BASIC ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS

UNIT-III: AC MACHINES
ENGINEERING

MALLA REDDY UNIVERSITY

BASIC ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS
ENGINEERING

UNIT-III
AC MACHINES

MALLA REDDY UNIVERSITY 1

 BASIC ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS
UNIT-III: AC MACHINES
ENGINEERING

UNIT-III
AC MACHINES

Single-Phase Transformer
 Principle of Operation
 Construction
 EMF Equation
Induction Motor
 Principle of operation
 Construction
 Applications
Alternator
 Principle of operation
 Construction
 Applications

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 BASIC ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS
UNIT-III: AC MACHINES
ENGINEERING

Single-Phase Transformer
Definition: It is a static device which transforms the energy from one circuit to another circuit
without change of frequency.
In brief,
1. Transforms the electrical energy from one circuit to another circuit.
2. It does so without change of frequency.
3. It accomplishes this by an electromagnetic induction.
4. Where the two electric circuits are coupled inductively.

Working Principle:
A transformer works based on the principle of mutual induction.
Mutual Induction:
The principle of mutual induction states that when the two coils are inductively coupled and if the
current in one coil changes uniformly then an EMF is induced in the other coil as per the Faraday’s
laws of electromagnetic induction.
According to the faraday’s laws of electromagnetic induction, whenever a conductor cuts the
magnetic flux then an EMF induced in the conductor.
The type of EMF induced in the transformer is statically induced EMF.
Statically Induced EMF:
It is the EMF induced in the conductor when a stationary conductor cuts (or) links the alternating
flux.
The magnitude of the statically induced EMF is given by Faraday’s Second Law.
Faraday’s Second Law:
The induced EMF in the conductor is directly proportional to the rate of change of flux linkages.
EMF (E) α dФ/dt
The direction of the statically induced EMF is given by Lenz’s law.
Lenz’s Law: Induced EMF in the conductor gives a current which produces a magnetic flux to
oppose the change in main flux.
EMF (E) = - NdФ/dt
Where, minus sign is obtained from Lenz’s Law.

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 BASIC ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS
UNIT-III: AC MACHINES
ENGINEERING

Operation of Transformer:

 When the AC supply (V1) is applied across the primary winding, an alternating current (I1) is
flowing through the winding which produces a time varying magnetic flux.
 When the primary winding cuts the magnetic flux then an EMF (E 1) is induced in the primary
winding.
 This time varying magnetic flux gets associated with the secondary winding through the magnetic
core.
 When the secondary winding cuts the magnetic flux then an EMF (E2) is induced in the secondary
winding.
 When the secondary circuit is closed by connecting a load then the secondary current (I 2) flows
through circuit.

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UNIT-III: AC MACHINES
ENGINEERING

Construction of Transformer:

The main parts of the transformer are

(i)Magnetic Core
(ii)Windings or Coils
Magnetic Core:
 The core of the transformer is either square or rectangular type in shape.
 The vertical part of the core is called as limb and the horizontal part of the core is called as yoke.
 Primary and secondary coils (windings) are wound on the limb.
 Core is made of laminated type of construction to reduce the eddy current losses.
 Core is made up of Cast Iron (or) Cast Steel (or) Silicon steel.
 Generally high grade Silicon steel of laminations (0.3 mm to 0.5 mm) is used.
Windings:
 Conducting material is used in the windings of transformer.
 The coils (windings) are wound on the limbs and insulated from each other.
 Two different windings are wound on two different limbs.
 Windings are made up of copper or aluminum.
 To reduce the leakage flux it is necessary that the windings should be very close to each other.
 As the leakage flux decreases then the efficiency of the transformer increases.

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 BASIC ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS
UNIT-III: AC MACHINES
ENGINEERING

Types of Transformers:
Based on the construction the transformers are divided into two types, they are
 Core type transformer
 Shell type transformer
Core Type Transformer:

 In core type transformer winding surrounds the core of the transformer.

 This transformer has two limbs.
 There is more leakage flux.
 There are more copper losses and less core losses.
 It requires less insulation.
 There is a low mechanical strength.
 It is used for high voltage and low current applications.

