I

EVS

Thermal
Control
2002_LISHA AGRAWAL
2007_PURVA BHAMARE
2016_PRUTHA DHAKATE
2022_ISHITA GAJRE
2025_IVAN MICHAEL
2027_MAHI JAISWAL
2029_ADITI KADAM
2047_SAGAR PACHANGE
2061_VED SANAP
 II

Chapter four

4.1
III When conditions vary diurnally
between hot and cold

Objectives discomfort:

a.) to even out variations

b.) (1) in the cold phase and
(2) in the hot phase (as above)
c.) to compensate for both excesses by
a flexible heating-cooling system
.

When cold discomfort conditions When hot discomfort conditions

prevail: prevail:

a.) to prevent heat loss a.) to prevent heat gain

b.) to utilize heat gain from the sun and b.) to maximize heat loss
internal sources c.) to remove any excess heat by
c.) to compensate for any net loss, by heating cooling, which uses some form of
energy supply.
which uses some form of energy supply.
IV
Degree of Control
Under extreme conditions, when human existence is at
risk, mechanical controls are positively necessary.

We are capable of creating and maintaining any specified

set of indoor conditions, but both our preferences and the
refinement of control installations will depend on-
1.) our social status
2.) on the standards of the society we live in
3.) the financial means at our disposal.

The environment immediately outside and between

buildings can be influenced by the design of a settlement POTENTIAL OF CLIIMATIC CONTROLS
and by the grouping of buildings.
V
Heating
Heating can be provided locally, i.e. by the conversion of some form of energy (usually the chemical energy of
some fuel material) into heat, where it is required.
All the various fireplaces, stoves and ovens – burning wood, coal, coke or oil – fall into this category. The gas and
electric heaters can be considered as using a processed fuel: the energy of coal, mineral gas, oil or hydraulic and
atomic energy is processed centrally (by gas-works or generating plants), converted into a readily usable form
and distributed through a network of pipes or cables to the points of use.

Central heating is the term used to describe an installation where heat is produced at a central point (the boiler or
furnace), and is subsequently distributed by some conveying medium.
The level of centralization can vary, from central heating of a single flat, of a house, of a block of flats or offices,
through a hospital consisting of many buildings to an extensive 'district heating' scheme.
Any central heating system consists of three distinct elements:
1.)the heat raising plants(boiler or furnace)
2.) the distribution network (ducting or piping)
3.) the heat emitter units (diffusers, radiators or convectors)
VI
Size of Installation

The size and capacity of the heating installation depends on the rate of heat loss from the
building.
Increased insulation would reduce the heat loss rate, thus both the installation and running
costs of heating Would be reduced.
In tropical climates the need for heating will rarely arise. Tropical upland climates are
probably the only climates where cool discomfort conditions may prevail for such a length of
time that the Thermal storage capacity of the structure is insufficient to ensure indoor
comfort.
VII
Problems associated with heating
Heating may be the answer to an environmental problem, but it will create some of its own problems-

Distribution of heat, evenly, throughout the heated space is not an easy task. The temperature gradient between
areas of concentrated heat loss (e.g. windows) and zones of the heat output units may be so steep that strong
convection currents (draughts) are generated, adversely affecting comfort conditions and causing, for instance,
discoloration of surfaces.

Dryness (very low humidity) is a result of heating. When cool air of medium humidity is heated, its relative
humidity is decreased.

Condensation can be caused indirectly. The warm indoor air will readily take on moisture from any available
source: human exhalation, cooking, kettles, baths, etc. RH increases, consequently its dewpoint temperature is
also increased.

Interstitial condensation may soak the wall material and increase its conductivity, thus lowering the wall surface
temperature, which in turn further increases the condensation.
VIII
Ventilation
Humans consume oxygen, taken from the air by breathing, and exhale carbon dioxide.
In a closed environment oxygen content is reduced and the carbon dioxide content is
increased by man's presence.

Body smells, fumes and vapors produced by a variety of processes, such as smoking,
all add to the deterioration of an enclosed volume of air. A supply of fresh air at a rate
substantially higher than the volume of actually inhaled air will be necessary.

