UNIT–IV

Electronic Devices and Circuits:

➢P-N Junction diode and its characteristics.

➢Zener diode and its characteristics.

Symbol of zener diode

➢P-N junction diode as a rectifier - Half Wave ➢Bipolar Junction transistor-
Rectifier, Full Wave Rectifier-ripple factor. Symbol, Construction and operation.

Center tapped full wave rectifier

On the basis of electrical conductivity the solids can be classified into
three types as follows:

▪ They allow the maximum portion of the applied electric

field to flow through them.
Conductors
▪ The electrical conductivity is in the order of 106 –
108 ohm-1.

▪ They have low conductivities i.e. they do not practically

Insulators allow the electric current to flow through them.
▪ The electrical conductivity is in order 10-10 – 10-20 ohm-1 m-1

▪ The solids with intermediate conductivities at the room

Semi conductors temperature.
▪ allow a portion of electric current to flow through them.
Conductors:
In conductors the conduction band and valence band overlaps each other.

The forbidden energy gap between the conduction band and valence band is
0ev.
A conductor is having many number of free electrons.
E.g.

(i) Copper
(ii) Aluminum
Insulators:
In insulators ,the forbidden energy gap between the conduction band and
valence band is greater than 5ev.

A insulator is having very few number of free electrons.

Insulator does not conducts.
E.g.

(i) Wood
(ii) Glass
Semiconductors:
In semiconductors ,the forbidden energy gap between the conduction band
and valence band is around 1ev.

A semiconductor is having few number of free electrons compared to the

conductors.
Semiconductor conducts partially.
E.g.
(i) Germanium
(ii) Silicon

Silicon and Germanium atoms have 4 valence electrons.

SEMICONDUCTORS ARE CLASSIFIED AS FOLLOWS.
 Semiconductor in pure form is kwon as intrinsic semiconductor.
E.g. Silicon and Germanium.

When the pure semiconductor or intrinsic semiconductor is doped (added) with

impurities then it becomes the extrinsic semiconductor.
➢ Doping: It is the process of adding the impurities to the semiconductor.
➢ Doping increases the electrical conductivity of semiconductor.
➢ Extrinsic semiconductor has high electrical conductivity than intrinsic
semiconductor.
➢ Hence, the extrinsic semiconductors are used for the manufacturing of electronic
devices such as diodes, transistors etc.
➢ In extrinsic semiconductors, the number of electrons is not equal

to the number of holes.

➢ It is impure form of semiconductor.

➢ Extrinsic semiconductors are classified as follows.

(i) N-Type Semiconductor. Pentavalent impurities are the atoms with five valence

electrons used for the doping of semiconductors. i.e. Arsenic (As), Phosphorous

(Pi), Antimony (Sb), etc.

(ii) P-Type Semiconductor. Trivalent impurities are the atoms with three valence

electrons used for the doping of semiconductors. i.e. Indium , Gallium,

Aluminium, Boron , etc.

 P-N JUNCTION DIODE
A P-N junction diode is two-terminal or two- electrode semiconductor device.

When a P-Type semiconductor is suitably joined to N-Type semiconductor, the

contact surface is called as P-N Junction.

P-N junction diode allows the current in only one direction while blocks the

current in opposite or reverse direction.

If the diode is forward biased, it allows the current flow. On the other hand, if

the diode is reverse biased, it blocks the electric current flow.

 P-N Junction Diode
Construction:

Symbol of Diode

When the P-Type and N-Type semiconductors are joined, at the junction,
there is a tendency for the free electrons to diffuse from N-side to P-side
and holes from P-side to N-side.
Once holes enter into the N-region, they will recombine with donor ions.
At the same time, donor ions admit additional holes and become positively
charged immobile ions.
The electrons spreading from N-region to P-region recombine with the acceptor
ions in P-region.