Shell Type Transformer:

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UNIT-III: AC MACHINES
ENGINEERING

 In shell type transformer core surrounds the windings.

 It has three limbs and coils (windings) are wound on the central limb.
 There is less leakage flux.
 There are less copper losses and more core losses.
 It requires more insulation.
 There is high mechanical strength.
 It is used for low voltage and high current applications.

EMF Equation of Transformer:

Let,
N1 = Number of turns in the primary winding.
N2 = Number of turns in the secondary winding.
Φm = Maximum flux in the core (in Wb).
= (Bm x A)
f = frequency of the AC supply (in Hz).
T= Time period (in Sec).
According to the Faraday’s second law, the average EMF induced in the primary winding is given by
E1= N1dΦ/dt……………...(1)
As shown in the fig., the flux rises sinusoidally to its maximum value Φ m from 0.
Therefore, the change in flux (dΦ) = Φ m …….(2)
Flux reaches to the maximum value in one quarter of the cycle i.e. in T/4 sec.
Therefore, the change in time (dt) = T/4 … (3)
Substituting eq.(2) and eq.(3) in eq.(1),we get
E1 = N1Φm / (T/4)
= 4N1Φm /T
= 4fΦmN1.................... (4)
Where, Time period (T) = 1/f
We know, Form factor = RMS value / Average value
Therefore, RMS value of EMF
= Form factor × Average EMF
= 1.11× Average EMF
RMS value of induced EMF in the primary winding is given by
E1 =1.11×4f ΦmN1
E1 = 4.44Φm f N1 ............................. (5)

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UNIT-III: AC MACHINES
ENGINEERING

Similarly, RMS value of induced EMF in the secondary winding is given by

E2 = 4.44 Φm f N2 ............................ (6)
Voltage Transformation Ratio (K):
From the equations (5) and (6), we get

Where, K=Constant.
This constant K is known as voltage transformation ratio.
If N2 > N1, i.e. K > 1, then the transformer is called as step-up transformer.
If N2 < N1, i.e. K < 1, then the transformer is called as Step-down transformer.
Ideal Transformer:
For ideal transformer,
(i)No core losses.
(ii)No copper losses.
(iii)Input power (V1I1) = Output power (V2I2), E1=V1 and V2 = E2
(iv)Efficiency is 100%.
The transformation ratio is given as

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UNIT-III: AC MACHINES
ENGINEERING

Problems on EMF Equation:

1) An ideal transformer has 500 turns in the primary winding and 40 turns in the secondary winding.
The primary is connected to 3000V, 50Hz AC supply. Calculate the EMF induced in the secondary
winding.
Sol: Given Data
Number of turns in the primary winding (N1) = 500
Number of turns in the primary winding (N2) = 40
Primary Voltage (V1) = 3000V
Primary EMF (E1) = V1 = 3000V
From transformation ratio, we have
K = E2/E1 = N2/N1
E2 = (N2/N1) × E1
E2 = (40/500) × 3000
= 240V
2) An ideal 10KVA transformer has 100 turns in the primary winding and 10 turns in the secondary
winding. The primary is connected to 2000V, 50Hz AC supply. Calculate the maximum flux in the
core.

Sol: Given Data

KVA Rating = 10KVA
Number of turns in the primary winding (N1) = 100
Number of turns in the secondary winding (N2) =10
Primary Voltage (V1) = 2000V
Primary EMF (E1) = V1 = 2000V
From EMF equation, we have
E1 = 4.44f Φm N1
Φm = E1/(4.44fN1)
= 2000/ (4.44×50×100)
= 0.09Wb

3) An ideal 100KVA, 1000V/100V transformer has 1000 turns in the primary winding. Determine the
number of turns in the secondary winding, the primary and secondary currents.
Sol: Given Data
KVA Rating = 100KVA
Voltage Ratio = 1000V/100V
Number of turns in the primary winding (N1) = 1000
Primary EMF (E1) = 1000V
Primary Voltage (V1) = E1 = 1000V
Secondary EMF (E2) = 100V
Secondary Voltage (V2) = E2 =100V
From transformation ratio, we have
Transformation ratio (K) = N2/N1 = E2/E1
N2 = (E2/E1) ×N1
= (100/1000) × 1000

