GENERAL PHYSICS

INTRODUCTION
PHYSICS can be defined as the study of the physical properties of matter and the concepts of energy.
MATTER refers to any material that can occupy some space and can be measured, weighed, or
examined by experimental testing.

MEASUREMENT
Physical quantities
Any measurable physical feature or property of an object is called its PHYSICAL QUANTITY, e.g.
temperature of a body, an area of a field, speed of a car, etc.
In Physics length, mass and time are known as Basic or Fundamental physical quantities.
Many other physical quantities (e.g. force, speed, velocity, voltage, etc) are related to these
fundamental physical quantities, therefore they are known as DERIVED PHYSICAL QUANTITIES.
(Even their units can be derived from those of fundamental quantities and hence are called derived
units) e.g.
SI unit of speed
Then SI unit of speed = SI unit of distance/SI unit of time
= m/s (read as metre per second)

INTERNATIONAL SYSTEM OF UNITS (Systĕme International d’Unitĕs- SI UNITS)

This is an internationally agreed system of units used to measure physical quantities. (Originally known
as MKS system; M- metre, K- kilogram and S- second). Each quantity has its own SI unit.
FUNDAMENTAL PHYSICAL QUANTITIES AND THEIR SI UNITS
Physical symbo SI unit Symbol
quantity l
length L, l metre m
mass m kilogram kg
time t second s

SOME DERIVED QUANTITIES AND THEIR SI UNITS

Quantity symbol SI unit Symbol

area A square metre m2

acceleration a metre per second squared. m/s2,m s-2
energy E joule J
force F newton N
density ρ kilogram per cubic metre kg/m3
power P watt W
velocity U or v metre per second. m/s, m s-1
 pressure P pascal Pa
frequency f hertz Hz
period T second s

Submultiples and multiples of a base unit

These are bigger or smaller units obtained by putting certain prefixes (with scientific meanings) in front
of a base unit.
Examples
SUBMULTIPLES
Centimetre (cm), decisecond (ds), microvolt(μV), etc.
MULTIPLES
kilometre (km), gigawatt (GW), megahertz (MHz), etc.

PREFEXES USED IN SUBMULTIPLES AND MULTIPLES

Prefix symbo meaning value Conversion factor
l
nano- n One thousand millionth 0.000 000 001 10-9
micro- μ One millionth 0.000 001 10-6
milli- m One thousandth 0.001 10-3
centi- c One hundredth 0.01 10-2
deci- d One tenth 0.1 10-1

kilo- k One thousand 1000 103

mega- M One million 1 000 000 106
giga- G One thousand million 1 000 000 000 1012

CONVERSION OF UNITS
Rule 1: When you convert from a larger to smaller unit, you multiply (by an appropriate conversion
factor) ; e.g.
km -------> m; multiply by 1000.
Rule 2: When you convert from a smaller to larger unit, you divide (by an appropriate conversion
factor); e.g.
seconds ----------> hours; divide by 3600

LENGTH
Definition: is the distance between two points
SI unit: metre (m)
Other units: centimetre (cm); 1 m = 100 cm
 millimetre (mm); 1 m = 1000 mm
micrometre (μm); 1 m = 106 μm
nanometre (nm); 1 m = 109 nm
Measuring Instruments
● Ruler
● Measuring tape
● Vernier calliper
● Micrometre screw gauge
● Mileometer

A. RULER ( metre rule)

Many length measurements are made using rulers. Owing to the thickness of the ruler, it is essential
that the reader’s eye must always be right above the mark to be read i.e. line of sight should make an
angle of 90° with the ruler, in order to avoid parallax error.

*Avoid start measuring from the dead end of a ruler since some parts of that end may be worn out and
so the end will not coincide with the zero mark of the ruler. The reader may start at, let say 10 cm mark,
and then subtract 10 cm from the obtained reading to get the actual length measured.
*A ruler can be read up to 1 decimal place in cm scale i.e. it is accurate to 0.1 cm.

B) VERNIER CALLIPER

A vernier calliper is used to measure length where an ordinary ruler cannot be used, e.g. measuring the
inside and outside diameter of a cylinder (test-tube).
Vernier calliper has two scales; a) main scale, b) vernier scale and is accurate to 0.1 mm or 0.01 cm.

