Chapter 8 Frequency Response Methods

• The frequency response

• Nyquist diagram – polar plots

• Bode diagram – magnitude and phase

• Frequency domain specifications

1
 Frequency Response Methods
• In preceding chapters the response and performance of a system have
been described in terms of the complex frequency variable s and the
location of the poles and zeros on the s-plane.

• A very practical and important alternative approach to the analysis and

design of a system is the frequency response method.
• Thefrequency response of a system is defined as the steady-state response of
the system to a sinusoidal input signal.

• The sinusoid is a unique input signal, and the resulting output signal, for a
linear system as well as signals throughout the system, is sinusoidal in the
steady state (the out of the system); it is differs from the input waveform only
in amplitude and phase angle.
2
S-Plane and Transient Response
Marginal stable

− ζωn

3
 Frequency Response
Consider the system
Aω
Y ( s ) = T ( s ) R ( s ) r (t ) = A sin ωt R( s ) =
s2 + ω2
m( s ) m( s )
T ( s) = = n where pi are assumed
n( s )
∏ ( s + pi ) to be distinct poles.
i =1
Then in partial fraction form we have
m( s ) Aω k1 kn αs + β
Y ( s) = n = ++ + 2 ,
∏ ( s + pi ) s 2
+ ω 2
s + p1 s + pn s + ω 2
i =1
Taking the inverse Laplace transform yields
− p1t − pn t αs + β 
−1 
y (t ) = k1e +  + kn e +  2 2
,
s + ω 
where α and β are constants which are problem dependent.
4
 Frequency Response
If the system is stable, then all pi are have positive nonzero real
parts, (poles are − pi ), and
−1  αs + β 
lim y ( t ) = lim   2 2
,
t →∞ t →∞ s + ω 
since each exponential term ki e − pi t decays to zero as t → ∞.

αs + β 
−1 
y (t ) =   2 2
s + ω 

5
 Frequency Response
αs + β 
−1 
y (t ) =   2 2
s + ω 
1
= AωT ( jω ) sin(ωt + φ )
ω
= AT ( jω ) sin(ωt + φ )
φ = T ( jω)
• Thus the steady-state output signal depends only on the
magnitude and phase of T(jω) at a specific frequency ω.
• Notice that the steady state response as described the
above is true only for stable systems, T(s).
6
 Laplace vs. Fourier Transform
Laplace transform:
∞
F ( s ) = L[ f (t )] = ∫ f (t )e − st dt where s = σ + jω
0

Fourier transform:
∞
F ( jω ) = L[ f (t )] = ∫ f (t )e − jωt dt
0

Setting s=jω in F(s) yields the Fourier transform of f (t)

(But Fourier Transform is often used for signals that exist for t<0)

7
Jean Baptiste Joseph Fourier
• Born in 1768 in Auxerre,
France
• Died in 1830 in Paris
• Was nearly guillotined
in 1794
• Was taught by Laplace,
Lagrange and Monge
• Created Cairo Institute
• Developed Fourier series
while prefect in Grenoble

8
 Advantage of Frequency response method
• The frequency response method is the ready availability of
sinusoid test signals for various ranges of frequencies and
amplitudes.

• Thus the experimental determination of the frequency response

of a system is easily accomplished and is the most reliable and
uncomplicated method for the experimental analysis of a system.

• Furthermore the design of a system in the frequency domain

provides the designer with control of the bandwidth of a system
and some measure of the response of the system to undesired
noise and disturbance.

9
Transfer Function in Frequency Response Method
• The frequency response method is that the transfer
function describing the sinusoid steady-state behavior
of a system can be obtained by replacing s with jω in
the system transfer function T(s).
• The transfer function representing the sinusoidal
steady-state behavior is then a function of the complex
variable jω and is itself a complex function T(jω).
• Direct correlations between the frequency response and
the corresponding transient response characteristics in
the time domain are somewhat tenuous (very weak).
10
 Frequency Response Methods
• The sinusoid is a unique input signal. And the resulting output
signal is sinusoidal with differs from amplitude and phase
angle.
• Hence, the important issue in frequency response methods is
how to descript the amplitude and phase angle of the system.
We will study different methods to represent amplitude and
phase.

