2. The net external torque on the object must equal zero.
  
 net   ext I 0
RIGID BODY EQUILIBRIUM

Free Body Diagrams

In performing equilibrium analysis, only external forces that
act on the rigid body need be shown on the free-body
diagram.

• External forces are :

reactive forces at the supports or at the point of contact with
other bodies.
weight of the body
applied loading
RIGID BODY EQUILIBRIUM
Support Reactions
• If a support prevents the translation of a body in a given direction,
then a force is developed on the body in that direction.
• If rotation is prevented, a couple moment is exerted on the body.
Support Reactions
 Free-Body Diagram - Example
The uniform beam shown in the figure has a mass of 100kg. Draw the free-body
diagram of the beam.
Condition 2: No net Torque/Moment
• A torque is an action that causes an object to rotate.
• Moment of a force is the tendency of the force to cause rotation of an object
about a fixed axis/point.

Moment
perpendicular
About a = Force ×
distance
point

Moments may be described as clockwise or

anticlockwise, and the moment of a force is also called a
torque.
Moment of A Force
Determine the moments of the
225 N force shown in the diagram
about the points A, B and C.
Moment of a Force

Given:
A 400 N force is
applied to the frame
and  = 20°.

Find: The moment of the

force at A.

Ans: 1160 N.m

Principle of Moment

Exercise1: The diagram represents a boy of weight 400N sitting on the left of a seesaw,
2.7m away from the pivot. A girl of weight 300N is sitting on the right hand side 3.6m
away from the pivot.
2.7m 3.6m

boy girl

400N 300N

Exercise 2: The diagram below shows a ruler in equilibrium. What is the value of the
force F which is balancing the 4N force?

0.2m 0.3m

4N
F
RIGID BODY EQUILIBRIUM – Solved Example
• Determine the horizontal and vertical components of reaction on the beam,
shown in the diagram below, caused by the pin at B and the rocker at A.
Neglect the weight of the beam.
RIGID BODY EQUILIBRIUM – Solved Example
SOLUTION:
• Resolve the 600-N force Free-body diagram
into its x & y
components.
• Rocker at A: reaction is
perpendicular to the
contact surface.
• Pin at B: reaction has 2
components.
RIGID BODY EQUILIBRIUM – Solved Example
SOLUTION (Cont’d):

Note: Eq. (b) can be replaced by the moment equation SMA = 0

RIGID BODY EQUILIBRIUM – Solved Example 2
A beam is loaded and supported as shown in the diagram below. The beam has
a uniform cross-section and weighs 425 lb. Determine the reactions at supports
A and E.
RIGID BODY EQUILIBRIUM – Solved Example
SOLUTION:
NB: The weight of the beam acts through its centre of gravity and
directed downwards

Free-body diagram:
RIGID BODY EQUILIBRIUM – Solved Example
Equilibrium Equations:

+
(1)

From equation (1),

Equilibrium of Forces - Example
• A uniform horizontal beam with a length
of l = 8.00 m and a weight of Wb = 200 N
is attached to a wall by a pin connection.
Its far end is supported by a cable that
makes an angle of  = 53 with the beam.
A person of weight Wp = 600 N stands a
distance d = 2.00 m from the wall. Find
the tension in the cable as well as the
magnitude and direction of the force
exerted by the wall on the beam.
Moment of A Couple
Example: Determine the resultant moment of the three couples acting on the plate as shown.
Distributed Forces – Moments of Areas,
Centroids and Centre of Gravity
• Determination of an equivalent force for a distributed load.

A distributed load on the beam exists due

to the weight of the lumber.

Is it possible to reduce this force system

to a single force that will have the same
external effect?