HOW TO READ A VERNIER CALLIPER

-First read the main scale

● Read the main scale mark on the immediate left of the zero mark of the vernier scale and
record it as main scale reading (M.S).
-Then read the vernier scale
● Look along the vernier scale until you find a mark exactly in line with (or closest to) one of the
marks on the main scale. Multiply the number of this mark by 0.01 cm for cm scale (or 0.1 mm
for mm scale). Record the product as vernier scale reading (V.S).
-Finally, to obtain the actual length of the object (vernier caliper’s reading), add the vernier scale
reading to the main scale reading
i.e.

Final reading = main scale reading +vernier scale

reading

EXAMPLE

M.S = 5.3 cm
V. S = 8 x 0.01 cm
M = 0.08
 Final reading = 5.3 + 0.08
= 5.38 cm

C) MICROMETER SCREWGAUGE

This instrument measures very small lengths such as the diameter of a wire, thickness of a coin,
thickness of a sheet of paper.
HOW TO TAKE A READING FROM A MICROMETER
● Put the object between the spindle and anvil. Turn the thimble until the object is gripped very
gently. Fine adjustment can be obtained by turning the ratchet until a click sound is heard.
● To read the micrometer, first read the main scale on the sleeve. Sleeve reading (S) is given by
the value of the last visible mark on sleeve before the edge of the thimble. Note that sleeve
marks above the central horizontal line on the sleeve are full millimetre marks but those below
are half-millimetre marks.
● Then read the thimble scale. Thimble reading (T) is equal to the number of the thimble division
level with the sleeve scale central line multiplied by 0.01 mm.
● Final reading = sleeve reading + thimble reading

EXAMPLE

S = 18.00 mm
T = 42 x 0.01 mm
= 0.42 mm
 Final reading = 18.00 + 0.42
= 18.42 mm

POSSIBLE SOURCES OF ERRORS IN LENGTH MEASUREMENTS

1) Wrong calibration of instrument – where scale is wrongly marked or adjusted

2) Zero error - instrument fails to read exactly zero before any measurement is made or when
nothing is measured.
3) Human error- failure to read or interpret the printed scale correctly owing to lack of experience
or carelessness on the side of the reader.
PRECAUTIONS TO BE TAKEN TO AVOID ERRORS WHEN MEASURING LENGTH
● Zero the instrument before use (re-set the instrument to read zero), if necessary take the
appropriate measures to correct any zero error detected by either adding or subtracting its
value from the obtained reading.
● Place your eye right above the mark to be read in order to avoid parallax error.
● Before using a micrometer screwgauge, wipe clean the faces of the anvil and spindle to
remove any dust on them.
● Take several readings from different positions on the object and then find the average.
TIME
Time can be defined as is the interval between two events.
SI unit: second (s)
Other units: microsecond (μs), millisecond (ms), decisecond (ds), minute (min), hour (h), day, year,
etc.

time name symbol

24 hours (86 400s) day d
60 minutes (3600 s) hour h
60 seconds minute min
10-3 seconds millisecond ms

Time can be measured with stopwatches or clocks. The electronic stopwatch can measure time
precisely up to 1/100 of a second (0.01 s)

Time = 1 min + 48 s + 5/100 s time = 0 min + 15 s

= 1 min 48.05 s = 15.00 s

THE SIMPLE PENDULUM

A pendulum is a piece of a thread which is fixed at one end and tied to a metal ball (called a bob) on
the other end.
The bob of a pendulum is free to swing from one side to another.
The amplitude (a) of a pendulum is the angle between the rest position and position of maximum
displacement.
The length (l) of pendulum is measured from the fixed position to the centre of the bob.
The period (T) of the pendulum is the time taken by the bob to complete one swing or oscillation, i.e.
the time taken by the bob to move from point A to C and back to A in the diagram below. Period is
measured in seconds (s)
Period = total time taken/number complete swings(oscillations)