11
 Frequency Response Plots
G ( jω) = G ( s ) s = jω G ( jω) = G ( jω) e jφ (ω )
= G ( jω) ∠φ (ω )
G ( jω) = R (ω ) + jX (ω )
| G (ω ) |= Re 2 (ω ) + Im 2 (ω )
Im(ω )
φ = tan −1
Re(ω )

12
 Frequency Response Plots
V2 (s ) I ( s ) / Cs 1
=
G (s ) = =
V1 (s ) RI ( s ) + I ( s ) / Cs RCs + 1
1
=
High pass or low pass filter? RC (σ + jω ) + 1
Why?
1st Order system
V1 (s )
V2 (s ) =
RC (σ + jω) + 1 V2 ↓ as ω ↑

Low pass filter

13
 Frequency Response Plots

V2 ( s ) 1 1st Order system

G( s) = =
V1 ( s ) RCs + 1

1 1 G ( jω) = R (ω ) + jX (ω )
G ( jω ) = =
jωRC + 1 jω / ω1 + 1
1 jω / ω1
ω1 = 1 / RC = −
(ω/ω1 ) + 1 (ω/ω1 ) 2 + 1
2

| G (ω) |
= Re 2 (ω) + Im 2 (ω)
−1 Im (ω) −1 ω
φ = tan = − tan ( )
Re (ω) ω1
14
Frequency Response Plots
V2 ( s ) 1
G( s) = = 1st Order system
V1 ( s ) RCs + 1

| G (ω) |
= Re 2 (ω) + Im 2 (ω)
−1 Im (ω) −1 ω
φ = tan = − tan ( )
Re (ω) ω1

ω 0: =
= |G| 1,=
φ 00
ω = ω1: |G| = 2, φ = −450

ω=
∞: |G| =
0,φ =
-900

15
 Polar Plot or Nyquist Diagram
K K
G ( s) =
K G ( jω ) = =
2rd system jω ( jωτ + 1) jω − ω 2τ
s ( sτ + 1)
− Kω 2τ jKω
= 2 −
ω + ω 4τ 2 ω 2 + ω 4τ 2
K
| G (ω ) |= 1
(ω 2 + ω 4τ 2 ) 2
Im(ω ) −1 − Kω −1 1
φ (ω ) = tan
−1
= tan = tan ( )
Re(ω ) − Kω τ
2
ωτ

16
Hendrik Wade Bode
• 1905-1982, USA
• PhD from Columbia
in 1935
• Entire career at Bell
Labs
• Invented magnitude
and phase frequency
plots in 1938
• Many other contributions
in electrical engineering
and control 17
 Bode Diagram
Plots of 20log10 | G(ω ) | (vertical axis) and of Φ(ω) as
a function of log ω (horizontal axis)
Logarithmic Gain in decibels (dB)
1 1 1
RC filter: G ( jω ) = = =
jωRC + 1 jω / ω1 + 1 jωτ + 1
ω1 = 1 / RC = 1 / τ

Im (ω)
−1 −1 −ω / ω1
φ(ω) = tan = tan = − tan −1 ωτ
Re (ω) 1
18
 Bode Diagram
Asymptotic curve