How can we determine a single

equivalent resultant force and its
location?
Distributed Forces – Moments of Areas,
Centroids and Centre of Gravity
The first moment of CENTRE OF GRAVITY
Area is the product of The earth exerts a gravitational force on each of the particles
an area and the forming a body. These forces can be replace by a single
distance from the equivalent force equal to the weight of the body and applied at
area to a fixed axis. the center of gravity for the body. The centre of gravity is thus:
•the point/location where the resultant weight of a system of
particles is concentrated.
•The point through which the force of gravity is considered to
act vertically downwards, with a force equal to the weight of
the body.
•The point about which the body would balance.
The centre of gravity of a homogeneous body is at its
geometrical centre.
Moments of Areas, Centroids and Centre of Gravity
CENTROIDS
A centroid is:
• the point where we assume the entire area of an object is
concentrated.
• a point which defines the geometric center of an object
- A centroid coincides with the center of mass or center of gravity
only if the material composing the body is uniform or
homogeneous.
• The centroid of an area is analogous to the center of gravity of a
body. The concept of the first moment of an area is used to locate
the centroid.
Moments of Areas, Centroids and Centre of Gravity

• The centre of gravity (or centroid) may be found out

by any one of the following methods:

1.Geometric Construction
2.Moments of Area Method
3.Integration
Centroids – Concept of Line of Symmetry
• An area is symmetric with respect to an axis BB’ if for every
point P there exists a point P’ such that PP’ is perpendicular to
BB’ and is divided into two equal parts by BB’.

• If an area possesses two lines of symmetry, its centroid lies at their

intersection.
• If an area possesses a line of symmetry, its centroid lies on that axis
• If an area possesses two lines of symmetry, its centroid lies at their
intersection.

• An area is symmetric with respect to a center O if for every element

dA at (x,y) there exists an area dA’ of equal area at (-x,-y).
• The centroid of the area coincides with the center of symmetry.
Geometric Construction
NB:
• In cases where the shape has an axis of symmetry, the centroid of
the shape will lie along the axis.

• If the shape has two or three axes of symmetry, the centroid lies at
the intersection of these axes

The centre of gravity of a rectangle (or a

parallelogram) is at the point, where its
diagonals meet each other. It is also a
middle point of the length as well as the
breadth of the rectangle
Geometric Construction

The centre of gravity of a triangle is at the point,

where the three medians (a median is a line
connecting the vertex and middle point of the
opposite side) of the triangle meet.
Centroids of Common Shapes
Centroid of Composite Shapes – Moment of Area Method

1. Divide the Shape into simple

regular shapes,
2. Determine the centre of each
shape from the given reference
axes,
3. Calculate the centroid of the
whole shape using the
following formulae:
𝑋∑ 𝐴 𝑛
( 𝐴 ¿¿ 𝑖¿ 𝑥𝑖) 𝐴1 𝑥1 + 𝐴 2 𝑥 2 + 𝐴 3 𝑥 3 + …+ 𝐴 𝑛 𝑥 𝑛
𝑋= =∑ = ¿¿
∑𝐴 𝑖=1 ∑ 𝐴𝑖 𝐴 1 + 𝐴 2 + 𝐴 3 +…+ 𝐴𝑛

𝑌∑ 𝐴 𝑛
( 𝐴 ¿¿ 𝑖¿ 𝑦𝑖) 𝐴 1 𝑦 1+ 𝐴2 𝑦 2+ 𝐴3 𝑦 3 +…+ 𝐴𝑛 𝑦 𝑛
𝑌= =∑ = ¿¿
∑𝐴 𝑖=1 ∑ 𝐴𝑖 𝐴1 + 𝐴 2 + 𝐴 3 + …+ 𝐴 𝑛
Centroid of Composite Shapes – Moment of Area Method
• Find the centre of gravity of a 100 mm × 150 mm × 30 mm T-section.
The section is symmetrical about Y-Y axis, bisecting the web, therefore its centre of gravity will
lie on this axis. Let FE be the reference axis.

S/N SHAPE AREA (),

1 Rectangle ABCH

2 Rectangle DEFG

Total, ∑ 6600 621000

∑ 𝑦 𝑖 𝐴𝑖 = 621000 =94.1 𝑚𝑚
Centroid, 𝑌 =
∑ 𝐴𝑖 6600
Centroid of Symmetrical Sections
Example: Find the centre of gravity of a channel section 100 mm × 50 mm × 15 mm.
The section is symmetrical about X-X axis, therefore its centre of gravity will lie on this axis.
Let AC be the reference axis.
S/N SHAPE AREA (),

