Everything is somehow related to chemistry,

the scientific discipline which studies the

properties, composition, and
transformation of matter.
CHM 111
CHEMISTRY 1
Lecture 2

Prof. Dr. Gehad Genidy Mohamed

Atomic Structure and Periodicity

B9-F2-16

01128899008
 Nature of Light

➢ Energy travels through space by electromagnetic radiation

➢ The light we see with our eyes, visible light, is one type of
electromagnetic radiation.
e.g Light from the sun, the energy used to cook food in microwave,
….etc.
Radiation: is the emission and transmission through space of energy
in the form of waves (A way by which energy travel).
 Nature of Light

4- Amplitude is the vertical distance from the midline of a wave to the peak or
trough.
 Example 1

Example 2
A photon has a frequency of 6.0 x 104 Hz. Convert this frequency into wavelength (nm).
Does this frequency fall in the visible region?

x=c
 = c/
 = 3.00 x 108 m/s / 6.0 x 104 Hz
 = 5.0 x 103 m
 = 5.0 x 1012 nm
7.1
Planck, in 1900, found that:

Energy (light) is emitted or

absorbed in discrete units
(quantum).

E=hx
Planck’s constant (h)
h = 6.63 x 10-34 J•s

7.1
Mystery #2, “Photoelectric Effect”
h
Solved by Einstein in 1905
Light has both:
1. wave nature KE e-
2. particle nature
We say that light has dual nature

Ephoton = h = h c/λ

Also E = mc2

The apparent mass of a photon is:

m=h/λ c
7.2
 De Broglie equation
De Broglie suggested that an electron moving about the nucleus of
an atom behaves like a wave and therefore has a wavelength.
➢ Because de Broglie’s hypothesis is applicable to all matter, any
object of mass (m) and velocity (v) would give rise to a characteristic
matter wave.

De Broglie: (particulate shows wave properties)

m = h/cλ
For a particle with velocity v the corresponding expression is:

m = h/vλ
λ = h/mv

This is de Broglie equation to calculate the wavelength for a particle

 Example 3

(a) Calculate the wavelength associated with a baseball (mass= 146 g) moving 44.1
m/s.
Answer

λ = h/mv = 6.6 x 10-34 kg m2 s-1/ (0.146 kg) (44.1 m/s)

= 1.03 x 10-34 m

(b) Calculate the wavelength associated with the electron (mass = 9.11 x 10-28 g)
moving at velocity 2.19 x 106 m/s. 1 J = kgm2/s

Answer

λ = h/mv = 6.6 x 10-34 kg m2 s-1/ (9.11 x 10-31 kg) (2.19x106 m/s) = 0.332 nm
The Atomic Spectrum of Hydrogen

Line Emission Spectrum of Hydrogen Atoms

7.3
7.3
 Bohr’s Model of the Atom (1913)
1. e- in a hydrogen atom moves around the nucleus in certain
allowed orbits.
2. The tendency of the electron to fly off the atom is balanced
by the attraction force with the nucleus.
3. The allowed orbits are given the quantum numbers n = 1, 2,
3, 4….
4. The energy of any of the orbits is given by the equation:

Z2
En = -RH ( )
n2

n (principal quantum number) = 1,2,3,…

RH (Rydberg constant) = 2.18 x 10-18J
Z is the nuclear charge, it is = 1 in case of hydrogen atom.
The –ve sign in the last equation is to account for the increase in
energy as n increases.
The GROUND STATE of an electron in an atom is the lowest
possible energy state the electron can occupy. In case of H, the
ground state is at n = 1.
The line spectrum of hydrogen atom can be explained as
excitation of the electron from its orbit (Ground State) to higher
energy level (Excited State) where it becomes unstable, therefore
the electron return back to the ground state and emit radiation
equivalent to this difference in energy.
E = h
Δ E = h (c/ λ)

E = h
 Ephoton = E = Ef - Ei
ni = 3 ni = 3
1
Ef = -RH ( )
n2f
ni = 2
1
nf = 2 Ei = -RH ( )
n2i
1 1
E = RH( )
n2i n2f

nnf f==11

7.3
Exercise:
Calculate Δ E when the electron of hydrogen
atom returns from n = 6 to n = 1.

Calculate the wavelength of the emitted photon.