-3dB

log ω
Break or corner frequency

log ω

19
 Bode Diagram Asymptotic Curve

decade
log ω

• Advantage of logarithmic plot is that multiplicative

factors are converted into additive ones
• We can then decompose a high order transfer function
into a product of simple standard components to sketch
the broad features of the Bode diagram
20
 How to draw a Bode plot for a given transfer function?
There are only 8 types of factors in any transfer function. They are:
bm s m + bm−1s m −1 + .... + b1s + b0 − Ls bm jω m + bm −1 jω m −1 + .... + b1 jω + b0
G (s) = e G( jω ) = e− Ljω
an s n + an −1s n −1 + .... + a1s + a0 an ( jω )n + an −1( jω )n −1 + .... + a1 jω + a0
k (s + z1 )(s + z2 )....(s + zm ) − Ls K (1 + jωTz1)(1 + jωTz 2 )....(1 + jωTzm ) − jωL
= e = e
(s + p1 )(s + p2 )...(s + pn ) (1 + jωT p1)(1 + jωT p 2 )...(1 + jωT pn )
m
k ∏ (s + zi )
m
K ∏ ( 1 + jωTzi )
e− jωL
− Ls i =1
= i =1
n− N
e = n− N
s N ∏ (s + p j ) ( jω ) N
∏ (1 + jωT pi )
j =1 j =1
m m
k ∏ (s + zi ) K ∏ (1 + jωTzi )
= n− N −2 w
i =1
e− Ls = i =1 e − jωL
w
n− N −2w  2ζ k 2
ω
∏ (s + p j )∏ (s + 2ζ k ωnk s + ω )
w ( j )
∏ (1 + jωT pj ) ∏ 1 + jω + 2 
N 2 2
s ( jω ) N
ωnk 
nk
=j 1 =k 1 j =1 k =1  ωnk

If we knew the look of the Bode plots for each of the 8 types, we could
21
add up the Bode plots from them.
 Bode plot analysis techniques
m
K ∏ (1 + jωTzi )
Factorization
G (jω) = i =1
e − jωL
n− N −2 w
 2ζ k (jω) 2 
w
(jω) ∏
=j 1 =
(1 + jωTpj )∏  1 +
N

k 1  ωnk
jω + 2 
ωnk 

Gain in dB : Lm G ( jω=
) 20log G ( jω )= 20log K + 20log 1 + jωTz1 +
20log 1 + jωTz 2 + .... + 20log 1 + jωTzm − 20 y log ω −
20log 1 + jωTp1 − 20log 1 + jωTp 2 − ....
N

( jω )
2
2ζ 1
−20log 1 + jωTp ( n− y −2 w) − 20log 1 + jω + − ...
ωn1 ω 2
n1

( jω )
2
Lm= Logarithmic Gain 2ζ w
−20log 1 + jω +
ωnw ωnw
2

22
 Bode plot analysis techniques
Phase: ∠G (jω) = ∠( K ) + ∠(1 + jωTz1 ) + ∠(1 + jωTz 2 ) + .... + ∠(1 + jωTzm ) −
10π − ∠(1 + jωTp1 ) − ∠(1 + jωTp 2 ) − .... −
 2ζ 1 ( jω) 2 
∠(1 + jωTp ( n − N − 2 w) ) − ∠ 1 + jω + 2  − ...
 ωn1 ωn1 
 2ζ w ( jω) 2 
∠ 1 + jω + 2 
 ωnw ωnw 

The laborious procedure of plotting the amplitude and the phase by means
of substituting several values of ω can be avoided when drawing Bode
diagrams, because we can use several short cuts.
These short cuts are based on simplifying approximations, which allow us
to represent the exact, smooth plots with straight-line approximations. The
difference between actual curves and these asymptotic approximations is
small, and can be added as a correction. 23
 Detailed examination of the 8 factors
• System type corresponds m
K ∏ (1 + jωTzi )
to integrators (for 0 type G( jω ) = i =1
e − jωL
there is not integrator n − N −2 w w  2ζ k ( jω )2 
( jω ) N ∏ (1 + jωT pj ) ∏ 1 + jω + 
factor) j =1 k =1 ωnk ωnk 
2

• Diagram of a constant
Lm K = 20 log K (dB)

π K>0

K<0

24
 Detailed examination of the 8 factors
 1  1
Diagram of integrators Lm  = 20 log = 20 log 1 − 20 N log ω = −20 N log ω
 ( jω ) ( jω )
N N

(or pole at origin)
 1 
∠  = ∠1 − ∠( jω ) N = −90 N
 ( jω )
N


20db
1 decade
jω

(N=1)

log ω 25
 Detailed examination of the 8 factors
Bode diagram of a
differentiator ( )
Lm ( jω ) N = 20 log ( jω ) N = 20 N log ω = 20 N log ω