1 Rectangle ABFJ

2 Rectangle EGKJ
3 Rectangle CDHK
Total, ∑ 2550 45375

𝑋=
∑ 𝑥 𝑖 𝐴𝑖 = 45375 =17.79 𝑚𝑚
Centroid,
∑ 𝐴𝑖 2550
Centre of Gravity of Unsymmetrical Sections
Example: Locate the centroid of the plane area shown.
y
20 mm 30 mm
Solving Problems on Your Own
1. Decide how to construct the given area from common
shapes.
36 mm
2. It is strongly recommended that you construct a table
containing areas or length and the respective coordinates of
the centroids.
24 mm
3. When possible, use symmetry to help locate the centroid.
x
Centre of Gravity of Unsymmetrical Sections

y
20 + 10

Decide how to construct the given

area from common shapes.
C1
C2

30 24 + 12

x
10

Dimensions in mm

67
Centre of Gravity of Unsymmetrical Sections
y Construct a table containing areas and
20 + 10
respective coordinates of the
centroids.
C1
C2
30 24 + 12

x Dimensions in mm
10

A, mm2 x, mm y, mm xA, mm3 yA, mm3

1 20 x 60 =1200 10 30 12,000 36,000
2 (1/2) x 30 x 36 =540 30 36 16,200 19,440
S 1740 28,200 55,440

68
Centre of Gravity of Unsymmetrical Sections
y Then XS A = S xA
20 + 10
X (1740) = 28,200
or X = 16.21 mm
C1
C2
and YS A = S yA
30 24 + 12
Y (1740) = 55,440
10
x
Dimensions in mm or Y = 31.9 mm

A, mm2 x, mm y, mm xA, mm3 yA, mm3

1 20 x 60 =1200 10 30 12,000 36,000
2 (1/2) x 30 x 36 =540 30 36 16,200 19,440
S 1740 28,200 55,440

69
RIGID BODY EQUILIBRIUM – Distributed Forces
RIGID BODY EQUILIBRIUM – Distributed Forces

Given: The loading on the beam as shown.

Find: The equivalent force and its location from point

A.
RIGID BODY EQUILIBRIUM – Distributed Forces

Determine the equivalent

concentrated load(s) and external
reactions for the simply supported
beam which is subjected to the
distributed load shown.
MOMENT OF INERTIA
• Moment of Inertia is also referred to as Area Moment of
Inertia or Second Moment of Area.
• Moment of inertia, I, is a measure of an object’s resistance
to changes to its rotation.
• Also defined as the capacity of a cross-section to resist
bending.
• It must be specified with respect to a chosen axis of
rotation.
• It is usually quantified in
MOMENT OF INERTIA
PARALLEL AXIS THEOREM
• The moment of area of an object about
any axis parallel to the centroidal axis is
the sum of MI about its centroidal axis
and the prodcut of area with the square
of distance of from the reference axis.
• Essentially,
where:
A = the cross-sectional area,
d = the perpendicular distance between the
centroidal axis and the parallel axis,
= moment of inertia about the centroidal
axis.
MOMENT OF INERTIA of Some Plane Figures
MOMENT OF INERTIA of Some Plane Figures
MOMENT OF INERTIA – EXAMPLES
EXAMPLE 1 SOLUTION:
Compute the moment of inertia of NB: As the moment of inertia is required
area ABCDEF about axis K-K. to be found out about the axis K-K,
therefore there is no need of finding out
the centre of gravity of the area.

The moment of Inertia of Section (1) through its

centre of gravity is:
MOMENT OF INERTIA – EXAMPLE
Example 1 (Cont’d)
The distance between centre of gravity of section (1) and axis K-K is
\ Moment of inertia of section (1) about axis K-K
=

Using this understanding of section (1), the moment of inertia of section (2) is computed as follows:

Moment of inertia of section (2) about the axis K-K

Now moment of inertia of the whole area about axis K-K,

MOMENT OF INERTIA – EXAMPLE
Example 2
SOLUTION
Determine the moment of inertia of the
area shown in the figure using x as the
reference axis.
 FRICTION
• Force that acts to oppose the relative motion of two surfaces
High for dry and rough surfaces
Low for smooth and wet surfaces

