Faculty of Agronomy and

Veterinary Medicine

General Chemistry
1st year License
Semester 1

Dr. A. SABBAH
Chapter One

Atomistic

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 Contents

1. Rutherford’s model
2. The two natures of light
3. Bohr’s model
4. Quantum numbers
5. Electronic structure of atoms
6. Periodic classification of elements

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 Rutherford’s model
➢ According to Rutherford, the atom is constituted by:

A central nucleus, The nucleus is surrounded by

Very heavy, electrons, charged negatively,
With a positive charge of electricity circulating like planets around the sun

➢ The atom is not full;

➢ There is emptiness between nucleus and electrons,
Nucleus is constituted from two types of particles: protons and neutrons, named
nucleons.
Particle Electric charge Weight
Proton +1,602.10-19 C 1,6726.10-27 Kg ≈ 1836 me C : coulomb
Neutron 0 1,6749.10-27 Kg ≈ 1839 me
Electron -1,602.10-19 C 9,1094.10-31 Kg
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Each atom is represented by a symbol of one or two letters representing the
element concerned (H for Hydrogen, He for Helium).
These letters are sometimes preceded by two numbers:
𝐴
𝑍𝑋
Z: Atomic number ⇒ number of protons in the nucleus.
A: mass number ⇒ number of nucleons in the nucleus (proton + neutron).
𝑨=𝒁+𝑵

So the number of neutrons: 𝑵=𝑨 − 𝒁

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6𝑪 17𝑪𝒍
Example:

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 Isotopes
When different species of atoms have the same nuclear charge (same Z), but
different masses, they correspond to the same element and they have the same
name.
24 25 26
Example: magnesium: 12Mg 12Mg 12Mg
Isotopes of an element are atoms having the same Atomic Number Z, but different
11 12 13 14
Mass Numbers A. Example: 6𝐶 , 6𝐶, 6𝐶 , 6𝐶 (Z=6)

Average atomic mass

It is the weight of an element in amu, taking into consideration it’s isotopes:
σ𝑖 𝜏𝑖 𝑀𝑖 𝜏1 𝜏2 ……. 𝜏𝑛 : % (abundance of different isotopes of the element)
𝑀=
100 M1, M2, … Mn : their respective atomic weight.
Example: natural chlorine contain 75% of the isotopes 35 17Cl , and 25% of the
isotopes 3717Cl .
𝟑𝟓⨯𝟕𝟓 +(𝟑𝟕⨯𝟐𝟓)
The average atomic mass is : M= = 35.5 amu
𝟏𝟎𝟎
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 2- The two natures of light
Undulatory Nature
➢ Light is a wave, it consists of oscillations in electric and magnetic fields that can
travel through space.
➢ Visible light, x rays and radio waves are all forms of electromagnetic radiation.

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➢ We characterize a wave by its wavelength and frequency.
The wavelength (λ = lambda), is the distance between any two adjacent identical
points of a wave (two adjacent peaks or troughs) ( 1A° = 10-8 cm = 10-10 m).
The frequency (ν = nu) of a wave is the number of wavelengths of that wave that
pass a fixed point in one unit of time (usually one second) (Hertz = Hz = S-1).
Amplitude: Height of wave
➢ The wavelength and frequency of a wave are inversely related.

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The product ν λ is the total length of the wave has passed a point in 1 s.
This length of wave per second is the speed of the wave. For light of speed c,
Speed = Wavelength x Frequency c (m/s) = ν (s-1) x λ (m)
The speed of light waves in a vacuum is a constant and is independent of
wavelength or frequency, this speed is 3.00 x 108 m/s.

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10
 1 mol photons = 6.023 x 1023 photon

Corpuscular nature
Energy of the light is absorbed, emitted or converted to another forms of energy as a
bit (or quantum).
Einstein postulated that light consists of quanta (now called photon “corpuscle of
light”), or particles of electromagnetic energy, with energy E proportional to the
observed frequency of light.
E= hv = hc / λ
h is Planck’s constant, a physical constant relating energy and frequency having the
value 6.63 x 10-34 J.s.
The wave and particle pictures of light should be regarded as complementary views
of the same physical entity. This is called the wave-particle duality of light: E is the
energy of a light particle or photon, and v is the frequency of the associated wave.
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 3- Bohr’s model
The electron in a hydrogen atom moves around the nucleus only in certain allowed
circular orbits.
1) Only specified orbit or energy levels (designed by n= 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, …) are
permitted for electrons in atoms.
n= 1,2,3,4, ……..
r: radius of the circular orbit
2𝜋𝑟 = 𝑛λ λ: wavelength
2) An electron in an atom can change energy only by going from one energy level to
another energy level. The electron undergoes a transition, by absorbing or emitting
energy as a photon.

