Aim:

To design and study the push pull amplifier.

Components required:

Function generator, CRO, Regulated Power supply, pnp and npn transistors ,resistance, connecting
wires.

Vlab Specifications Taken:

Push pull amplifier circuit design has been implemented on the virtual breadboard using following
specifications:

 Power Supply: +12v and -12v

 Function generator: Selected wave with following specifications:

Frequency =1 kHz
Amplitude: 2V
Duty cycle = 50%

Theory:

A push-pull output is a type of electronic circuit that can drive either a positive or a negative current into
a load. Push–pull outputs are present in TTL and CMOS digital logic circuits and in some types of
amplifiers, and are usually realized as a complementary pair of transistors, one dissipating or sinking
current from the load to ground or a negative power supply, and the other supplying or sourcing current
to the load from a positive power supply.

A special configuration of push-pull, though in fact an exception, are the outputs of TTL and related
families. The upper transistor is functioning as an active pull-up, in linear mode, while the lower
transistor works digitally. For this reason they aren't capable of supplying as much current as they can
sink (typically 20 times less). Because of the way these circuits are drawn schematically, with two
transistors stacked vertically, normally with a protection diode in between, they are called "totem pole"
outputs.

Class B and AB

Class B amplifiers only amplify half of the input wave cycle, thus creating a large amount of distortion,
but their efficiency is greatly improved and is much better than Class A. Class B has a maximum
theoretical efficiency of 78.5% (i.e., π/4). This is because the amplifying element is switched off
altogether half of the time, and so cannot dissipate power. A single Class B element is rarely found in
practice, though it has been used for driving the loudspeaker in the early IBM Personal Computers with
beeps, and it can be used in RF power amplifier where the distortion levels are less important. However
Class C is more commonly used for this.

A practical circuit using Class B elements is the push-pull stage, such as the very simplified
complementary pair arrangement shown below. Here, complementary or quasi-complementary devices
are each used for amplifying the opposite halves of the input signal, which is then recombined at the
output. This arrangement gives excellent efficiency, but can suffer from the drawback that there is a
small mismatch in the cross-over region - at the "joins" between the two halves of the signal, as one
output device has to take over supplying power exactly as the other finishes. This is called crossover
distortion. An improvement is to bias the devices so they are not completely off when they're not in use.
This approach is called Class AB operation.

In Class AB operation, each device operates the same way as in Class B over half the waveform, but also
conducts a small amount on the other half. As a result, the region where both devices simultaneously
are nearly off (the "dead zone") is reduced. The result is that when the waveforms from the two devices
are combined, the crossover is greatly minimised or eliminated altogether. The exact choice of quiescent
current, the standing current through both devices when there is no signal, makes a large difference to
the level of distortion (and to the risk of thermal runaway, that may damage the devices); often the bias
voltage applied to set this quiescent current has to be adjusted with the temperature of the output
transistors (for example in the circuit at the beginning of the article the diodes would be mounted
physically close to the output transistors, and chosen to have a matched temperature coefficient).
Another approach (often used as well as thermally-tracking bias voltages) is to include small value
resistors in series with the emitters.

Class AB sacrifices some efficiency over class B in favor of linearity, thus is less efficient (below 78.5% for
full-amplitude sinewaves in transistor amplifiers, typically; much less is common in Class AB vacuum
tube amplifiers). It is typically much more efficient than class A.

Class B or AB push-pull circuits are the most common design type found in audio power amplifiers. Class
AB is widely considered a good compromise for audio amplifiers, since much of the time the music is
quiet enough that the signal stays in the "class A" region, where it is amplified with good fidelity, and by
definition if passing out of this region, is large enough that the distortion products typical of class B are
relatively small. The crossover distortion can be reduced further by using negative feedback. Class B and
AB amplifiers are sometimes used for RF linear amplifiers as well. Class B amplifiers are also favored in
battery-operated devices, such as transistor radios.

The simple circuit configuration of push pull amplifier is shown in figure 1. Which uses complementary
transistors, one of the transistors is a npn and the other is a pnp. The two transistors in a class-B
amplifier conduct on alternating half-cycles of the input. The combined half-cycles then provide an
output for a full 3600 of operation.

No Input :-

When the transistor is in its quiescent state (no input), both transistors are biased at cutoff.

Positive Input :-

During the positive half-cycle of the input signal, Q1 is biased above cutoff, and conduction results
through the transistor RL. During this time, Q2 is still biased at cutoff.

Negative Input :-

During the negative half-cycle of the input signal, Q1 is returned to the cutoff state, and Q2 is biased
above cutoff. As a result, conduction of Q2 start to built while Q1 remains off.

The combined half-cycles then provide an output for a full 3600 of operation.

Fig1. Simple Push Pull Amplifier.

Crossover distortion
when the signal changes or "crosses-over" from one transistor to the other at the zero voltage point it
produces an amount of "distortion" to the output wave shape. This results in a condition that is
commonly called Crossover Distortion.

Crossover Distortion produces a zero voltage "flat spot" or "deadband" on the output wave shape as it
crosses over from one half of the waveform to the other. The reason for this is that the transition period
when the transistors are switching over from one to the other, does not stop or start exactly at the zero
crossover point thus causing a small delay between the first transistor turning "OFF" and the second
transistor turning "ON". This delay results in both transistors being switched "OFF" at the same instant in
time producing an output wave shape as shown below.