FRICTION

Fluid Friction Dry Friction

Static Friction Dynamic/

Drag Kinetic Friction
Lubricated Internal
friction friction
Laws of Dry Friction
• The force of friction always acts in a
direction, opposite to that in which
Free Body Diagram
the body tends to move, if the force of
friction would have been absent. Normal
Force, R
• The magnitude of the limiting friction Applied
bears a constant ratio to the normal Force F

reaction between the two surfaces. Friction

Force ff
Mathematically :
where F = Limiting friction, and Gravity
Force, W
R = Normal reaction.
• The force of friction is independent of
the area of contact between the two
surfaces.
• The force of friction depends upon the
roughness of the surfaces.
Types of Dry Friction

To initiate motion of the box

the man must overcome the
Force of Static Friction

Upon sliding, the

baseball player will come
I better be to a complete stop due
safe Ump!! to the Force of Kinetic
Friction
Static Friction
• The Force of Static Friction keeps a stationary object at rest.
R

F
fs

• , where
NB: Just before the object slides, Friction = Applied force.
Static Friction Ideal Result
Static Friction Lab Procedure
• Connect the force detector to a
block of wood
• Pull gently on the force sensor
unit the block begins to move
• Move the block slowly with
constant force
Kinetic Friction

Once the Force of Static Friction is Motion

FN
overcome, the Force of Kinetic F
Friction is what slows down a fk
moving object! W

f k FN  k
 k coefficien t of kinetic friction
Friction on an Inclined Plane and
Angle of Friction
Consider a body of weight W resting on an
inclined plane as shown in the figure. The body
is in equilibrium under the action of the
following forces :
1. Weight (W) of the body, acting vertically
downwards,
2. Friction force (F) acting upwards along the
plane, and Mathematically,
3. Normal reaction (R) acting at right angles to coefficient of friction,
the plane.

Let the angle of inclination be gradually

increased, till the body just starts sliding down
the plane. This angle of inclined plane, at which
a body just begins to slide down the plane, is
called the angle of friction.
 DYNAMICS
• It is that branch of Engineering Mechanics which deals with forces and their effects,
while acting upon the bodies in motion. The subject of Dynamics may be further
sub-divided into the following two branches :
1. Kinetics, and
2. Kinematics.

KINETICS
• It is the branch of Dynamics, which deals with the bodies in motion due to the
application of forces.

KINEMATICS
• It is that branch of Dynamics, which deals with the bodies in motion, without any
reference to the forces which are responsible for the motion.
Linear Motion

• Particle moving along a straight line is said

to be in rectilinear motion.

• Position coordinate of a particle is defined

by (+ or -) distance of particle from a fixed
origin on the line.

• The motion of a particle is known if the position coordinate

for particle is known for every value of time t. Motion of the
particle may be expressed in the form of a function, e.g.,

x 6t 2  t 3
or in the form of a graph x vs. t.
Linear Motion

• Consider particle which occupies position P at time t and

P’ at t+Dt,
x
Average velocity 
t
x
Instantaneous velocity v  lim
t  0 t
• Instantaneous velocity may be positive or negative.
Magnitude of velocity is referred to as particle speed.

• From the definition of a derivative,

x dx
v  lim 
t  0 t dt
e.g., x 6t 2  t 3
dx
v 12t  3t 2
dt
Linear Motion

• Consider particle with velocity v at time t and v’ at t+Dt,

v
Instantaneous acceleration a  lim
t  0 t

• From the definition of a derivative,

v dv d 2 x
a  lim   2
t  0 t dt dt
e.g. v 12t  3t 2
dv
a 12  6t
dt
Linear Motion – Motion Under Uniform Acceleration
Consider *linear motion of a particle starting from O
and moving along OX with a uniform
acceleration as shown in the figure. Let P be its position
after t seconds.

Let u = Initial velocity,

v = Final velocity,
t = Time (in seconds) taken by the particle to change its velocity from u to v.
a = Uniform positive acceleration, and
s = Distance travelled in t seconds.