Emission and absorption of a photon on Bohr’s model

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 Electronic transitions:
➢ The transfer of an electron from one energy level to another.
➢ Energy can be gained or lost only in whole-number multiples of the quantity hν.
the change in energy ΔE can be represented by the equation:
𝒄 => Ephoton= hν; Einstein showed that electromagnetic radiation
∆𝑬 = 𝒉𝒗 = 𝒉
𝝀 is viewed as a stream of “particles” or photons.

ν: radiation frequency = frequency of the electromagnetic radiation absorbed or emitted.

λ: wavelength; c: light speed; c = 3.108 m.s-1 h: Plank’s constant; h= 6.63 x 10-34 J.s

The transition of an electron from an orbit defined by ni to an orbit defined by nf is

represented by the equation:

∆𝑬 = 𝒉𝒗 = 𝑬𝒇 − 𝑬𝒊
An electron goes from a higher energy level (Ei) to a lower energy level (Ef) emitting light:
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(a) Electronic emission transition (b) Electronic absorption transition

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The total energy of the electron is determinate as:

𝑬𝟏 E1 : Rydberg energy equal to – 13.6 ev

𝑬𝒏 = 𝟐
𝒏 1 ev = 1.602 × 10-19 J

𝑹𝑯 𝑹𝑯 𝑹𝑯 𝑹𝑯
𝑬𝒊 = − 𝟐 and 𝑬𝒇 = − 𝟐 ∆𝑬 = 𝑬𝒇 − 𝑬𝒊 = − − − 𝟐
𝒏𝒊 𝒏𝒇 𝒏𝟐𝒇 𝒏𝒊

𝟏 𝟏
∆𝑬 = −𝑹𝑯 𝟐
− 𝟐
𝒏𝒇 𝒏𝒊

The wavelength of the hydrogen lines spectrum are given by the equation:
𝟏 𝑹𝑯 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝑹𝑯 𝟏 𝟏
𝝀
=− −
𝒉𝒄 𝒏𝟐𝒇 𝒏𝟐𝒊
↔ 𝝀
= +
𝒉𝒄 𝒏𝟐𝒊
−
𝒏𝟐𝒇
/ ni = 1 < nf

RH: Rydberg’s constant = 1.09737 × 107 m−1

Rydberg unit of energy : 2.179 × 10 − 18 J/hc 16
 Electron absorbs energy and is
excited to unstable energy level.

Light is emitted as
electron falls back to
lower energy level.

Ionisation is the process by which an atom or a molecule acquires a negative or positive charge by gaining or
losing electrons, often in conjunction with other chemical changes. The resulting electrically charged atom or
molecule is called an ion. + -
X=X +e 17
Examples:
1) What is the wavelength of the yellow sodium emission, which has a frequency
of 5.09 x 1014?
2) What is the frequency of violet light with a wavelength of 408 nm?
3) The red spectral line of lithium occurs at 671 nm (6.71 x 10-7 m). Calculate the
energy of one photon of the light.
4) What is the wavelength of the light emitted when the electron in a hydrogen
atom undergoes a transition from energy level n = 4 to level n = 2?
5) State whether each of the following sets of quantum numbers is permissible for
an electron in an atom. If a set in not permissible, explain why?
n = 1, l = 1, ml = 0, ms = +1/2 n = 3, l = 1, ml = -2, ms = -1/2
n = 2, l = 1, ml = 0, ms = +1/2 n = 2, l = 0, ml = 0, ms = 1
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EXAMPLE 1 : WHAT IS THE WAVELENGTH OF THE YELLOW SODIUM
EMISSION, WHICH HAS A FREQUENCY OF 5.09 X 1014 S-1?

c=νxλ
 = c/ ν
 = 3.00 x 108 m/s
5.09 x 1014 s-1
= 5.89 x 10 -7 m

= 589 x 10-9 m

= 589 nm

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EXAMPLE 2 : WHAT IS THE FREQUENCY OF VIOLET LIGHT
WITH A WAVELENGTH OF 408nm?

c = n
n= c


n = 3.00 x 108 m/s

408 X 10-9 m
= 7.35 x 1014 s-1

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EXAMPLE 3 : THE RED SPECTRAL LINE OF LITHIUUM OCCURS AT
671nm (6.71 x 10-7m). CALCULATE THE ENERGY OF ONE PHOTON
OF THIS LIGHT.