( )
(or zero at origin)
∠ ( jω ) N = 90 N

(N=1)

log ω 26
Detailed examination of the 8 factors
±N
Bode diagram for ( jω ) .

log ω

27
 Detailed examination of the 8 factors
Bode diagram of a first order lag term (or pole at the real axis)
 1  1  1 
Lm   = 20 log = 20 log1 − 20 log 1 + jωT
∠  = ∠1 − ∠(1 + jωT ) = − tan −1 ωT
 1 + jωT  1 + jωT
 1 + j ωT 
−20 log 1 + (ωT ) 2
=

Asymptotic curve (Asymptotic curve)

ωT << 1.
 1 
Lm   ≈ 20 log1 =
0dB
 1 + jωT 
ωT >> 1.
 1  1
Lm   ≈ 20 log −20 log ωT
=
 1 + jωT  jωT
log ω
28
 Detailed examination of the 8 factors
Bode diagram of a first order lag term(or pole at the real axis)
(Asymptotic curve)

frequency error
Corner frequency -3dB
(bandwidth)
At half the corner -1dB
frequency
At a quarter of the -0.26 dB
corner frequency 29
 Detailed examination of the 8 factors
First order lead term (or zero at real axis)
Lm (1 + jωT )= 20 log 1 + jωT = 20 log 1 + jωT
= 20 log 1 + (ωT ) 2
∠(1 + jωT ) = tan −1 ωT
Asymptotic curve
ωT << 1.
Lm (1 + jωT ) ≈ 20 log1 =
0dB
ωT >> 1.
Lm (1 + jωT ) ≈ 20 log jωT =
20 log ωT

log ω
30
 Detailed examination of the 8 factors
Quadratic (second order) Lag term (or complex poles) 0 ≤ ζ < 1
1
G ( jω ) =
2ζ 1
1+ jω + ( jω ) 2

ωn ωn 2

 
 1  1
Lm   = 20 log
 1 + 2ζ jω + 1 ( jω) 2  1 +
2ζ
jω +
1
( jω) 2
 ωn ωn
2  ωn ωn
2
 
2 2
 ω2   2ζω 
=
−20 log 1 − 2  +  
 ωn   ωn 

 
 
∠
1  = − tan −1 2ζω / ω n
 2ζ 1 2  1 − ω 2
/ ω 2

1+ jω + 2 ( jω )  n

 ωn ωn  log ω 31
 Detailed examination of the 8 factors
Quadratic (second order) Lag term (complex poles)

For ζ < 0.707 there is a resonant peak at ωr = ωn 1 − 2ζ 2

with peak size = jωr ) | (2ζ 1 − ζ 2 ) −1
M pω | G (=

log ω 32
 Detailed examination of the 8 factors
Quadratic (second order) Lag (complex poles)

For ζ < 0.707 there is a resonant

peak at ω = ω 1 − 2ζ 2
r n

with peak size

= jωr ) | (2ζ 1 − ζ 2 ) −1
M pω | G (=

33
 Detailed examination of the 8 factors
Quadratic (second order) Lag (complex poles) 0 ≤ ζ < 1

Asymptotic curve
For small ω
 
 1 
Lm   ≈ −20 log1 =0dB
 1 + 2ζ jω + 1 ( jω) 2 
 ω ω 2 
 n n 
For large ω
  log ω
 1  ω2 ω
Lm   ≈ −20 log 2 = −40 log
 1 + 2ζ jω + 1 ( jω) 2  ωn ωn 3

 ω ω 2 
 n n 
Non-Minimum Phase System
• A transferfunction is called minimum
phase if all its zeros lie in the left-hand
plane.

• It is called non-minimum phase if it has

zeros in the right-hand plane.