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UNIT-III: AC MACHINES
ENGINEERING

= 100
Input power (V1I1) = KVA Rating
= 100×1000=100000
I1 = 100000/V1
I1= 100000/1000
= 100A
Output power (V2I2) = KVA Rating
= 100×1000=100000
I2 = 100000/V2
I2 = 100000/100
= 1000A
4) An ideal 50KVA, 200V/2000V transformer has 50 turns in the primary winding and the supply
frequency is 50Hz. Determine the number of turns in the secondary winding and the maximum flux
in the core.
Sol: Given Data
KVA Rating = 50KVA
Voltage Ratio = 200V/2000V
Number of turns in the primary winding (N1) = 50
Primary EMF (E1) = 200V
Secondary EMF (E2) = 2000V
Supply frequency = 50Hz
From transformation ratio, we have
Transformation ratio (K) = N2/N1 = E2/E1
N2 = (E2/E1) ×N1
= (2000/200) × 50
= 500
From EMF equation, we have
E1 = 4.44f Φm N1
Φm = E1/ (4.44fN1)
= 200/(4.44×50×50)
= 0.018Wb

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 BASIC ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS
UNIT-III: AC MACHINES
ENGINEERING

Three-Phase Induction Motor

Definition: It is a machine which converts the electrical energy (in the form of AC voltage) into the
mechanical energy.

The motor which works on the principle of electromagnetic induction is known as the induction
motor. In an induction motor, the electric current in the rotor needed to produce torque is obtained via
electromagnetic induction from the rotating magnetic field of the stator winding.

Principle of Operation:

3-Phase AC Supply:

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UNIT-III: AC MACHINES
ENGINEERING

An induction motor works based on principle of electromagnetic induction.The stator and rotor are
two essential parts of the motor. The windings of the stator are equally displaced from each other by
an angle of 120°.When a balanced three phase supply (Displaced by 120° form each other) is given to
the three phase stator winding of the induction motor, a rotating magnetic field of constant magnitude
is developed around the stator which rotates at synchronous speed.

Where,

f = Supply frequency.
P = Number of poles.
NS =Synchronous speed in rpm.
The rotating magnetic field passes through the air gap and the stationary rotor conductors cuts this
rotating magnetic field.

Due to the relative speed between the stationary rotor conductors and the rotating magnetic field, an
EMF induced in the rotor conductors according to the Faraday’s laws of electromagnetic induction.
As the rotor conductors are short circuited, current starts flowing through it. As the current carrying
rotor conductors are placed in the magnetic field produced by the stator, they experience a
mechanical force i.e torque. This torque moves the rotor in the same direction as that of the rotating
magnetic field.
Construction of Induction Motor:

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 BASIC ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS
UNIT-III: AC MACHINES
ENGINEERING

An induction motor essentially consists of two main parts:

(i)Stator
(ii)Rotor
Construction of Stator:
It has three main parts,
(i)Stator frame (or) Outer frame
(ii) Stator core
(iii) Stator winding
Stator frame (or) Outer frame:
 It is the outer body of the motor.
 It is made up of cast Iron.
 It gives the mechanical support to the stator core and protects the inner parts of the machine.
Stator Core:
 The stator core is made up of thin sheets of silicon steel laminations.
 The laminated stator core has slots to carry the three phase stator winding.
 The laminations are insulated from each other usually by a varnish layer.
 The thickness of the lamination usually varies from 0.3mm to 0.5mm.

Stator Windings:

The core of the stator carries three phase windings which are usually supplied from a three-phase
supply system. The six terminals of the windings (two of each phase) are connected in the terminal
box of the machine. The stator winding of the motor is wound for a definite number of poles,
depending on the speed of the motor. If the number of poles is greater, the speed of the motor will be
less and if the number of poles is less than the speed will be high.When a balanced three phase is
given to the three phase stator winding, a rotating magnetic field is produced.