At the same time, acceptor ions admit additional electrons and become negatively
charged immobile ions.
As a result, a large number of positively charged ions are produced at the junction
on the N-side and a large number of negatively charged ions are produced at the
junction on P-side.
This situation soon prevents the further diffusion due to positive charge on N-side
repels the holes to cross the junction and negative charge on P-side repels the
electrons to cross the junction.
Thus a barrier is set up against the further movement of charge carriers i.e., holes
and electrons. This is called as potential barrier or depletion region.
 OPERATION OF P-N JUNCTION DIODE
Forward Bias:

When the P-type is connected to the positive terminal and N- type is connected
to the negative terminal of the supply then that is said to be forward bias.
Holes are repelled by the positive terminal of the supply and electrons are
repelled by the negative terminal of the supply. Hence, the width of the
depletion region decreases.
At certain forward voltage, the
width of the depletion region
becomes zero, then diode starts
conducting. This voltage is
called as cut-in voltage.

After cut-in voltage ,the current

through the diode increases
non-linearly.

Cut-in voltage or breakdown forward bias V-I Characteristics

voltage is 0.7V for silicon and

0.3V for germanium.
Reverse Bias:

When the P-type is connected to the negative terminal and N- type is connected
to the positive terminal of the supply then that is said to be reverse bias.
Holes are attracted by the negative terminal of the supply and electrons are
attracted by the positive terminal of the supply. Hence, the width of the
depletion region increases.
A small amount of current
i.e., reverse saturation
current flows through the
diode due to flow of
minority charge carriers.
At certain reverse voltage,
the reverse breakdown
occurs(Avalanche
breakdown), the current
through the diode increases
rapidly.
Reverse bias V-I Characteristics
This voltage is called as
reverse breakdown voltage.
Avalanche Breakdown :
When a high value of reverse voltage is
applied to the P-N junction, the free
electrons gain sufficient energy and
accelerate at high velocities.

These free electrons moving at high

velocity collides other atoms and
knocks off more electrons.
Due to this continuous collision, a large
number of free electrons are generated
as a result of electric current in the
diode rapidly increases.
This is called as avalanche breakdown.
 FORWARD RESISTANCE
It is the resistance offered by the
diode in the forward bias to the flow
of forward current. It is of two types
Static Resistance (DC Resistance):
It is the resistance offered by the
diode in the forward bias to the flow
of DC current.

From the forward bias characteristics,

the static resistance is given by

Static Resistance (Rs) = Forward voltage across the diode

Forward current through the diode

Rs = VF / IF
Dynamic resistance (AC Resistance): It is the resistance offered by the
diode in the forward bias to the flow of AC current.
From the forward bias characteristics the dynamic resistance is
given by
Dynamic resistance (RD ) = Change in forward voltage/Change in forward
current.
RD = ΔVF/ΔIF
 REVERSE RESISTANCE

Reverse resistance: It is the resistance

offered by the diode in the reverse bias
to the flow of reverse saturation
current.

From the reverse characteristics it is

given by

Reverse resistance (Rr) = Reverse voltage across the

diode/Reverse saturation current.

Rr = VR/I0
 IDEAL DIODE

For Ideal diode, the forward resistance is Zero ohms and the reverse resistance
is ∞ ohms.

Ideal diode V-I Characteristics

 DIODE APPLICATIONS

Diode is used in
(i) Electronic Switch
(ii) Rectifiers
(iii) Clippers
(iv) Clampers
(v) Logic gates
(vi) Voltage multiplier circuits etc.,
 ZENER DIODE
➢ A Zener diode is a heavily doped P-N junction semiconductor device that is
designed to operate in the reverse bias condition.
➢ Heavily doped means the high level impurities are added to the material for
making it more conductive.
➢ In other words, the diode which is specially designed for optimizing the
breakdown region is known as the Zener diode.
➢ Zener diode acts like normal P-N junction diode under forward biased
condition.
➢ The depletion region of the Zener diode is very thin as it is heavily doped.

➢ As it is heavily doped the intensity of the electric field across the depletion
region is high even for the small reverse voltage.
 OPERATION OF ZENER DIODE

Forward Bias:
➢ When the P-type is connected to the
positive terminal and N- type is
connected to the negative terminal
of the supply then that is said to be
forward bias.
➢ Holes are repelled by the positive terminal of the supply and electrons are
repelled by the negative terminal of the supply. Hence, the width of the
depletion region decreases.
➢ At certain forward voltage, the width of the depletion region becomes zero, then
diode starts conducting. This voltage is called as cut-in voltage which is less
than P-N junction diode.