35
 Root locus examples

s −1
GH ( s) = 2
s + 3s + 3 1

0.8

0.6

Apply steps 1-4, 0.4

0.2

Imag Axis
Step 4 for crossing and 0

-0.2

Step 5 for breakaway -0.4

-0.6
point -0.8

-1
-3 -2.5 -2 -1.5 -1 -0.5 0 0.5 1 1.5 2
… Real Axis

36
 Non-Minimum Phase System
s+z s−z
G( s) = G( s) = Note that |G(jω)| is identical,
s+ p s+ p
since |s-z|=|s+z| but the
phase is different

| jω − z | | jω + z |
| G ( jω ) |= =
| jω + p | | jω + p |

37
 Drawing the Bode Diagram
5(1 + 0.1s ) 5(1 + 0.1 jω )
G( s) = =
s(1 + 0.5s )(1 + 0.6s / 50 + s 2 /2500) jω (1 + 0.5 jω )(1 + j 0.6(ω/50) + ( jω/50) 2 )
Gain K = 5 20log5=14dB
Pole at origin -20dB
Pole at ω = 2
Zero at ω = 10
Complex poles at ω = 50 -40dB

40dB/Dec

39
 Drawing the Bode Diagram
5(1 + 0.1s ) 5(1 + 0.1 jω )
G( s) = =
s(1 + 0.5s )(1 + 0.6s / 50 + s /2500)
2
jω (1 + 0.5 jω )(1 + j 0.6(ω/50) + ( jω/50) 2 )
Gain K = 5 20log5=14dB
Pole at origin -20dB
Pole at ω = 2
Zero at ω = 10
Complex poles at ω = 50 -40dB

?
40dB/Dec

40
Drawing the Bode Diagram
(ω <1)
( jω ) 20log 5 − 20log ω
20log G=

(ω >2 )
−20log 1 + j 0.5ω
(ω >10)
+20 log 1 + j 0.1ω

(ω >50)
−20log 1 + j 0.6(ω / 50) + (ω / 50) 2

41
Drawing the Bode Diagram
(ω <1)
( jω ) 20log 5 − 20log ω
20log G=

(ω >2 )
−20log 1 + j 0.5ω
(ω >10)
+20 log 1 + j 0.1ω

(ω >50)
−20log 1 + j 0.6(ω / 50) + (ω / 50) 2

42
Drawing the Bode Diagram

43
 Using Matlab
5(1 + 0.1s ) 5(1 + 0.1 jω )
G( s) = =
s(1 + 0.5s )(1 + 0.6s / 50 + s 2 /2500) jω( 1 + 0.5 jω )(1 + j 0.6(ω/50) + ( jω/50) )
2

60db

44
 Example
30
G (s) =
s+5

30
G ( jω) =
jω + 5
6
=
jω(1/ 5) + 1

45
 Example

10
G ( jω ) =
(1 + jω 4)(1 + jω 0.2)

ω = 0.25 ω=5

46
 Example

4(1 + j 0.5ω )
G ( jω ) =
jω (1 + j 2ω )(1 + j 0.05ω + ( j 0.125ω ) 2 ) ?
60db

Type one system

47
Performance Specifications in the Frequency Domain
• The basic disadvantage of the frequency response method for
analysis and design is the indirect link between the frequency
and the time domain.
• Then for given a set of time-domain (transient performance)
specifications, how do we specify the frequency response?
• Direct correlations between the frequency response and
the corresponding transient response characteristics are
somewhat tenuous (very weak).
• However, we need to develop a method to evaluate the
performance in the frequency response method.
• Like in the time-domain approach, we only consider the
performance of a simple second order system to a step
input. 48
 Step response for second order systems
-summary
1 ωn2
(S-domain) Y ( s) = T ( s) =
s s ( s 2 + 2ζωn s + ωn2 )
1 −ζωnt
(Time-domain) y (t ) =
1− e sin(ωn β t + cos −1 ζ ), β=
1− ζ 2
β

T= τ
4=
4
(for =
δ 2%) Settling time
ζωn
s

−ζπ / 1−ζ 2
Percentage overshoot
PO = 100e
π Peak time
Tp =
ωn 1 − ζ 2
2.16ζ + 0.6 Rise time (10% - 90%)
Tr1 ≅
ωn

ζ and ωn 49
Performance Specifications in the Frequency Domain
Consider a second order system

The closed-loop transfer function in the frequency domain:

ω n2
T ( s) = 2 .
s + 2ζω n s + ω n
2
The Bode diagram of the frequency response of this feedback
system is shown in Fig