In many situations an adequate air supply can be ensured simply by keeping the
windows and doors open. If, however, there is a large difference between externally
given and internally created (comfort) conditions, the air exchange rate must be
regulated, particularly if the interior is heated or cooled by the expenditure of energy.
IX
Mechanical ventilation system
In mechanical ventilation the air is moved by motor driven fans, which can be:
a.) propellor type or axial flow fans
b.) impeller type, centrifugal or tangential flow fans

These can be local, e.g. built into a window or a wall, or may be central in which case ducts
will be necessary to deliver and distribute the air to where it is required.
The installation can take the following forms:

1.) an exhaust system – removing the used air and letting fresh air find its way in through
grilles and openings.
2.) a plenum system – supplying air into the space and forcing out used air through grilles,
etc.
3.) a balanced system – both supplying and removing air. The most dependable, but most
expensive, system used when combined with warm air heating.
X
Mechanical ventilation system
With a plenum or balanced system the air will normally be filtered at the point
of intake, by one of the following means: dry filters, fibrous or porous materials
(paper, cloth or glass fibers), usually disposable wet filters, metal turning or
some loose material with a large specific surface, where all surfaces are coated
with oil.

These can be cleaned and reused washing, by a curtain of water flowing down
the face of a metal or porcelain grille, or a spray through which the air is drawn
electrostatic filters, in which the suspended dust particles are ionised by a high
static electrical charge and stick to the face of electrode plates.
I
Cooling by ventilation
The moving air can be utilized as a heat conveying medium. Warm air heating is
usually combined with a mechanical ventilation system. Ventilation can also
provide a cooling effect simply by replacing the warm inside air with cooler
outside air.

In cold climates the need for cooling rarely arises. In warm climates the
intention is to keep the indoor air cooler than the out-door air, thus there can be
no cooling by ventilation.

It can, however, be used quite successfully in a situation where the outdoor air
is at a comfortable temperature or just below that.
II
Evaporative cooling
Evaporation of water absorbs a significant amount of heat. The latent heat of
evaporation, at normal temperatures, is around 2400 kJ/kg of water. This
phenomenon can be successfully utilised for the cooling of air when the air itself is dry,
so that the moisture does not cause inconvenience – and it may even improve the
conditions. This is likely to be the case in hot-dry climates.
III
Mechanical cooling
A suitable gas, the 'refrigerant', is circulated in a closed circuit by a
compressor. This is most often a gas called Freon (CF2Cl2 ); at least
in small installations. In large plants, such as cold storage buildings,
ammonia (NH3 ) or carbon dioxide (CO2 ) is often used,
The circuit consists of two coils: the warm coil or condenser, and the
cold coil or evaporator.
The two coils are connected on one side through a compressor and
on the other side through a pressure release valve. The warm coil is
thus kept under high pressure and the cold coil under a negative
pressure. The refrigerant is in a liquid state under compression and
in a gaseous state under low pressure. Without changing the heat
content, compression increases the temperature; expansion
decreases it. When liquefying, the refrigerant releases its latent
heat of evaporation, and when evaporating, it absorbs a similar
amount of heat
IV Problems asociated with cooling
If the air in a space is to be cooled, the space must be fully enclosed, otherwise the cooled
inside air and the warm outside air would mix. If doors and windows are closed, the fresh
air needed by the occupants must be supplied mechanically. Thus cooling must be
combined with some form of mechanical ventilation system.
If the outside air is at a high temperature (30°C DBT) and of a medium humidity (60%),
this will be its condition at the point of air intake. If it is to be cooled to 18°C DBT, its RH
will increase. It will actually reach saturation point at 21.5°C, so with further cooling some
moisture will condense and at the end we will have an 18°C DBT air of 100% RH.
Dehumidification: The only way to remove moisture from the air is to force it to condense
out. This can only be done by cooling. When it reaches the extreme curve, the 100%RH
line, it has reached its dewpoint. Further cooling would cause it to move along the 100%
RH curve, downwards and to the left. The downwards movement indicates that moisture
is being condensed out, i.e. the absolute humidity is being reduced
V Air conditioning

The collective term for the machinery which carries out all these functions is 'air handling
plant', and the installation is referred to as air conditioning. Without dehumidification the
system is not air conditioning.
In principle a building installation can take one of the following three forms:
1 central handling-all the functions are performed by a central plant and all the required
air is distributed through a duct system
2 local handling- Where the boiler and refrigeration plant is central, hot and chilled water
is circulated to local air handling units, each serving a certain section of the building (much
less ductwork is necessary)
3 an induction system-where only a small proportion of the required air quantity is treated
centrally but it is dried or heated or cooled far beyond the required level. It is distributed
through small size circular ducts usually at high velocity and before being discharged it is
mixed with the room air through an induction unit
VI Control system
In its simplest form the unit conditioner can be controlled by
manually turning a few knobs. In its more refined form the air
conditioning installation becomes a self-regulating (homeostatic)
system. Such a control system has three major types of
components:
1 sensors-thermometers and hygrometers, constantly monitoring
the conditions and sending information to the control unit
2 the control unit- which receives the above information and
according to a set programme issues 'instructions' for
compensatory adjustments
3 servo-mechanisms: motorised valves, switches and dampers,
which carry out the above instructions and regulate all the
processes, such as fan speed, rate of air flow, temperature of
cooling or heating, thus the rate of working for the boiler or the
cooling plant, etc.
 VII