Fig.2 Crossover Distortion Waveform

Procedure:

1. Connect the circuit as shown in the circuit diagram.

2. Give the input signal as specified.

3. Switch on the power supply.

4. Note down the outputs from the CRO.

Observations:

1. Observe the output waveform from CRO.

2. Measure the frequency and the voltage of the output waveform in the CRO. Rectified output
can be observed.

3. Observe the cross over distortion.

Precautions:

1. Connections should be verified before clicking run button.

2. Crossover distortion should be observed carefully.

Design of Monostable Multivibrator Circuit using 555 Timer:
AIM: To construct and study the operation of a monostable multivibrator using 555 IC timer.

APPARATUS:
S.NO. Name of the Equipment Values Quantity

1 555 IC Timer 1
2 Resistor 10 KΩ 1
3 Capacitors 10nF, 0.1μF, 0.01μF 1
4 Function Generator 1MHz 1
5 CRO 20 MHz 1
6 Bread Board 1
7 Connecting Wires and
Probes
THEORY:
It has one stable and one quasi stable state. The circuit is useful for generating single output
pulse of time duration in response to a triggering signal. The width of the output pulse depends
only on external components connected to the op-amp. The diode gives a negative triggering
pulse. When the output is +Vsat, a diode clamps the capacitor voltage to 0.7V then, a negative
going triggering impulse magnitude Vi passing through RC and the negative triggering pulse is
applied to the positive terminal. Let us assume that the circuit is instable state. The output V0i is
at +Vsat. The diode D1 conducts and Vc the voltage across the capacitor ‘C’ gets clamped to
0.7V,the voltage at the positive input terminal through R1R2 potentiometer divider is +ßVsat.
Now, if a negative trigger of magnitude Vi is applied to the positive terminal so that the effective
signal is less than 0.7V.the output of the Op-Amp will switch from +Vsat to –Vsat. The diode will
now get reverse biased and the capacitor starts charging exponentially to –Vsat. When the
capacitor charge Vc becomes slightly more negative than –ßVsat, the output of the op-amp
switches back to +Vsat. The capacitor ‘C’ now starts charging to +Vsat through R until Vc is 0.7V.

V0 = Vf + (Vi-Vf) 𝑒𝑡/𝑅𝐶 , ß = R2/(R1+R2)

If Vsat >> Vp and R1=R2 and ß = 0.5,
Then, T = 0.69RC
Circuit Diagram:

Procedure:
1. Connect the circuit as shown in the circuit diagram.
2. Apply Negative triggering pulses at pin 2 of frequency 1 KHz as shown in Fig.
3. Observe the output waveform and capacitor voltage as shown in Figure and measure the
pulse duration.
4. Theoretically calculate the pulse duration as Thigh =1.1 RC
5. Compare it with experimental values.

Observation: Trace the time period of the output wave form and compare it with the given one.

Result & Discussion: The waveform is observed and verified with stated condition.

QUESTIONS ans:
1. Why is a monostable multivibrator called so?
Ans: The monostable circuit has only one stable state (output low) hence the name monostable.
2. What is the purpose of monostable multivibrator?
Ans: A monostable device, on the other hand, is only able to hold in one particular state
indefinitely. Its other state can only be held momentarily when triggered by an external input.
3. Give one examples of multivibrator.
Ans: The flip-flop is a free running multivibrator.
4. What is the principle of monostable multivibrator?
Ans: All monostable multivibrators are timed devices. That is, their unstable output state will hold
only for a certain minimum amount of time before returning to its stable state.
5. How does a monostable multivibrator work in terms of the astable multivibrator?
Ans: Like the astable multivibrator, one transistor conducts and the others cut-off when the circuit
is energized.
 Design of Astable Multivibrator Circuit using 555 Timer:
AIM: To construct and study the operation of a monostable multivibrator using 555 IC timer.

APPARATUS:
S.NO. Name of the Equipment Values Quantity

1 555 IC Timer 1
2 Resistor 10 KΩ 1
3 Capacitors 10nF, 0.1μF, 0.01μF 1
4 Function Generator 1MHz 1
5 CRO 20 MHz 1
6 Bread Board 1
7 Connecting Wires and
Probes
THEORY:
In the 555 Oscillator above, pin 2 and pin 6 are connected together allowing the circuit to re-
trigger itself on each and every cycle allowing it to operate as a free running oscillator. During
each cycle capacitor, C charges up through both timing resistors, R1 and R2 but discharges itself
only through resistor, R2 as the other side of R2 is connected to the discharge terminal, pin 7. Then
the capacitor charges up to 2/3Vcc (the upper comparator limit) which is determined by the
0.693(R1+R2)C combination and discharges itself down to 1/3Vcc (the lower comparator limit)
determined by the 0.693(R2.C) combination. This results in an output waveform whose voltage
level is approximately equal to Vcc - 1.5V and whose output "ON" and "OFF" time periods are
determined by the capacitor and resistors combinations. The individual times required
completing one charge and discharge cycle of the output is therefore given as:

t1 = 0.693 (R1+R2)C, t2 = 0.693 R2C, T = t1 + t2

Circuit Diagram:
Procedure:
1. Connect the circuit as shown in the figure.
2. Use potentiometer in case output is not proper.

Observation: Trace the output waveform and calculate the frequency from the fundamental
period of the wave.

Result & Discussion: The waveform was traced and compared with the designed theoretical
one.

QUESTIONS ans:
1. What is an astable multivibrator called so?
Ans: There is no stable state where the circuit can come to rest, so this circuit is known as an
astable multivibrator.
2. How does a monostable multivibrator work in terms of the astable multivibrator?
Ans: Like the astable multivibrator, one transistor conducts and the others cut-off when the
circuit is energized.
3. What is the disadvantage of an astable multivibrator?
Ans: When the astable m/v was first energized, it was impossible to predict which transistor
would initially go to cut-off because of circuit symmetry.
4. What are the different types of multivibrator circuits?
Ans: There are three types of m/v circuits: Astable, Monostable and Bistable.