50
Performance Specifications in the Frequency Domain

ωn
2
T ( s) = 2 .
s + 2ζω n s + ω n
2

• At the resonant frequency, ω r , a maximum value of

the frequency response, M pω , is attained.
• The bandwidth, ω B , is a measure of a system’s ability
to faithfully reproduce an input signal.
• The bandwidth is the frequency, ω B , at which the
frequency response has declined 3 dB from its low-
frequency value. 51
Performance Specifications in the Frequency Domain
The resonant frequency ω r and –3dB bandwidth can be
related to the speed of the transient response.
Thus as the bandwidth ω B increase, the rise time of the
step response of the system will decrease.

Furthermore the overshoot to a step input can be

related to, M pω through the damping ratio ζ. by
−ζπ 1−ζ 2
M pt = 1 + e .

The resonant peak M pω indicates the relative

stability of a system
52
Performance Specifications in the Frequency Domain
The bandwidth of a system ω B as indicated on the frequency
response can be approximately related to the natural
frequency of the system.
Figure 8.26 shows the normalized bandwidth, ω B / ωn , versus
ζ for the second-order system

53
Performance Specifications in the Frequency Domain
Thus desirable frequency-domain specifications are as follows:

1. Relatively small resonance magnitude:

M pω < 1.5, for example.
2. Relatively large bandwidths so that the system time constant
τ = 1 / ζω n is sufficiently small

Performance

Relative stability
54
Performance Specifications in the Frequency Domain
• The usefulness of these frequency response specifications
and their relation to the actual transient performance
depend upon the approximation of the system by a
second-order pair of complex poles, that is the dominant
roots.
• If the frequency response is dominated by a pair of
complex poles, the relationships between the frequency
response and the time response discussed in this section
will be valid.
• Fortunately a large proportion of control system satisfied
this dominant second-order approximation in practice.

55
 Steady-state error constants
The steady-state error specification can also be related to the frequency
response of a closed-loop system.
• As we knew, the steady-state error for a specific test input signal can
be related to the gain and number of integrations (poles at the origin)
of the open-loop transfer function, i.e., the type of the system.
• In frequency response method, the type of the system determines the slop
of the logarithmic gain curve at low frequency, since steady-state error is
defined at
s → 0, i.e., jω → 0.
Thus, information concerning the existence and magnitude of the
steady-state error of a control system to a given input can be
determined from the observation of the low-frequency region
of the logarithmic gain curve.
56
 Determine of static position error constants
For type 0 system (N=0), we have
= =
K P lim G (s ) lim G (jω)
s →0 jω→ 0

Consider the transfer function as follows

M Not necessary to be a
K ∏ (1 + jωτ i )
second order system
G ( jω ) = i =1
Q
.
( jω ) N ∏ (1 + jωτ k )
k =1

For type 0 (N=0) system, at the low frequency, we have

M M
K ∏ (1 + jωτ i ) K ∏ (1 + jωτ i )
G ( jω ) = i =1
Q
= Q
i =1

( jω )0 ∏ (1 + jωτ k ) ∏ (1 + jωτ k )
k =1 k =1

lim G ( jω ) ≈ K or K P = lim G ( jω ) = K
jω → 0 jω →0 57
Determine of static position error constants
K P = lim G ( jω ) = K
jω → 0

Hence, we can determine the steady-state position error by measure

the value from its logarithmic gain curve (let 20logK=c),

20logK=c

K p = 10( c / 20) = 10( 20 log K ) / 20) = 10log K

58
 Determine of static velocity error constant
For type 1 system (N=1), we have
K v = lim sG ( s ) = lim jωG ( jω )
s →0 jω → 0
Consider the transfer function as follows
M
K ∏ (1 + jωτ i )
G ( jω ) = i =1 .
Q
M
( jω ) N ∏ (1 + jωτ k )
K ∏ (1 + jωτ i ) k =1
K
G ( jω ) = i =1
≈ .
Q
jω
( jω ) ∏ (1 + jωτ k )
1 (at the low frequency )
k =1