Exercise:

Calculate the energy required to remove the electron from

a hydrogen atom in its ground state.
 Example 1.3
Calculate the change in energy when electron falls from n=6 to n=1 ? Calculate
the wavelength of the emitted photon?
Answer
For n = 6, E6 = - 2.18 x 10-18 J (12/62) = -6.05 x 10-20 J
For n = 1, E1 = - 2.18 x 10-18 J (12/12) = -2.178 x 10-18 J
The change in energy when electron falls from n=6 to n=1 is
∆E = energy of final state(Ef) – energy of initial state (Ei)
∆E = E1-E6 = -2.117 x 10-18 J
i.e the atom lost energy and is now in more stable state. The
wavelength of the emitted photon can be calculated
∆E = h(c/ λ) and λ = hc/∆E
λ = (6.62 x 10-34 Js) (3x 108 m s-1)/ 2.117 x 10-18J = 9.383 x 10-8 m
Calculate the wavelength (in nm) of a photon emitted by a hydrogen atom when its
electron drops from the n = 5 state to the n = 3 state.
1 1
Ephoton = E = RH ( ) = 2.18 x 10-18 J x (1/25 - 1/9) = -1.55 x 10-19 J
n2 n2
i f
Ephoton = h x c /   = h x c / Ephoton

 = 6.63 x 10-34 (J•s) x 3.00 x 108 (m/s)/1.55 x 10-19J  = 1280 nm

 Bohr’s Model
Significance of Bohr’s model
It introduced two important ideas that are also incorporated into our
current model:
1. Electrons exist only in certain discrete energy levels, which are
described by quantum numbers .
2. Energy is involved in the transition of an electron from one level to
another.

The Limitations of Bohr’s model

1.Bohr's model did not work with atoms other than hydrogen.
2.Since the electron revolving around the nucleus constantly changes
its direction so it is constantly accelerating and it should emit light and
lose energy and thus drawn into the nucleus, this of course does not
correct with the existence of stable atoms.
 Schrodinger Equation

Schrodinger made mathematical treatment of the wave nature

of the electron. He put his famous equation:

Hψ = E ψ
H is a mathematical operator.
Ψ is the wave function in x, y and z coordinates.
E is the total energy of the atom.

When this equation is solved we get number of solutions.

Ψ1 Ψ2 Ψ3 Ψ4
E1 E2 E3 E
Orbital 1 Orbital 2 Orbital 3 Orbital 4

Ψ2 is the probability distribution of the electron in that orbital.

 Schrödinger Equation
➢ Wave function (Ψ) describes:
1. Energy of e- with a given Ψ
2. Probability of finding e- in a volume of space
➢ The wave function gives the shape of the electronic orbital.
➢ The square of the wave function (Ψ2), gives the probability of
finding the electron, that is, gives the electron density for
the atom.

➢ Schrodinger’s equation can only be solved exactly for the hydrogen

atom. Must approximate its solution for multi-electron systems.

➢ The relative orbital size: - the radius of the sphere that encloses 90 %
of the total electron probability that is 90 % of the time the electron is
inside this sphere
 Heisenberg Uncertainity Principle

There is a fundamental limitation to just how precisely we

can know both the position and momentum “speed” of a
particle in a given time.

So we can only know

the probability of finding
the electron at a point
around the nucleus.
 Schrödinger Equation
Schrödinger equation and the quantum numbers  = fn(n, l, ml, ms)
➢ The solution of Schrödinger equation for the hydrogen atom gave
wave functions (orbital) each of these orbital
➢ Characterized by a series of numbers called quantum numbers
which describe various properties of the orbital.
➢ The Bohr model introduced a single quantum number, n, to
describe an orbit. The quantum-mechanical model uses three
quantum numbers, n, l, and ml, which result naturally from the
mathematics used to describe an orbital.
➢ If we solve the Schrödinger equation, we get wave functions Ψ
and energies for the wave functions.
➢ Ψ: has no physical meaning and Ψ2: represents the electron charge
density of the orbital or the probability of finding an electron.
 Quantum Numbers
The spin quantum
 = fn(n, l, ml, ms) number

The magnetic
The principle The angular quantum Quantum number
quantum number number

distance of e- from the nucleus

n=1 n=2 n=3

7.6
 1. The principle quantum number n
n = 1, 2, 3, 4, … (Energy Level)

n=1 n=2 n=3

7.6
 2. The angular momentum quantum number (l)

 = fn(n, l, ml, ms)

for a given value of n, l = 0, 1, 2, 3, … n-1
n = 1, l = 0 l=0 s orbital
n = 2, l = 0 or 1 l=1 p orbital
n = 3, l = 0, 1, or 2 l=2 d orbital
l=3 f orbital
It shows the shape of the orbital

l = 0 (s orbitals)