Frequency (f) is the number of completed oscillations generated in 1 second. The SI unit is hertz (Hz)
frequency = number of swings/total time taken
Therefore;
f = 1/T or T = 1/f
then 1 Hz = 1/s

EXPERIMENT:- To determine the period (T) of a simple pendulum

Procedure
● Set up a pendulum as shown in the diagram above with l = 10 cm.
● Pull the bob slightly to one and then release it and then let the pendulum make few oscillations
until they are periodic and start the stopwatch.
● Using the stopwatch, find the time t1 for 20 oscillations. Find time t2 for another 20 oscillations.
● Find the average time <t> for 20 oscillations using the equation <t> = (t1 + t2)/2.
● Calculate the period of the pendulum using the formula T = <t>/20.
● Repeat the experiment for different values of l; l = 20 cm, l = 30 cm, l = 40 cm, l = 50 and l = 60
cm.
● Record the observations appropriately in a table
● Plot a graph of T2 against l
Activity sheet:
From the experiment we found that
● The period of pendulum is affected by the length of the pendulum. (NB:- The size of the bob
and amplitude of the pendulum [for small angles] do not affect the period).
● The graph is a straight line which means T2 is directly proportional to l, this means if l is
doubled, T quadruples.
SOURCES OF ERROR IN TIME MEASUREMENT
● Human reaction time- a time lag between seeing an event and starting the watch. For people
the lag is normally 0.2 s.
● The watch/clock may move faster or slower that the normal time/rate. This introduces a
systematic error in every reading taken using that watch.
● Instrumental error /zero error – failure to re-set the watch to zero before starting to time the
event.
1.2.7 ACCURACY OF A MEASURING INSTRUMENT
A more accurate instrument measures any quantity with least approximation. The accuracy of any
given instrument is represented numerically by the value of smallest unit an instrument can measure
without approximation. This is usually given by the value of the smallest division in any scale.

Examples
The accuracy of a:-
● metre rule is 0.1 cm (0.01 mm)
● vernier calliper is 0.01 cm (0.1 mm)
● micrometer is 0.01 mm (0.001 cm)
● stopwatch is 0.01 s
● clock is 1 s
● lab thermometer is 1° C.

Accurancy = 1- 0/10 = 0.1 A

1.3 QUESTIONS

1. Complete the table below to show what property is measured by the instrument or what the
instrument can be
used to measure the property stated. State the correct unit in each case.

instrument Property measured Unit

Micrometer
Stopwatch
length centimetre

2. What are lengths of the objects in the diagrams below?

3. What are the readings shown by the micrometers below?

(a) (b)

4. What is time shown by the each of the stopwatches below?

(a) (b)

5. (a) The diagram below shows a simple pendulum.

 The bob of the pendulum was pulled to position A and then was released. The period of the
pendulum was
found to be 0.64 s.

(i) Describe, in terms of positions A, B or C, what is meant by one complete swing.

(ii) How long did it take the pendulum bob to swing from A to B?
(iii) Explain briefly how the period could be accurately measured.

(b) A student performs an experiment to determine the period of a simple pendulum. She uses a
stopwatch to
record the time taken to produce 20 oscillations. The diagram below shows the face of the
stopwatch
used.

(i) What is the time recorded by the stopwatch?

(ii) Calculate the period of the pendulum.
(iii) State two factors that affect the period of the pendulum.

6. A piece of metal pipe is 3 m long, and its internal and external diameters are 20.0 mm and 24.0 mm
respectively. Describe how you would obtain experimentally accurate values of these (i) the internal
and (ii) external diameters of the pipe.

7. Fig. 7.1 shows the face of an ammeter. The ammeter reads 0.2 A with no current passing through.

Fig. 7.1
(a) What is the value of the accuracy of the ammeter?
(b) What error does the ammeter show?

c. Fig. 7.1 shows the same ammeter with current passing through.
 Fig. 7.2

(i) What is the reading shown?

(ii) What is the correct value of the current passing through the ammeter?

8. In each of the following pairs, which quantity is larger?

(a) 2 km or 2500 m?
(b) 2 m or 1500 mm?
(c) 2 tonnes or 3000 kg?
(d) 2 litres or 300 cm3