𝑣 −𝑢
𝑎=
𝑡
Thus, 𝑣 =𝑢+𝑎𝑡 ....(1)
Linear Motion – Motion Under Uniform Acceleration
Average Velocity =
Total distance travelled, s = Average Velocity × Time
s=
Substituting the value of v from equation (1),
s=
s=
Making t the subject from equation (1), it implies …....(2)
s=
Making the subject,

…....(3)
Linear Motion – Motion Under Uniform Acceleration
Examples:
1. A car starting from rest is accelerated at the rate of 0.4 m/s2. Find the
distance covered by the car in 20 seconds. [80 m]
2. A scooter starts from rest and moves with a constant acceleration of 1.2 m/.
Determine its velocity, after it has travelled for 60 meters. [12 m/s]
3. On turning a corner, a motorist rushing at 20 m/s, finds a child on the road
50 m ahead. He instantly stops the engine and applies brakes, so as to stop
the car within 10 m of the child. Calculate (i) retardation, and (ii) time
required to stop the car. [a = -5m/; t = 4s]
4. A burglar’s car had a start with an acceleration of 2 m/s2. A police vigilant
party came after 5 seconds and continued to chase the burglar’s car with a
uniform velocity of 20 m/s. Find the time taken, in which the police van will
overtake the burglar’s car. [5s]
Motion Under Gravity – Free Fall
• An object is “falling freely” if it is moving under the action of its weight alone or
moving under the influence of gravity.
• Gravity accelerates the object toward the earth the entire time it rises, and the entire
time it falls.
• For an object undergoing Free Fall, its Acceleration is constant if :
• Atmospheric resistances: e.g. air resistance is neglected.
• The distance of fall is small compared to the radius of the earth.
• The effects of earth rotation are ignored.
• The constant Acceleration of a free-falling body is called the acceleration due to gravity
and its denoted by g and its value is approximately 9.81 .
NB:
1. At the maximum height, the final velocity is zero since the object momentarily stops.
2. All equations of uniform linear acceleration apply since acceleration due to gravity,
g, is a constant.
Motion Under Gravity – Free Fall
Examples:
1. A ball is tossed with 10 m/s vertical velocity from a window which is 20 m
above ground. Determine:
I. highest elevation reached by ball and corresponding time, and [1.019s; 25.1m]
II. time when ball will hit the ground and corresponding velocity. [3.28s; 22.2m/s]
2. A body is dropped from the top of a tall building. If it takes 2.8 seconds in
falling on the ground, find the height of the building. [38.4 m]
3. A stone is dropped from the top of a building, which is 65 m high. With what
velocity will it hit the ground ? [35.7 m/s]
4. A bullet is fired vertically upwards with a velocity of 80 m/s. To what height
will the bullet rise above the point of projection ? [326.5 m]
Projectile Motion
• Projectile motion is the motion of curved path (parabola) an object follows
when thrown or propelled near the surface of the earth.
• A projectile is any body that is given an initial velocity and follows a path
determined entirely by the effects of gravitational acceleration and air
resistance. A baseball, a thrown football, a package dropped from an airplane
and a bullet shot from a rifle are all projectiles.
• The path followed by a projectile is called its trajectory.
• Velocity of projection: The velocity, with which a projectile is projected, is known as the
velocity of projection.
• Angle of projection: The angle, with the horizontal, at which a projectile is projected, is
known as the angle of projection.
• Time of flight: The total time taken by a projectile, to reach maximum height and to return
back to the ground, is known as the time of flight.
• Range: The distance, between the point of projection and the point where the projectile
strikes the ground, is known as the range. It may be noted that the range of a projectile
may be horizontal or inclined.
Projectile Motion
• To analyze this common type of motion (Projectile
motion), three basic assumptions are made:
1. acceleration due to gravity is constant and
directed downward
2. the effect of air resistance is negligible
3. the surface of the earth is a stationary plane
(that is, the curvature of the earth's surface and
the rotation of the earth are negligible).