7.6
l = 1 (p orbitals)

l = 2 (d orbitals)

7.6
3. The magnetic quantum number ml

 = fn(n, l, ml, ms)

magnetic quantum number ml

for a given value of l

ml = -l, …., 0, …. +l
if l = 0 (s orbital), ml = 0
if l = 1 (p orbital), ml = -1, 0, 1
if l = 2 (d orbital), ml = -2, -1, 0, 1, 2

It shows the orientation of the orbital in space

7.6
 ml = -1 ml = 0 ml = 1

ml = -2 ml = -1 ml = 0 ml = 1 ml = 27.6
 4. Electron spin quantum number ms

 = fn(n, l, ml, ms)

Electron spin quantum
number ms
ms = +½ or -½

ms = +½ ms = -½

7.6
The Pauli Exclusion Principle

In a given atom no two electrons can have the same set of

four quantum numbers.

Since electrons in the same orbital have the same values of

n, l, and ml, this postulate says that they must have different
Values of ms. Then, since only two values of ms are allowed,
an orbital can hold only two electrons.
7.6
How many 2p orbitals are there in an atom?
n=2
If l = 1, then ml = -1, 0, or +1
2p
3 orbitals
l=1

How many electrons can be placed in the 3d

subshell?
n=3 If l = 2, then ml = -2, -1, 0, +1, or +2
3d 5 orbitals which can hold a total of 10 e-

l=2 7.6
 Energy of orbitals in a single electron atom
Energy only depends on principal quantum number n

n=3

n=2
1
En = -RH ( )
n2

n=1

7.7
Energy of orbitals in a multi-electron atom
Energy depends on n and l

n=3 l = 2

n=3 l = 1
n=3 l = 0

n=2 l = 1
n=2 l = 0

n=1 l = 0
7.7
 Electron configuration
is how the electrons are distributed among the various
atomic orbitals in an atom.
number of electrons
in the orbital or subshell
1s1
principal quantum angular momentum
number n quantum number l

Orbital diagram

H
1s1
7.8
“Fill up” electrons in lowest energy orbitals (Aufbau principle)

N 1s22s22p3
??
C 1s22s22p2
B 1s22s22p1
Be 1s22s2
Li 1s22s1
He 1s2
H 1s1
7.7
The most stable arrangement of electrons
in subshells is the one with the greatest
number of parallel spins (Hund’s rule).

Ne 1s22s22p6
F 1s22s22p5
O 1s22s22p4
N 1s22s22p3
C 1s22s22p2
7.7
 Valence Electrons and Core Electrons

Na 1s22s22p6 3s1

Core electrons Valence electrons

Na [Ne] 3s1

The elements in the same group (vertical column in the

periodic table) have the same valence electron configuration.
 Electronic Configuration of Transition
Elements, Lanthanides and Actinides
Transition Elements: First series

[Ar] 4s2 3d1-10 except Cr and Cu

Lanthanides:
14 elements
[Xe] 6s2 5d0 or 1 4f1-14

Actinides:
14 elements
[Rn] 7s2 6d0 or 1 5f1-14
Exercise: Give the electron configurations of S, Cd, Hf, Ra

Order of orbitals (filling) in multi-electron atom

1s < 2s < 2p < 3s < 3p < 4s < 3d < 4p

< 5s < 4d < 5p < 6s 7.7
Electron configurations
 Condensed Electron configurations
Na : 1s22s22p6 3s1
The symbol [Ne] represents the electron configuration of the ten electrons of neon,
1s22s22p6.
Na: [Ne]3s1

We refer to the electrons represented by the bracketed symbol as the noble-gas core of the
atom. More usually, these inner-shell electrons are referred to as the core electrons.
The outer-shell electrons include the electrons involved in chemical bonding, which are
called the valence electrons.
Example
What is the electron configuration of Mg?
Mg 12 electrons 1s < 2s < 2p < 3s < 3p < 4s
Abbreviated as [Ne]3s2
2 2 6
1s 2s 2p 3s 2

2 + 2 + 6 + 2 = 12 electrons [Ne] 1s22s22p6

What are the possible quantum numbers for the last (outermost) electron in Cl?
Cl 17 electrons 1s < 2s < 2p < 3s < 3p < 4s
1s22s22p63s23p5 [Ne] 3s²3p⁵
2 + 2 + 6 + 2 + 5 = 17 electrons Last electron added to 3p orbital
• n=3 l=1 ml = -1, 0, or +1 ms = ½ or -½
 Electron configuration of ions
➢ Cations: electrons removed from orbital with highest
principal quantum number, n, first:
Li (1s2 2s1)  Li+ (1s2)
Fe ([Ar]3d6 4s2)  Fe3+ ([Ar]3d5)

If there is more than one occupied subshell for a given value

of n, the electrons are first removed from the orbital with the
highest value of l.