➢ After cut-in voltage ,the current through the Zener diode increases non-linearly.
Reverse Bias:

➢ When the P-type is connected to the

negative terminal and N- type is
connected to the positive terminal of
the supply then that is said to be
reverse bias.

➢ When reverse biased voltage is applied to the Zener diode, it allows only a small
amount of leakage current(reverse saturation current) until the voltage is less
than Zener voltage.
➢ When reverse voltage reaches Zener voltage, Zener breakdown occurs, it
starts allowing large amount of electric current.
➢ At this point, a small increase in reverse voltage will rapidly increase the electric
current.
REVERSE BIAS V-I CHARACTERISTICS:
V-I Characteristics of Zener Diode:
There are two types of breakdowns for a Zener Diode:
•Avalanche Breakdown
•Zener Breakdown

Avalanche Breakdown in Zener Diode:

➢ Avalanche breakdown occurs both in normal diode and Zener Diode at high
reverse voltage.
➢ When a high value of reverse voltage is applied to the PN junction, the free
electrons gain sufficient energy and accelerate at high velocities.
➢ These free electrons moving at high velocity collides other atoms and knocks
off more electrons.
➢ Due to this continuous collision, a large number of free electrons are generated
as a result of electric current in the diode rapidly increases.
➢ This sudden increase in electric current may permanently destroy the normal
diode, however, a Zener diode is designed to operate under avalanche
breakdown and can sustain the sudden spike of current.
➢ Avalanche breakdown occurs in Zener diodes with Zener voltage (Vz)
greater than 6V.
Zener Breakdown in Zener Diode:
➢ The Zener breakdown occurs in heavily doped P-N junction diode because of
its narrow depletion region.
➢ When reverse biased voltage applied to the diode is increased, the narrow
depletion region generates strong electric field.
➢ When reverse biased voltage applied to the diode reaches the zener voltage,
the electric field in the depletion region is strong enough to pull electrons from
their valence band.
➢ The valence electrons which gains sufficient energy from the strong electric
field will break the bonding with the parent atom.
➢ At the Zener breakdown region, a small increase in the voltage results in the
rapid increase of the electric current.
➢ This is called as zener breakdown.
➢ Zener breakdown occurs in Zener diode with Zener voltage (Vz) less than 6V.
 ZENER DIODE APPLICATIONS

Zener Diode is used in

(i) Voltage Regulator
(ii) Waveform Clipper
(iii) Voltage Shifter etc,.
 What is rectifier ?

A rectifier is an electrical device that converts alternating current (AC) into

direct current (DC).

➢ Based on the type of rectification circuit does, the rectifiers are classified
into two categories.
• Half wave rectifier
• Full wave rectifier
Half Wave Rectifier:
➢ A halfwave rectifier is defined as a type of rectifier that allows only one-half
cycle of an AC voltage waveform to pass while blocking the other half cycle.
➢ A halfwave rectifier circuit uses only one diode for the transformation.
Half Wave Rectifier Circuit:
➢ A half-wave rectifier is the simplest form of the rectifier and requires only
one diode for the construction of a halfwave rectifier circuit.
➢ A halfwave rectifier circuit consists of three main components as follows:
• A diode
• A transformer
• A resistive load
Working of Half Wave Rectifier
In this section, let us understand how a half-wave rectifier transforms AC into
DC.
1. A high AC voltage is applied to the primary side of the transformer. The
obtained secondary voltage is applied to the diode.
2. The diode is forward biased during the positive half cycle of the AC voltage
and reverse biased during the negative half cycle of the AC voltage.
3. The final output voltage waveform is as shown in the figure below:
➢ For better understanding, let us simplify the half-wave circuit by replacing
the secondary transformer coils with a voltage source as shown below:

➢ For the positive half cycle of the AC source voltage, the diode is forward
biased, it acts as a closed switch. the circuit effectively becomes as shown
below in the diagram:
➢ But, during the negative half cycle of the AC source voltage, the diode is
reverse biased, it acts as a open switch. the circuit effectively becomes as
shown below in the diagram:

➢ When a diode is reverse biased, it acts as an open switch. Since no current

can flow to the load, the output voltage is equal to zero.
Half Wave Rectifier Waveform
The halfwave rectifier waveform before and after rectification is shown below
in the figure.
The average voltage value of output in a half wave rectifier is be derived as
follows:
𝑇
1
𝑣𝑎𝑣𝑔 = න 𝑣𝑖𝑛 ⅆ𝑡
𝑇
𝑜
1 2𝜋
𝑣𝑎𝑣𝑔 = ‫𝑚𝑣 ׬‬ 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑡 ⅆω𝑡 (since, 𝑣𝑖𝑛 = 𝑣𝑚 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑡 )
2𝜋 𝑜
𝜋
𝑣𝑚
𝑣𝑎𝑣𝑔 = න 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑡 ⅆω𝑡
2𝜋
𝑜
𝑣𝑚 𝜋
𝑣𝑎𝑣𝑔 = −𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜔𝑡 0 ⅆω𝑡
2𝜋

𝑣𝑚
𝑣𝑎𝑣𝑔 = −𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜋 + cos 0
2𝜋

𝑣𝑚 𝑣𝑚 𝑣𝑚
𝑣𝑎𝑣𝑔 = −(−1) + 1 = (1+1) = (2)
2𝜋 2𝜋 2𝜋

𝑣𝑚
𝑣𝑎𝑣𝑔 𝑜𝑟 𝑣𝑑𝑐 = -------------- (1)
𝜋
The rms voltage value of output in a half wave rectifier is be derived as follows:

𝑇
1
𝑣𝑟𝑚𝑠 = න 𝑣𝑖𝑛 2 ⅆ𝑡
𝑇
𝑜

𝜋
1
𝑣𝑟𝑚𝑠 = න 𝑣𝑚 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜔𝑡 ⅆω𝑡
2𝜋
𝑜

𝜋
𝑣𝑚 2 (1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝜔𝑡)
𝑣𝑟𝑚𝑠 = න ⅆω𝑡
2𝜋 2
𝑜

𝜋
𝑣𝑚 2
𝑣𝑟𝑚𝑠 = න(1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝜔𝑡) ⅆω𝑡
4𝜋
𝑜
 𝜋
𝜋
𝑣𝑚 2
𝑣𝑟𝑚𝑠 = [඲ ⅆω𝑡 − න 𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝜔𝑡 ⅆω𝑡]
4𝜋
𝑜
𝑜

𝑣𝑚 2
𝑣𝑟𝑚𝑠 = [ 𝜋 − 0 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝜋 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛0 ]
4𝜋

𝑣𝑚 2
𝑣𝑟𝑚𝑠 = (𝜋)
4𝜋

𝑣𝑚
𝑣𝑟𝑚𝑠 = ----------- (2)
2

The ripple factor is given by:

𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 2
γ= ( ) −1
𝑉𝑑𝑐
Half Wave Rectifier with Filter:
The output waveform we have obtained from the theory above is a pulsating DC
waveform. This is what is obtained when using a half wave rectifier without a
filter.
➢ Filters are components used to convert (smoothen) pulsating DC waveforms
into constant DC waveforms. They achieve this by suppressing the DC ripples
in the waveform.
➢ Although half-wave rectifiers without filters are theoretically possible, they
can’t be used for any practical applications. As DC equipment requires a
constant waveform, we need to ‘smooth out’ this pulsating waveform for it to
be any use in the real world.
➢ This is why in reality we use half wave rectifiers with a filter. A capacitor or
an inductor can be used as a filter – but half wave rectifier with capacitor
filter is most commonly used.
➢ The circuit diagram below shows how a capacitive filter is can be used to
smoothen out a pulsating DC waveform into a constant DC waveform.
The ripple factor is given by:

1
γ=
2 3 (𝑓𝐶𝑅)
Where,
f - frequency of supply voltage
C – capacitance
R - resistance

Applications of Half Wave Rectifier:

Half wave rectifiers are not as commonly used as full-wave rectifiers. Despite
this, they still have some uses:
•For rectification applications
•For signal demodulation applications
•For signal peak applications
Full Wave Rectifier:
A full wave rectifier is defined as a rectifier that converts the complete cycle of
alternating current into pulsating DC.