According to the definition, we have

K v = lim jωG ( jω ) = K
jω → 0 59
 Determine of static velocity error constant
Kv
20 log = 20 log | K v |
jω jω =1

Also, we can find out Kv using the fact that

the intersection of the initial –20dB/decade
segment (or its extension) with the 0dBline
has a frequency numerically equal to Kv
.
Kv
= 1 or K v = ω1
jω

At the intersection of the initial –20dB/decade segment (or its extension)

with the 0-dB line, the horizontal coordinate, i.e., the frequency is
numerically equal to the K v .
60
Determine of static acceleration error constant
For type 2 system (N=2), we have

K a = lim s G ( s ) = lim ( jω ) G ( jω )
2 2
s →0 jω → 0
Consider the transfer function as follows
M
K ∏ (1 + jωτ i )
G ( jω ) = i =1
Q
.
( jω ) N ∏ (1 + jωτ k )
k =1
M
K ∏ (1 + jωτ i )
K
G ( jω ) = i =1
≈ . (at the low frequency )
Q
( jω ) 2
( jω ) 2 ∏ (1 + jωτ k )
k =1

K a = lim ( jω ) 2 G ( jω ) = K
jω → 0 61
 Determine of static acceleration error constant
Ka
20 log = 20 log | K a |
( jω ) 2 jω =1

The frequency ω a at the intersection of the

initial -40db/decade segment (or its
extension) with the 0-dB line gives the
square root of K a numerically.

Ka
20 log = 20 log1 = 0
( jω ) 2

which yields ωa = Ka or K a = ω a2 .

62
 Design Example: Engraving Machine

The goal is to select an appropriate gain K, utilizing

frequency response method, so that the time response
to step commands is acceptable 63
 Design Example: Engraving Machine
To represent the frequency response of the system, we will first
obtain the open-loop and closed-loop Bode diagram.

1
G ( jω) =
s ( s + 1)(0.5s + 1) Type one 64
 Design Example: Engraving Machine
To represent the frequency response of the system, we will first
obtain the open-loop and closed-loop Bode diagram.

1
G ( jω ) =
s( s + 1)( s + 2) Type one 65
 Design Example: Engraving Machine
Then we use the closed-loop Bode diagram (K=2) to
predict the time response of the system and check the
predicted result with the actual result
2
T (s) = .
s + 3s + 2 s + 2
3 2

2
T ( jω ) = s = jω
(2 − 3ω 2 ) + jω (2 − ω 2 )
.

20 log M pω = 5
20log|T|=5 dB at ω r = 0.8

or M pω = 1.78. (ωr = 0.8)

66
 Design Example: Engraving Machine
If we assume that the system has dominant second-order roots, we
can approximate the system with a second-order frequency
response of the form shown in Fig.
20 log M pω = 5

or M pω = 1.78. (ωr = 0.8)

ω r = 0.8 ζ = 0.29

67
 Design Example: Engraving Machine
M pω = 1.78
ωr = 0.8 ζ = 0.29
ω r / ω n =0.91
0.8.
ωn = = 0.88.
0.91
Since we are now approximating T(s)
as a second-order system, we have
ω n2 0.774
T (s) = = .
s + 2ζω n s
2
+ ω n2 s + 0.51s + 0.774
2

68
 Design Example: Engraving Machine
ω n2 0.774
T (s) = = .
s +
2
2ζω n s + ω n2 s + 0.51s + 0.774
2

The overshoot to a step

input as 37% for ζ = 0.29
The settling time to within 2% of
the final value is estimated as
4 4
=
Ts = = 15.7seconds.
ζωn (0.29)0.88

69
Design Example: Engraving Machine
• The actual overshoot for a step input is 34%,
and the actual settling time is 17 seconds.
• We see that the second-order approximation is
reasonable in this case and can be used to
determine suitable parameters on a system.
• If we require a system with lower overshoot, we
would reduce K to 1 and repeat the procedure.

70
 Disk Drive Read System
Using K 3 = 91.3, we have the following responses:

• The system as designed meets all the specifications.