➢ Anions: electrons added to the orbital with highest n:

F (1s2 2s2 2p5)  F- (1s2 2s2 2p6)
 Electron Configurations of Cations and Anions Of
Representative Elements

Na [Ne]3s1 Na+ [Ne]

Atoms lose electrons so that
Ca [Ar]4s2 Ca2+ [Ar] cation has a noble-gas outer
electron configuration.
Al [Ne]3s23p1 Al3+ [Ne]

H 1s1 H- 1s2 or [He]

Atoms gain electrons
so that anion has a F 1s22s22p5 F- 1s22s22p6 or [Ne]
noble-gas outer
O 1s22s22p4 O2- 1s22s22p6 or [Ne]
electron configuration.
N 1s22s22p3 N3- 1s22s22p6 or [Ne]
8.2
 Na+: [Ne] Al3+: [Ne] F-: 1s22s22p6 or [Ne]

O2-: 1s22s22p6 or [Ne] N3-: 1s22s22p6 or [Ne]

Na+, Al3+, F-, O2-, and N3- are all isoelectronic with Ne

What neutral atom is isoelectronic with H- ?

H-: 1s2 same electron configuration as He

8.2
 Periodic table

The electron configurations of the elements correspond to their locations in the

periodic table. Thus, elements in the same column of the table have related outer-shell
(valence) electron configurations
 Periodic Trends in Atomic Properties

Ionization energy is the energy (kJ/mol) required to remove

an electron from a gaseous atom in its ground state.

I1 + X (g) X+(g) + e- I1 first ionization energy

I2 + X (g) X2+(g) + e- I2 second ionization energy

I3 + X (g) X3+(g) + e- I3 third ionization energy

I1 < I2 < I3
 Ionization energy

➢ Ionization energy decreases down a group.

➢ This means that the outermost electron is more readily removed
as we go down a group.

➢ As the atom gets bigger, it becomes easier to remove an electron

from the most spatially extended orbital.
✓ Ionization energy generally increases across a period.
✓ As we move across a period, Zeff increases. Therefore, it
becomes more difficult to remove an electron.

➢ Two exceptions: removing the first p electron (Be and B) and

removing the fourth p electron (N and O).
 General Trends of Ionization energy
Increasing First Ionization Energy
Increasing First Ionization Energy
 Electron affinity
is the energy released when an electron is accepted by an atom
in the gaseous state to form an anion.

X (g) + e- X-(g)

F (g) + e- X-(g) H = -328 kJ/mol EA = +328 kJ/mol

O (g) + e- O-(g) H = -141 kJ/mol EA = +141 kJ/mol

➢EA decreases down a group.
➢EA generally increases across a period.
 Effective nuclear charge (Zeff)
is the “positive charge” felt by an electron.

Zeff = Z -  0 <  < Z ( = shielding constant)

Zeff  Z – number of inner or core electrons

Z Core Zeff Radius

Na 11 10 1 186

Mg 12 10 2 160

Al 13 10 3 143

Si 14 10 4 132

8.3
 Effective Nuclear Charge (Zeff)

increasing Zeff
increasing Zeff

Chlorine

8.3
 Sizes of Atoms and Ions

• Consider a simple diatomic

molecule.
• The distance between the two
nuclei is called the bond
distance.
• If the two atoms which make
up the molecule are the same,
then half the bond distance is
called the covalent radius of
the atom.
Prentice Hall © 2003 Chapter 6
 Sizes of Atoms and Ions
Periodic Trends in Atomic Radii
• As the principal quantum number increases (i.e., we
move down a group), the distance of the outermost
electron from the nucleus becomes larger. Hence, the
atomic radius increases.
• As we move across the periodic table, the number of core
electrons remains constant. However, the nuclear charge
increases. Therefore, there is an increased attraction
between the nucleus and the outermost electrons. This
attraction causes the atomic radius to decrease.
 Sizes of Atoms and Ions
Trends in the Sizes of Ions
• Ion size is the distance between ions in an ionic
compound.
• Ion size also depends on nuclear charge, number of
electrons, and orbitals that contain the valence electrons.
• Cations vacate the most spatially extended orbital and are
smaller than the parent atom.
• Anions add electrons to the most spatially extended
orbital and are larger than the parent atom.
Prentice Hall © 2003 Chapter 6
8.3
Cation is always smaller than atom from
which it is formed.
Anion is always larger than atom from
which it is formed.