Construction of Rotor:

The rotor is built of thin laminations of silicon steel material. The laminated cylindrical core is
mounted directly on the shaft. These laminations are slotted on the outer side to receive the rotor
conductors.
There are two types of rotor.
(i) Squirrel Cage Rotor
(ii) Phase Wound (or) Slip Ring Rotor

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UNIT-III: AC MACHINES
ENGINEERING

Squirrel Cage Rotor:

Motors employing this type of rotor are known as squirrel cage induction motor. Almost 90
percentage of induction motors are squirrel cage type, because this type of rotor has the simplest and
most rugged construction. The Rotor consists of cylindrical laminated core with parallel slots for
carrying the rotor conductors .Rotor consists of heavy bars of copper or aluminum. The Rotor bars
are permanently short circuited on themselves. Hence, it is not possible to add any external
Resistance in series with the Rotor circuit for starting purposes

The rotor slots are not quite parallel to the shaft but are purposely given a slight skew. This is useful
in two ways.
(i)It helps to make the motor run quietly by reducing the magnetic hum.
(ii) It helps in reducing the locking tendency of the rotor.

Advantages of Squirrel Cage Rotor

(i)The cage rotor is cheaper and the construction is robust.
(ii)The absence of the brushes reduces the risk of sparking.
(iii)Its Maintenance is less.
(iv)The efficiency of the cage rotor is higher.

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UNIT-III: AC MACHINES
ENGINEERING

Phase Wound or Slip Ring Rotor:

Motors employing this type of rotor are widely known as “Phase Wound” induction motors or “Slip
Ring” induction motors. This type of rotor is provided with 3-phase, double layer, distributed
winding consisting of coils. The Rotor is wound for as many poles as the number of stator poles. The
three phases are shorted internally. The other three winding terminals are slip rings mounted on the
shaft with brushes resting on them. These three brushes are further externally connected to a 3-phase
star connected rheostat.

This makes possible the introduction of additional resistance in the rotor circuit during the starting
period for increasing the starting torque of the motor. When running under normal conditions, slip
rings are automatically short circuited.

Advantages of Phase Wound Rotor:

(i)High starting torque and low starting current.

(ii)For controlling the speed of the motor, an external resistance can be added in the circuit.
The other parts of the induction motor are

Bearings
 Bearings are provided with shaft.
 Bearings are used to reduce the mechanical losses.
 For reliability ball bearings are employed.
 For heavy duties roller type bearings are preferable.

Cooling Fan
 Light aluminum fan is used for adequate circulation of cooling air.
 Cooling fan is securely keyed on to the Rotor shaft.

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UNIT-III: AC MACHINES
ENGINEERING

Applications:
Some of the applications are mentioned below:
(i) Lifts.
(ii) Cranes.
(iii) Pumps.
(iv) Exhaust fans.
(v) Lathe machines.
(vi) Crushers.
(vii) Oil extracting mills.
(viii) Textile industry.

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UNIT-III: AC MACHINES
ENGINEERING

Alternator
Definition: It is a machine which converts mechanical energy into the electrical energy (in the form
of AC voltage).

Principle of operation:

3-Phase AC Output:

Principle of operation:
Alternator works based on the principle of Faraday’s laws of electromagnetic induction. It states that
an electromotive force (EMF) or voltage is generated in a current carrying conductor that cuts the
magnetic flux. This can either be achieved by rotating a conducting coil in a static magnetic field or
by rotating the magnetic field that contains the stationary conductor.

The preferred arrangement is to keep the coil stationary because it is easier to draw induced
alternating current from a stationary armature coil than a rotating coil. The generated EMF depends
on the number of armature coil turns, magnetic field strength and the speed of the rotating field.

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UNIT-III: AC MACHINES
ENGINEERING

Working of Alternator:
When DC voltage is applied to the rotor winding (field winding) then the magnetic flux is produced.
The rotor is rotated through the prime mover and hence the rotating magnetic flux is produced. When
the rotor rotates (magnetic flux rotates), the stationary armature conductors cuts the magnetic flux
and hence an EMF is induced the armature conductors.