• Also, to analyze projectile motion, separate the

two-dimensional motion into vertical and
horizontal components.
Vertically, the object undergoes constant
acceleration due to gravity.
Horizontally, the object experiences no
acceleration and, therefore, maintains a constant
velocity.
Projectile Motion Let u = Velocity of projection, and
α = Angle of projection with the
horizontal.
The horizontal and vertical components of the
initial velocity of projection are:

Therefore, the coordinates of the projectile at any

time t are:
……..(1)

……..(2)

When the particle is at A, y is zero. Substituting this value

of y in the above equation,
Projectile Motion
• Hence, total time of flight is ……..(3)

Substituting this value to T into equation (2):

; NB:
• Hence the total horizontal distance covered by a projectile, Range is

……..(4)
Projectile Motion
• Time to reach the maximum height will be half of total time of flight.
Time to reach maximum height; . Putting this value of t into equation (1):

Hence, the maximum height attained by a projectile is:

……..(5)
Projectile Motion
Examples:
1. Cristiano Ronaldo kicks a ball at an angle of 40° above the ground. If the ball takes
off with initial velocity of 25ms-1. Determine
i. How high the ball can reach and the time it takes to reach the maximum
height
ii. If his team striker stands 60m from him, will the ball reach the foot of the
striker?
2. A batter hits a baseball so that it leaves the bat at speed of 37 m/s and at angle of
53.1°.
I. Find the position of the ball and its velocity (magnitude and direction) at t = 2
s.
II. Find the time when the ball reaches the highest point of its flight, and its
height, H, at this time.
III. Find the horizontal range, R – that is the horizontal distance from the starting
point to where the ball hits the ground.
Circular Motion
• The concepts of rotational acceleration, angular
velocity, angular displacement, rotational inertia,
and other topics are discussed in this section.
• Angular velocity. It is the rate of change of
angular displacement of a body, and is expressed
in r.p.m. (revolutions per minute) or in radian
per second. It is, usually, denoted by ω (omega).
• Angular acceleration. It is the rate of change of
angular velocity and is expressed in radian per
second per second (rad/s2) and is usually,
denoted by α. It may be constant or variable.
• 3. Angular displacement. It is the total angle,
through which a body has rotated, and is usually
denoted by θ.
Circular Motion
• Angular displacement,
Angular displacement is measured in
revolutions, degrees, or radians.
One radian is the angle θ subtended at the
center of a circle by an arc length equal to the
radius of the circle. 1 rad .
1 rev =360° = 2 rad
Example: 1. A rope is wrapped many times
around a drum of radius 50 cm. How many
revolutions of the drum are required to raise a
bucket to a height of 20 m? [6.37 rev]
2. A bicycle tire has a radius of 25 cm If the
wheel makes 400 rev , how far will the bike
have traveled? [628 m]
Circular Motion
• Angular velocity, ω, is the rate of change in angular displacement. (radians
per second). Angular velocity, (rad/s).
; Hence, linear velocity, .
For 1 revolution, , where T = time to describe one circle, called the period.
However, , f is the frequency of the revolution.
• Period (T) is the time taken by an object in rotational motion to complete one
complete circle. Frequency (f) is the no. of cycles an object rotates around its
axis of rotation.
Example: A rope is wrapped many times around a drum of radius 20 cm. What
is the angular velocity of the drum if it lifts the bucket to 10 m in 5 s? What is
the frequency of revolution in rpm? [ω =10 rad/s; f = 95.5 rpm]
Circular Motion
• Angular Acceleration: is the rate of change in angular velocity. (Radians per
sec per sec.). Angular acceleration, , (
• In terms of change in frequency, .
Example: A block is lifted from rest until the angular velocity of the drum is 16
rad/s after a time of 4 s What is the average angular acceleration? [4 ]
Angular Motion
• Relationship between Angular and Linear Motion
; Hence, linear velocity, .
Angular acceleration,
Linear/tangential acceleration,
Hence, .

IMPORTANT:
For uniform circular motion, the centripetal
acceleration is:
Linear Momentum and Collision

• The linear momentum p of an object of mass m moving with

a velocity v is defined to be the product of the mass and
velocity:
• Momentum depend on an object’s mass and velocity.
• Linear momentum is a vector quantity
• Its direction is the same as the direction of the

velocity
• The dimensions of momentum are ML/T
• The SI units of momentum are kg m / s
• Momentum can be expressed in component form:
• px = mvx py = mvy pz = mvz
Newton’s Law and
Momentum
• Newton’s Second Law can be used to relate the momentum of an object to
the resultant force acting on it.
  
 v (mv )
Fnet ma m 
t t
• The change in an object’s momentum divided by the elapsed time equals the
constant net force acting on the object.