8.3
8.3
Metals, non-metals and metalloids
Metals, non-metals and metalloids

Chapter 6
 Ionic bonding
➢ Ionic compounds consist of ions held together by attractive
➢ Consider the reaction between sodium and chlorine:
Na(s) + ½Cl2(g) → NaCl(s) ΔHof = -410.9 kJ

➢ We infer that the NaCl is more stable than its constituent elements.
Why?
➢ Na has lost an electron to become Na+ and chlorine has gained the
electron to become Cl-. Note: Na+ has an Ne electron configuration and
Cl- has an Ar configuration.
➢ That is, both Na+ and Cl- have an octet of electrons surrounding the
central ion.
 Ionic bonding
Electron Configurations of Ions of the Representative
Elements
➢ These are derived from the electron configuration of elements with
the required number of electrons added or removed from the most
accessible orbital.
➢ Electron configurations can predict stable ion formation:
• Mg: [Ne]3s2
• Mg+: [Ne]3s1 not stable
• Mg2+: [Ne] stable
• Cl: [Ne]3s23p5
• Cl−: [Ne]3s23p6 = [Ar] stable
 Covalent bonding

➢ When two similar atoms bond, none of them wants to

lose or gain an electron to form an octet.

➢ When similar atoms bond, they share pairs of

electrons to each obtain an octet.

➢ Each pair of shared electrons constitutes one chemical

bond.

➢ Example: H + H → H2 has electrons on a line

connecting the two H nuclei.
 Multiple Bonds
➢ It is possible for more than one pair of electrons to be shared between two atoms
(multiple bonds):
One shared pair of electrons = single bond (e.g. H2)
Two shared pairs of electrons = double bond (e.g. O2)
Three shared pairs of electrons = triple bond (e.g. N2)

➢ Generally, bond distances decrease as we move from single through double to triple
bonds.

➢ In a covalent bond, electrons are shared. Sharing of electrons to form a covalent bond
does not imply equal sharing of those electrons.
➢ There are some covalent bonds in which the electrons are located closer to one atom
than the other. Unequal sharing of electrons results in polar bonds.
Lewis structure of water single covalent bonds

H + O + H H O H or H O H
- - -
2e 8etwo
Double bond – two atoms share 2e Triple bond – two atoms share three pairs of
pairs of electrons electrons

O C O or O C O N N or N N
double bonds
8e-8e-
8e- 8e- 8e- triple bond triple bond
 Bond polarity and electronegativity
➢ Electronegativity: The ability of one atoms in a molecule to attract electrons to itself.
➢ Pauling set electronegativities on a scale from 0.7 (Cs) to 4.0 (F) which is based on
thermochemical data.
➢ Electronegativity increases across a period and decreases down a group.
 Bond polarity and electronegativity
Difference in electronegativity is a gauge of bond polarity:
➢ Electronegativity differences around 0 result in non-polar covalent bonds
(equal or almost equal sharing of electrons)

➢ Electronegativity differences around 2 result in polar covalent bonds

(unequal sharing of electrons)

➢ Electronegativity differences around 3 result in ionic bonds (transfer of electrons).

➢ The positive end (or pole) in a polar bond is represented + and the negative pole -.
 Bond polarity and electronegativity
Polar covalent bond or polar bond is a covalent bond with greater electron
density around one of the two atoms

electron rich
electron poor
region
region e- poor e- rich

H F H F
+ -
 Bond polarity and electronegativity
Classification of bonds by difference in electronegativity

Difference Bond Type

0 Covalent
2 Ionic
0 < and <2 Polar Covalent

Increasing difference in electronegativity

Covalent Polar Covalent Ionic

share e- partial transfer of e- transfer e-

Classify the following bonds as ionic, polar covalent, or covalent: The bond in CsCl;
the bond in H2S; and the NN bond in H2NNH2.
Cs – 0.7 Cl – 3.0 3.0 – 0.7 = 2.3 Ionic

H – 2.1 S – 2.5 2.5 – 2.1 = 0.4 Polar Covalent

N – 3.0 N – 3.0 3.0 – 3.0 = 0 Covalent