Since, the magnetic poles are alternatively N and S, therefore an alternating EMF is produced the in
the armature conductor. The direction of the EMF is given by Fleming’s right hand rule.

Construction of Alternator:

The construction of an alternator is very similar to the DC generator. The main difference is that in
DC generator the armature winding is the rotating part and field winding is the stationary part.
Whereas in an alternator the armature winding is stationary part and the field winding is the rotating
part. The main parts of the alternator are
(i) Stator
(ii) Rotor
Stator: As the name suggests it is the stationary part of the machine and it is made up of special
magnetic material such as fabricated steel.

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The stator core is laminated to minimize the effect of eddy current losses. The lamination is insulated
from each other by a thin coating of an oxide and has space between them to allow passage of cool
air flow. For the small machine, the laminations are stamped out in the complete ring structure and
for the large machine; the laminations are divided into the number of segments. The slots are
provided in the inner periphery of the core and the armature conductors or coils are assembled in it.

Generally, open slots are used permitting easy installation or removal of the stator coil. The fractional
number of slots per pole is used in order to eliminate the harmonic in the waveform. The armature
winding of an alternator is usually connected in star and its neutral is connected to the ground.

Rotor: There are two types of rotor construction

(i) Salient Pole Rotor
(ii) Cylindrical Rotor (Non-salient pole rotor)

Salient Pole (or Projecting pole) Rotor:

In salient pole rotor, the poles are always projected in the outward direction as shown in the figure.
The poles are made up of steel laminations to reduce eddy current losses and the poles are attached to
a rotor. The rotor winding is provided on the poles. The field winding in the salient pole rotor is
connected in series in such a way that when the field winding is energized by the exciter, then
adjacent poles will have opposite polarities.

The number of poles does not affect the number of phases in the alternator output. Salient pole
rotors have large diameter and shorter axial length. To reduce the effect of haunting damper winding
is provided in the pole faces. Salient pole rotor type alternator is generally used in lower speed
applications, usually 100 RPM to 1500 RPM.

As the rotor speed is lower, more number of poles are required to attain the required frequency as
given below.

Speed (Ns) = 120f / P

f = P Ns / 120
Salient pole alternators are mostly used in hydro power plants.

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Disadvantages of Salient Pole Rotor:

(i)The salient pole rotor causes the excessive windage losses if they are driven at high speed.
(ii)The salient pole rotor increases the noise produced by an alternator.
(iii)The salient pole rotor cannot withstand for high mechanical stress.
(iii)Due to the large diameter of the rotor, the space requirement for the installation and the initial
cost increases.
Cylindrical Rotor (Non-Salient Pole Rotor):

The rotor is made up of smooth solid steel cylinder having the number of slots along the outer
periphery. In cylindrical rotor, the pole doesn’t project out from the smooth surface of the rotor hence
they maintain the uniform air gap between stator and rotor. The top portion of the slot is covered with
the help of steel or manganese wedges .The unspotted portion of the cylinder acts as the poles of an
alternator.

The field windings of cylindrical type rotor are connected in series to the slip rings through which
they are excited by the DC supply. These rotors are smaller in diameter but having longer axial
length. Cylindrical rotors are used in high speed applications, usually 1500RPM to 3000 RPM.The
field windings are arranged in such a way that its flux density is maximum on the polar central line.
Cylindrical (Non-salient pole) rotors are used in nuclear, gas and thermal power plants.

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Advantages of Cylindrical Rotor:

(i)The main advantages of the cylindrical rotor are that their construction has mechanical robustness
and gives noiseless operation at very high speed (1500 rpm-3000 rpm).
(ii)The flux distribution is nearly uniform sine wave hence better waveform is obtained.
(iii)The hunting effect is very rare in the cylindrical rotor, therefore, there is no need to provide
damper winding.
Applications:
Alternator is commonly used in
(i) Automobiles.
(ii) Thermal power plants.
(iii) Nuclear power plants.
(iv) Hydro power plants.
(v) Gas power plants.
(vi) Diesel generators.

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