Δ 𝑝⃗ change in momentum ⃗
= = 𝐹 𝑛𝑒𝑡
Δ𝑡 time interval
Impulse

• When a single, constant

 force
 acts on the object, there is an
impulse delivered to the
I object
Ft

•
I is defined as the impulse
Impulse is a Vector quantity, the direction is the same as the direction
•

of the force.
• The product of a force and the time over which it acts is defined as the impulse.
Calculating the Change of
Momentum

p  pafter  pbefore
mvafter  mvbefore
m(vafter  vbefore )
Conservation of Momentum

• In an isolated and closed system,

the total momentum of the system
remains constant in time.
• Isolated system: no external forces
• Closed system: no mass enters or
leaves
• The linear momentum of each
colliding body may change
• The total momentum P of the system
cannot change.
Conservation of Momentum
• When no external forces act on a system consisting of two
objects that collide with each other, the total momentum of
the system remains constant in time.
   
Fnet t p  p f  pi

 
• When Fnet 0 then p 0

 
• For an isolated system p f  pi

• Specifically, the total momentum before the collision will

equal the total momentum after the collision.
   
m1v1i  m2 v2i m1v1 f  m2 v2 f
Types of Collision
• In an elastic collision, both momentum
 Momentum is conserved in any and kinetic energy are conserved.
collision • In a non-perfect inelastic collision,
 Inelastic collisions: rubber momentum is conserved but kinetic
energy is not. Moreover, the objects do
ball and hard ball not stick together
 Kinetic energy is not conserved
• In a perfectly inelastic collision,
 Perfectly inelastic collisions momentum is conserved, kinetic energy
occur when the objects stick is not, and the two objects stick
together together after the collision, so their final
 Elastic collisions: billiard ball velocities are the same
 both momentum and kinetic • Elastic and perfectly inelastic collisions
are limiting cases, most actual collisions
energy are conserved
fall in between these two types
 Actual collisions • Momentum is conserved in all collisions
 Most collisions fall between elastic
and perfectly inelastic collisions
More about Perfectly Inelastic Collisions
• When two objects stick together after the collision, they have
undergone a perfectly inelastic collision
• Conservation of momentum
m1v1i  m2 v2 i ( m1  m2 )v f
m1v1i  m2 v2i
vf 
m1  m2

• Kinetic energy is NOT conserved

An SUV with mass 1.80×103 kg is travelling eastbound at 15.0
m/s, while a compact car with mass 9.00×102 kg is travelling
westbound at 15.0 m/s. The cars collide head-on, becoming
entangled.
a) Find the speed of the entangled cars after the collision.
b) Find the change in the velocity of each car.
c) Find the change in the kinetic energy of the system consisting
of both cars.
More About Elastic Collisions

• Both momentum and kinetic energy are

conserved

m1v1i  m2 v2i m1v1 f  m2 v2 f

1 1 1 1
m1v1i  m2 v2i  m1v1 f  m2 v22 f
2 2 2

2 2 2 2

• Typically have two unknowns

• Momentum is a vector quantity
• Direction is important
• Be sure to have the correct signs
• Solve the equations simultaneously
Angular Momentum

• Same basic techniques that were used in linear motion can be

applied to rotational motion.
• F becomes 
• m becomes I
• a becomes 
• v becomes ω
• x becomes θ
• Linear momentum defined as p mv
• What if mass of center of object is not moving, but it is rotating?
• Angular momentum L Iω
Angular Momentum
• Angular momentum of a rotating rigid object

L Iω 
L


• L has the same direction as  *

• L is positive when object rotates in CCW
• L is negative when object rotates in CW
• Angular momentum SI unit: kg-m2/s
Calculate L of a 10 kg disk when  = 320 rad/s, R = 9 cm
= 0.09 m
L = I and I = MR2/2 for disk
L = 1/2MR2 = ½(10)(0.09)2(320) = 12.96 kgm2/s