Full Wave Rectifier Circuit:

The circuit of the full wave rectifier can be constructed in two ways.
➢ The first method uses a center tapped transformer and two diodes. This
arrangement is known as a center tapped full wave rectifier.
➢ The second method uses a standard transformer with four diodes arranged as a
bridge. This is known as a bridge rectifier.
➢ In the next section, we will restrict the discussion to the center tapped full
wave rectifier only.
➢ The circuit of the full wave rectifier consists of a transformer and two diodes
that are connected and center tapped. The output voltage is obtained across
the connected load resistor.

Working of Full Wave Rectifier:

➢ The input AC supply is applied to the full wave rectifier. The step-down
transformer in the rectifier circuit converts the high voltage AC into low
voltage AC.
➢ The anode of the center tapped diodes
is connected to the transformer’s
secondary winding and connected to
the load resistor.
➢ During the positive half cycle of the
alternating current, the top half of the
secondary winding becomes positive
while the second half of the secondary
winding becomes negative.
➢ During the positive half cycle, diode
D1 is forward biased as it is connected
to the top of the secondary winding
while diode D2 is reverse biased as it
is connected to the bottom of the secondary winding.
➢ Due to this, diode D1 will conduct acting as a short circuit and D2 will not
conduct acting as an open circuit.
➢ During the negative half cycle, the top half of the secondary circuit
becomes negative and the bottom half of the circuit becomes positive
➢ During this, the diode D1 is reverse biased and the diode D2 is forward
biased.
➢ Thus in a full wave rectifiers, DC voltage is obtained for both positive and
negative half cycle.
The average voltage value of output in a full wave rectifier is be derived as
follows:
𝑇
1
𝑣𝑎𝑣𝑔 = න 𝑣𝑖𝑛 ⅆ𝑡
𝑇
𝑜
1 𝜋
𝑣𝑎𝑣𝑔 = ‫ 𝑡𝜔𝑛𝑖𝑠 𝑚𝑣 𝑜׬‬ⅆω𝑡 (since, 𝑣𝑖𝑛 = 𝑣𝑚 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑡 )
𝜋
𝜋
𝑣𝑚
𝑣𝑎𝑣𝑔 = න 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑡 ⅆω𝑡
𝜋
𝑜
𝑣𝑚 𝜋
𝑣𝑎𝑣𝑔 = −𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜔𝑡 0 ⅆω𝑡
𝜋

𝑣𝑚
𝑣𝑎𝑣𝑔 = −𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜋 + cos 0
𝜋

𝑣𝑚 𝑣𝑚 𝑣𝑚
𝑣𝑎𝑣𝑔 = −(−1) + 1 = (1+1) = (2)
𝜋 𝜋 𝜋

2𝑣𝑚
𝑣𝑎𝑣𝑔 𝑜𝑟 𝑣𝑑𝑐 = -------------- (1)
𝜋
The rms voltage value of output in a half wave rectifier is be derived as follows:

𝑇
1
𝑣𝑟𝑚𝑠 = න 𝑣𝑖𝑛 2 ⅆ𝑡
𝑇
𝑜

𝜋
1
𝑣𝑟𝑚𝑠 = න 𝑣𝑚 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜔𝑡 ⅆω𝑡
𝜋
𝑜

𝜋
𝑣𝑚 2 (1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝜔𝑡)
𝑣𝑟𝑚𝑠 = න ⅆω𝑡
𝜋 2
𝑜

𝜋
𝑣𝑚 2
𝑣𝑟𝑚𝑠 = න(1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝜔𝑡) ⅆω𝑡
2𝜋
𝑜
 𝜋
𝜋
𝑣𝑚 2
𝑣𝑟𝑚𝑠 = [඲ ⅆω𝑡 − න 𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝜔𝑡 ⅆω𝑡]
2𝜋
𝑜
𝑜

𝑣𝑚 2
𝑣𝑟𝑚𝑠 = [ 𝜋 − 0 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝜋 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛0 ]
2𝜋

𝑣𝑚 2
𝑣𝑟𝑚𝑠 = (𝜋)
2𝜋

𝑣𝑚
𝑣𝑟𝑚𝑠 = ----------- (2)
2

The ripple factor is given by:

𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 2
γ= ( ) −1
𝑉𝑑𝑐
BIPOLAR JUNCTION TRANSISTOR (BJT)
BIPOLAR JUNCTION TRANSISTOR (BJT)
A device which transfers resistance from one channel of the
circuit to other is called transistor.
A bipolar junction transistor (BJT) is a three terminal device.
The operation depends on the interaction of both majority and
minority carriers and hence the name is bipolar.
It is used as amplifier and oscillator circuits, and as a switch in
digital circuits.
It has wide applications in computers, satellites and other
modern communication systems.
 CONSTRUCTION:

The Bipolar Transistor basic construction consists of two P-N

junctions producing three connecting terminals.
These three terminals are known and labeled as the Emitter (E ),
the Base ( B ) and the Collector ( C ) respectively.
The Emitter is heavily doped region and moderate in size.
Base is lightly doped region and small in size.
Collector is moderately doped region and large in size.
TYPES OF BIPOLAR JUNCTION TRANSISTOR:

There are two basic constructions:

(i) PNP Transistor
(ii) NPN Transistor
 PNP TRANSISTOR
CONSTRUCTION OF PNP TRANSISTOR:
A PNP transistor is constructed by sandwiching an N-type
semiconductor between two P-type semiconductors.
The PNP transistor behaves like two PN junctions diodes connected
back to back.
These back to back PN junction diodes are known as the collector-
base junction and base-emitter junction.
The Emitter is heavily doped P-Type region, Base is lightly doped
N-Type region and Collector is moderately doped P-type region.
Therefore, the depletion region at both junctions penetrates more
towards the Base region.
WORKING OF PNP TRANSISTOR:

Symbol
The Emitter-Base junction is connected in forward bias and the
Collector-Base junction is connected in reverse bias.
Therefore,the depletion region at Emitter-Base junction is narrow
and the depletion region at Collector-Base junction is wide.
As the Emitter-Base junction is forward biased, a very large number
of holes from emitter region will cross the depletion region and
enter into the Base region.
Simultaneously, a very few number of electrons will enter into the
emitter region from the base region and these electrons will
recombine with the holes.
The loss of holes in the emitter region is equal to the number of
electrons present in the base region.
But the number of electrons in the base region is very small as it is a
lightly doped and thin region.
Therefore, almost all holes of emitter will cross the depletion region and
enter into the base region.
Because of the movement of holes, the current will flow through the
Emitter-Base junction. This current is known as emitter current (IE).
The holes are majority charge carriers to flow the emitter current.
The remaining holes which do not recombine with electrons in base
region will further travel to the collector.
The collector current (IC) flows through the Collector-Base region due to
flow of holes.
 APPLYING KIRCHHOFF’S CURRENT LAW(KCL), THE EMITTER
CURRENT IS GIVEN BY
 NPN TRANSISTOR
CONSTRUCTION OF NPN TRANSISTOR:
A NPN transistor is constructed by sandwiching a P-Type
semiconductor between two N-type semiconductors.
The NPN transistor behaves like two P-N junctions diodes
connected back to back.
These back to back P-N junction diodes are known as the
emitter-base junction and collector-base junction.
The Emitter is heavily doped N-Type region, Base is lightly
doped P-Type region and Collector is moderately doped N-type
region.
Therefore, the depletion region at both junctions penetrates
more towards the Base region.
WORKING OF NPN TRANSISTOR:

Symbol
The Emitter-Base junction is connected in forward bias and the Collector-
Base junction is connected in reverse bias.
Therefore,the depletion region at Emitter-Base junction is narrow and the
depletion region at Collector-Base junction is wide.
As the emitter-base junction is forward biased, a very large number of
electrons from emitter region will cross the depletion region and enter
into the base region.
Simultaneously, a very few number of holes will enter into the emitter
region from the base region and these holes will recombine with the
electrons.
The loss of electrons in the emitter region is equal to the number of holes
present in the base region.
But the number of holes in the base region is very small as it is a lightly
doped and thin region.
Therefore, almost all electrons of emitter will cross the depletion region
and enter into the base region.
Because of the movement of electrons, the current will flow through the
Emitter-Base junction. This current is known as emitter current (IE).
The electrons are majority charge carriers to flow the emitter current.
The remaining electrons which do not recombine with holes in base region
will further travel to the Collector.
The collector current (IC) flows through the Collector-Base region due to
flow of electrons.
 APPLYING KIRCHHOFF’S CURRENT LAW(KCL), THE EMITTER
CURRENT ISGIVEN BY
MODES(REGIONS) OF OPERATION