Chapter four

4.2
VIII
The need for structural controls
'The use of massive air conditioning plants to correct an ill-conceived environment does not differ in principle from
the use of a masonry facade to hide an unnecessarily ugly concrete structure'
The climate presents a challenge to the architect not satisfied with substituting mechanical equipment for good
design.
These statements express an unequivocal ethical attitude to architectural design. V Olgya arrives at a similar
conclusion by way of a pragmatic approach: 'We do not expect to solve the problems of uncomfortable conditions by
natural means only. The environmental elements aiding us have their limits. But it is expected that the architect
should build the shelter in such a way as to bring out the best of the natural possibilities'.

We could summarise the task of environmental controls as follows:

to ensure the best possible indoor thermal conditions by relying on

structural (passive) controls, which may obviate the need for any
mechanical (active) controls, but even if mechanical controls do have to be
resorted to, their task will thereby be reduced to a minimum.

The various structural (passive) means of controlling the thermal

environment will be examined in the following paragraphs.
IX
Thermal insulation
A construction with a low U-value (air-to-air transmittance) will reduce all forms of conduction
heat transfer through the building envelope.
Such a conduction heat flow would be large, if the temperature difference were large. With small
temperature differences between the inside and outside, the heat flow would be small anyway; an
improvement in thermal insulation would not bring any significant reduction.
However, it is worth remembering, that in a heat gain situation, with strong solar radiation, it is the
sol-air temperature value which must be used to find the temperature difference, thus even if the
air temperature difference is small, the actual temperature difference acting as a motive force for
heat flow may be large, consequently insulation may be important.
Insulation will be most effective under steady state conditions, or if at least the direction of the
heat flow is constant for long periods of time – especially for. heated or air conditioned buildings.
Where the direction of heat flow is twice reversed in every 24-hour cycle, the significance of
insulation will be diminished.
X
Thermal capacity

Under conditions with large diurnal temperature variations the significance of thermal
capacity will be much greater than of insulation.
Here we can set the question: 'How much thermal capacity, what length of time-lag, is
desirable?' A point often overlooked is that the thermal capacity can be too much, the
time-lag can be too long.
For example, a wall facing east receives its maximum heating at 10.00 hours. A time-lag
of 10 hours would put the inside surface temperature maximum at 20.00hours, when it
is likely to be too hot anyway and the occupants may want to sleep but cannot.
The question can be answered by drawing a graph of the out-door (sol-air) temperature
variations for each wall and establishing from this at what time will the maximum indoor
heating effect be required or tolerated.
I
Solar control
The effect of radiation on opaque surfaces can be combined with the effect of warm air by using the sol-air temperature
concept .
The magnitude of sol-air temperature is influenced by factors within the designer's control: absorbance and surface
conductance
The selection of colour has little effect; the selection of materials is, however, of greater significance .
Variations in surface conductance are even less, but a lesser absorbance and a greater surface conductance would reduce the
solar heating effect.
However,it is quite obvious that by far the greatest source of heat gain can be the solar radiation entering through a window.
This could, in fact, increase the indoor temperature far above the out-door air temperature, even in moderate climates, through
what is known as the greenhouse effect'. Window glasses are practically transparent for short-wave infra-red radiation emitted
by the sun, but almost opaque for long-wave radiation emitted by objects m the room. The consequence of this is that the
radiant heat, once it has entered through a window, is trapped, inside the building. If solar overheating is a problem, as in all
tropical climates, there are four methods available for the reduction of solar heat gain through windows, four variables which
are within the control of the designer:
1) orientation and window size
2) internal blinds, curtains
3) special glasses
4) external shading devices
Each of these is examined in more detail in the following paragraphs.
 II
Orientation
It is useful to compare the variations of solar radiation
intensities on a horizontal surface and on vertical walls of
different orientations in graph form, as shown for two
locations: latitude 1 °S.and latitude 33 °S. . The former is
based on measured values, the latter is calculated, giving
the possible maximum (assuming clear skies). Irregularities
in the former are the effects of clouds.
Nevertheless, the following facts will be apparent from the
graphs:
a) In both locations, but especially near the Equator, the
horizontal surface receives the greatest intensity
b) At the higher latitude the wall facing the Equator
receives the next highest intensity in the winter (when the
sun is low) but it receives very little in the summer
c) In the equatorial location north and south walls receive
the least intensity and that only for short periods of the
year
d) East and west facing walls receive the second highest
intensities in the equatorial location and consistently large
intensities even at the higher latitude
III