• The 20 ms setting time is the time it takes the system to “practically
reach the final value.
• In reality, the system drifts very slowly toward the final
value after quickly achieving 97% or 98% of the final value. 71
 Disk Drive Read System
• The
disk drive uses a flexure
suspension to hold the reader
head mount, as shown in Fig
• we will include the effect of the
springy flexure within the model
of the motor-load system.
• We model the flexure with the
mounted head as a mass M,
a spring k, and a sliding friction b.

72
 Disk Drive Read System
The transfer function of a spring-mass-damper
was developed in Chapter 2, where
Y ( s) ωn2 1
= G3 ( s ) = 2 = .
U ( s) s + 2ζωn s + ωn 1 + ( 2ζs / ωn ) + ( s / ωn )
2 2

A typical flexure and head has ζ = 0.3 and natural

resonance at f n = 3000 Hz or ωn = 18.85 × 103 Type one

0.25K ( s + 1)
G( s) = −5 −9 2
.
s(0.05s + 1)(0.001s + 1)(1 + 3.2 × 10 s + 2.8 × 10 s ) 73
 Disk Drive Read System
0.25K ( s + 1)
G( s) = −5 −9 2
.
s(0.05s + 1)(0.001s + 1)(1 + 3.2 × 10 s + 2.8 × 10 s )
The sketch is a plot of the magnitude characteristics
for the open-loop Bode diagram ,or K=400
20 log | K ( jω + 1)G1 ( jω )G2 ( jω )G3 ( jω ) |,
Type one

We wish to
avoid exciting
This resonance.
ω n the resonance at
Note 74
 Disk Drive Read System
Plots of the magnitude of the open-loop Bode diagram and
the closed-loop Bode diagram are shown in following

Mpω

where ζ ≈ 0.8 ωn ≈ ω B = 2000rad / sec

overshoots < 3% Ts =
4
≈ 2.5ms
ζω n
As long as K ≤ 400, the resonance is outside the bandwidth of the
75
system.
 Summary
• In this chapter we have considered the representation of a feedback
control system by its frequency response characteristics.
• The frequency response of a system was defined as the steady-state
response of the system to a sinusoidal input signal.
• Several alternative forms of frequency plots were considered,
including the polar plot of the frequency response of a system
G(jω) and logarithmic plots, often called Bode plots, and the
value of the logarithmic measure was illustrated.
• The ease of obtaining a Bode plot for the various factors of G(jω)
was noted, and an example was considered in detail.
• The asymptotic approximation for sketching the Bode diagram
simplifies the computation considerably 76
 MECH 3610 Homework 9
P.9.1 Draw asymptotic bode Magnitude plots for the following transfer functions.
𝑠𝑠−8
a) 𝐺𝐺𝑐𝑐 𝑠𝑠 𝐺𝐺 𝑠𝑠 = 𝑠𝑠 2 +6𝑠𝑠+8

20 𝑠𝑠+8
b)𝐺𝐺𝑐𝑐 𝑠𝑠 𝐺𝐺 𝑠𝑠 = 𝑠𝑠(𝑠𝑠+2)(𝑠𝑠+4)

Hints: Following the slides 38-43 in lecture notes chapter 8.

P. 9.2 A DC motor controller used extensively in automobiles
is shown in Figure P.9.2 (a). The measured plot
𝜃𝜃(𝑠𝑠)
of is shown in Figure P.9.2 (b). Determine
𝐼𝐼(𝑠𝑠)

𝜃𝜃(𝑠𝑠)
a) Transfer function .
𝐼𝐼(𝑠𝑠)

b) System bandwidth.
c) Percent overshoot
d) Settling time (2% criterion) for a step input ?

Figure P.9.2

Hints: a) Slid 34 of lecture notes of chapter 8: magnitude and phase

b) What is the order of the system? What is ζ and ωn ? ωB ?
c) and d) Using chapter 5 formula to find out PO% and Ts.
Summary of fifteen typical Bode plots

79
Summary of typical Bode plots

K = ω at 0dB

80
Summary of typical Bode plots

K = ω 2 at 0dB

81
Summary of typical Bode plots

K = ω 3 at 0dB

82