n = c = 3.00 x 108 m/s = 4.47 x 1014 s-1

 6.71 x 10-7 m

E = hn
= 6.63 x 10-34 J.s * 4.47 x 1014 s-1
= 2.96 x 10-19 J

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 THE BOHR THEORY OF THE HYDROGEN ATOM

EXAMPLE 4 : WHAT IS THE WAVELENGTH OF THE

LIGHT EMITTED WHEN THE ELECTRON IN A
HYDROGEN ATOM UNDERGOES A TRANSITION FROM
ENERGY LEVEL n = 4 TO LEVEL n = 2. RH = 2.179 x 10-18 J

Ei = -RH Ef = - R H
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∆𝑬 = 𝑬𝒇 − 𝑬𝒊 = −
𝑹𝑯
− −
𝑹𝑯
DE = -RH - -RH
𝒏𝟐𝒇 𝒏𝟐𝒊
16 4

DE = -4RH + 16RH = -RH + 4RH = 3RH = h n

64 16 16

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𝟏 𝑹𝑯 𝟏 𝟏 THE BOHR THEORY OF THE HYDROGEN ATOM
=− −
𝝀 𝒉𝒄 𝒏𝟐𝒇 𝒏𝟐𝒊

EXAMPLE 4 : Cont…

n = E = 3RH = 3 * 2.179 x 10-18 J = 6.17 x 1014 s-1

h 16* h 16 * 6.626 x 10-34 J.s

 = c = 3.00 x 108 m/s = 4.86 x 10-7 m

n 6.17 x 10 14 s-1
= 486 nm
(the color is blue-green)

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 4- Quantum numbers
In the atom, electron is defined by 4 quantum numbers:
n, l, ml and ms
➢ n: Principal quantum number: n = 1,2,3, ……….∞.
- quantify the electron energy, determine its size
- define an electronic layer or an energy level
n = 1 ⇒ shell K
n = 2 ⇒ shell L
n = 3 ⇒ shell M
n = 4 ⇒ shell N ect…
➢ l: Angular momentum quantum number: 0 ≤ l ≤ n – 1
(Defines the three-dimensional shape of the orbital)
- denote the subshell which the electron occupies
- indicate the angular shape of the electron distribution
l = 0 ⇒ subshell s l = 1 ⇒ subshell p
l = 2 ⇒ subshell d l = 3 ⇒ subshell f l = 4 ⇒ subshell g
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➢ ml: Magnetic quantum number: -l ≤ ml ≤ +l
- define the orientation in space of the angular momentum associated with
the orbital. (Defines the spatial orientation of the orbital)
l=0 ⇒ ml = 0 ⇒ only one orientation ⇒ orbital s ⇒
l=1 ⇒ ml = -1, 0, 1 ⇒ 3 orientations ⇒ 3 orbitals p ⇒
l=2 ⇒ ml = -2, -1, 0, 1, 2 ⇒ 5 orientations ⇒ 5 orbitals d ⇒
l=3 ⇒ ml = -3, -2, -1, 0, 1, 2, 3 ⇒ 7 orientations ⇒ 7 orbitals f ⇒
➢ ms: Spin quantum number: s
- define the rotation of the electron
Only 2 orientations are possible designed by arrows pointing in opposite directions
ms = +1/2 (↑) and ms = -1/2 (↓)

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Shell n Sub- l ml Orbital Number Number
shell notation of Orbitals of Orbitals
in Subshell in shell
K 1 1s 0 0 1s 1 1
L 2 2s 0 0 2s 1 4
2 2p 1 -1 0 +1 2p 3
M 3 3s 0 0 3s 1
3 3p 1 -1 0 +1 3p 3 9
3 3d 2 -2 -1 0 +1 +2 3d 5
N 4 4s 0 0 4s 1
4 4p 1 -1 0 +1 4p 3 16
4 4d 2 -2 -1 0 +1 +2 4d 5
4 4f 3 -3 -2 -1 0 +1 +2 +3 4f 7

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Description of atomic orbitals

The electron is not localized but we can specify some regions in space where
this electron has the biggest probability to be found: it is the atomic orbital.

Orbital s: spherically symmetric

The probability of finding a 1s electron is in a
spherical shell at a distance r from the nucleus.
This probability is identical in all directions
from the nucleus.