The conclusion can now be drawn that

In the equatorial location, if solar heat gain is to be avoided, the main windows should face north or south.
At the higher latitude, an orientation away from the Equator would receive the least sunshine, but here it may
be desirable to have some solar heat gain in the winter, when the sun is low – so an orientation towards the
Equator may be preferable.
In both locations only minor openings of unimportant rooms should be placed on the
east and west side.
Solar heat gain on the west side can be particularly troublesome as its maximum intensity coincides with the
hottest part of the day.
Proviso: the above conclusions are valid, all other factors being equal. If wind is to be captured or a pleasant
view is to be utilised, etc., these considerations may, at times, override the solar considerations.
IV
Internal blinds and curtains
Internal blinds and curtains are not very effective ways of solar control. It is true that they stop
the passage of radiation, but they themselves absorb the solar heat and can reach a very high
temperature.
The absorbed heat will be partly convected to the indoor air and partly reradiated.
Half of this reradiation is outwards, but as it is of a long wavelength, it is stopped by the window
glass.
The usual narrow space between the window and the blind will thus be quite substantially
overheated.
The hot surface of the blind causes the indoor MRT to rise far above the air temperature.

As a broad generalisation the daily average solar gain factor of a single glazed window will be:
θ = 72% without any solar control device, and
θ = 55% with an internal Venetian blind, i.e. the reduction is only 17%.4
V
Heat absorbing glass
An ordinary window glass transmits a large
proportion of all radiation between 300 and
3000 nm, i.e. both visible light and short-
wave infra-red, but very little around and
outside the 300 to 3000 nm range. Its
transmittance is selective. This selective
transmittance can be modified by varying
the composition of the glass to reduce
substantially the infra-red transmission,
whilst only slightly affecting the light
transmission. Such a product is referred to
as heat absorbing glass.
V
Heat absorbing glass
The transmittance may be reduced from t =
74% to less than t = 42%. One difficulty is that
the reduction in transmittance is accompanied
by a corresponding increase in absorbance,
therefore an increased amount of heat is
absorbed by the glass itself and it can reach a
very high temperature. The absorbed heat will
be reradiated and convected partly to the
outside and partly to the inside, thus the net
improvement will not be as great as the
reduction in transmittance. The total amount of
heat admitted, i.e. the total solar gain, is
reduced from 83 only to 68%.
V
Heat absorbing glass
One way to overcome this absorption heat gain
is to mount the heat absorbing glass at some
distance (0.5 to 1 m) in front of an ordinary
glazed window. This would reduce the
transmission, and the absorbed heat would be
dissipated on both faces to the outside air. Any
heat reradiated towards the window would be
at long wavelengths, for which the ordinary
glass window is opaque.
VI
Other special glasses
While the heat absorbing glasses achieve a selective transmittance by selectivity in absorption, the heat reflecting glass
achieves a similar selective transmittance by selectivity in reflection. The glass is coated by a thin film of metal (usually
nickel or gold), applied by vacuum evaporation. Such glasses absorb very little heat, therefore the improvement in
reducing the total solar gain is far greater, but unfortunately they are still rather expensive.
Recently, several types of photochromatic or light-sensitive glasses have been developed, containing submicroscopic
halide crystals. which turn dark when exposed to strong light and regain their transparency when the light source if
removed. Their transmittance may thus vary between 74 and 1%. When the technique is more developed and more
economical, these glasses may have a future in solar control.
VII
Effects of angle of incidence
When the angle of incidence is other than normal, the transmittance (t) is reduced. For diffuse
radiation the coefficients do not change with the angle of incidence.
To determine the total heat gain through a glazed window, one should establish:
incident direct radiation la (W/m2 )
incident diffuse radiation ld (W/m2 )
angle of incidence β
transmittance for given incidence t
transmittance for diffuse radiation t'
absorbance for given incidence a
absorbance for diffuse radiation a'
and find the sum of the following components
VIII
SUNS POSITION
To find the angle of incidence of solar radiation., the position of the sun in relation to the building elevation must be
established for the given point in time. The sun's position on the sky hemisphere can be specified by two angles: the
solar altitude angle (y), i.e. the vertical angle at the point of observation between the horizon plane and the line
connecting the sun with the observer. the solar azimuth angle (a), i.e. the angle at the point of observation measured
on a horizontal plane between the northerly direction and a point on the horizon circle, where it is intersected by the
arc of a vertical circle, going through the zenith and the sun's position. Thus
north a = 0° or 360°
east a = 90°
south a = 180°
west a = 270° etc.
These two angles can be read directly for any date of the year and any hour of the day from the solar charts or sun-
path diagrams. There are several methods of projection for representing the sun's apparent movement
twodimensionally but the 'stereographic' method of projection here adopted is by far the most generally used. The
'nadir' point is taken as the centre of projection and the sun's position on the apparent sky-hemisphere is projected
onto the horizon plane represented by a horizontal circle. The sun's paths at various dates are shown by a group of
curves extending from east to west (the 'date lines') which are intersected by the short 'hour lines'. The series of
concentric circles establish a scale of altitude angles and the perimeter scale gives the azimuth angle.
IX
Angle of incidence
The horizontal component of the angle of incidence (δ) will be the
difference between the solar
azimuth and the wall azimuth.