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 Shapes of s, p, and d-orbitals
The electron density for p orbitals occurs in two regions on either side of the nucleus, separated by a node.
The two regions are called lobes.
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 5- Electronic structure of atoms
Pauli exclusion principle:
- Two electrons of the same atom cannot have the same set of four quantum numbers.
They must have at least different quantum number of spin.
- An atomic orbital can contain maximum two electrons. Their quantum number of spin
are opposite. They are anti parallels electrons ↑↓.
- If the orbital contain only one electron, this one electron is called single.

Principle of stability:
➢ At the fundamental state, an atom is in the most stable state of energy, it means the
lowest energy.
➢ The electrons occupy the subshell of the lowest energy first, in this order: “1s”, “2s”,
“2p”, “3s”, “3p”…. It is the “(n + l) minimal” rule.

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 QUANTUM MECHANICS

EXAMPLE 6 : State whether each of the following sets of quantum numbers is

permissible for an electron in an atom. If a set is not permissible, explain.
a) n = 1, l = 1, ml = 0, ms = +1/2
NOT permissible: The l quantum number is equal to n.
IT must be less than n.
b) n = 3, l = 1, ml = -2, ms = -1/2
NOT permissible: The magnitude of the ml quantum number (that is the ml value,
ignoring it’s sign) must be greater than l.
c) n = 2, l = 1, ml = 0, ms = +1/2
Permissible
d) n = 2, l = 0, ml = 0, ms = +1
NOT permissible: The ms quantum number can only be +1/2 or -1/2.

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➢ The first subshell to be filled is the one having the smallest (n + l)
➢ The energy of the shells having identical sum “(n + l) decrease with n.

E
3d
4s
3p
3s
2p
2s
1s
K L M N shells

Order of filling the orbitals with electrons in an atom

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Case of the subshells 4s and 3d:

For 4s; n = 4, l = 0 so n + l = 4
For 3d; n = 3, l = 2 so n + l = 5

⇩
Electrons will occupy the layer «4s»
before the layer «3d»

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Klechkowski rule

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Hund’s rule
When electrons enter a level of fixed n and l values, available orbitals are singly
occupied; no electron pairing occurs until each orbital has a single electron.

Example:
Two electrons in the subshell p.
There are two possibilities:

↑↓ ↑ ↑
(1) (2)
Hund’s rule indicate that the second possibility is the most stable.

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Example of electronic configuration:
Electronic structure of carbon (Z=6)

⇅ ⇅ ↑ ↑
1s2 2s2 2p2
fundamental state of the atom
Electronic configuration of ions
❖ For cations : e- of the last shell disappear (corresponding to the biggest n)
❖ For anions: electrons are adds, corresponding to the number of negatives
elementary charges
Examples: Na+ (Z=11) F- (Z=9) Ti2+ and Ti4+ (Z=22)
Na : 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s1 Na+ : 1s2 2s2 2p6
F: 1s2 2s2 2p5 F-: 1s2 2s2 2p6
Ti : 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2 3d2 Ti2+ : 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d2
Ti4+ : 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6
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6- Periodic classification of elements

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➢ The periodic table is constituted from 7 horizontal rows named
“period” and 18 vertical columns names “groups”

➢ The atomic number increase from left to right in a period and from
the top to the bottom in a column

➢ Elements of the same period have the same value of the principal
quantum number “n”

➢ Elements of the same column have generally the same external

electronic structure.
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Elements of the periodic table are in 3 categories:
❖ Metals
❖ Non metals
❖ Metalloids
Elements of the periodic table belongs to different columns or groups:
Column Group External electronic structure
1 Alkali metals ns1
2 Alkaline earth metals ns2
3 to 12 Transition elements (n-1)dx, ns2 (ns1 or ns0) with 1≤ x ≤ 10
13 Boron group ns2 , np1
14 Carbon group ns2 , np2
15 Nitrogen group ns2 , np3
16 Oxygen group ns2 , np4
17 Halogens ns2 , np5
18 Noble gases ns2 , np6
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Electronegativity:
➢ The Electronegativity is the ability of an atom that is forming a bond to attract
electrons from its bonding partner.
➢ The higher the electronegativity value, the stronger is the atom’s “electron-
attracting” ability.
➢ The non-metals have much higher electronegativities than the metals, and that
the elements at the top of the columns in the periodic table are more
electronegative than those below.
➢ Electronegativities are not well defined for the noble gases.
➢ Note that the electronegativity of atoms in a group decreases moving down the
periodic table
➢ The electronegativity of atoms in a periodic increases from the left to right.

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