The vertical component is the same as the solar altitude angle itself
(γ).

The angle of incidence (β), i.e. the angle between a line perpendicular
to the wall and the sun's direction, can be found by the 'spherical
cosine equation' :-
cos β = cosδ × cos γ

The intensity of radiation measured on a plane normal to the direction

of radiation must be
multiplied by the cosine of this angle of incidence.
X
Shadow Angles
The performance of shading devices is specified by two angles :-
The horizontal shadow angle (δ) characterizes a vertical shading device, Horizontal shadow angle
and it is the difference between the solar azimuth and wall azimuth,
same as the horizontal component for the angle of incidence.
The vertical shadow angle (ε) characterizes a horizontal shading device,
e.g. a long horizontal projection from the wall, and it is measured on a
vertical plane normal to the elevation considered

Solar altitude angle (γ) describes the sun's position in relation to the horizon.
Vertical shadow angle (ε) describes the performance of a shading device. Vertical shadow angle
γ = solar altitude angle
ε = vertical shadow angle
tan ε = tan γ × sec δ
I
Shadow Angles
The two coincide (γ = ε) if and only if the sun is exactly opposite the wall considered (i.e. when
solar azimuth and wall azimuth angle (⍵) are the same, when a = ⍵), when the azimuth
difference δ = 0.
For all other cases, that is, when the sun is sideways from the perpendicular, the vertical shadow
angle is always larger than the solar altitude angle for which it would still be effective ε > y.
The relationship is given as tan ε = tan γ × sec δ.
The shadow angle protractor gives a representation of these shadow angles on a horizontal
plane in stereographic projection and to the same scale as the sun-path diagrams or solar
charts.
This protractor shows the various combinations of azimuth differences (δ) and solar altitude
angles (y) for which a particular shadow angle would be effective.
The perimeter scale gives the horizontal shadow angle (δ) up to –90° to the left and +90° to the
right of the centre line. The arcuate lines indicate the vertical shadow angle (ε) from 0°, given by
the horizon circle, to 90°, the zenith point. When laid over a solar chart, the corresponding sun-
position angles can be read.
II
Shading Devices
Vertical Shading Devices :-
Consists of louvre blades or projecting fins in a vertical position.
The horizontal shadow angle (δ) measures their performance. Narrow blades with close spacing
may give the same shadow angle as broader blades with wider spacing.
This type of device is most effective when
the sun is to one side of the elevation, such
as an eastern or western elevation.
A vertical device to be effective when the
sun is opposite to the wall considered
would have to give an almost complete
coverage of the whole window.
III
Shading Devices
Horizontal Shading Devices :-
Maybe canopies, horizontal louvre blades or externally applied Venetian blinds.
Their performance will be measured by a vertical shadow angle (ε). The shading mask is of a
segmental shape.
These will be most effective when the sun is opposite to the building face considered and at a high
angle, such as for north and south-facing walls. To exclude a low-angle sun, this type of device would
have to cover the window completely, permitting a view downwards only.
IV
Shading Devices
Egg-Crate Devices :-
The many types of grille blocks and decorative screens may fall into this category.
These can be effective for any orientation depending on detail dimensions
V
Design of Shading
Devices
When shading is necessary? At what times of the
year? Between what hours of the day?
Temperature Isopleth - A set of coordinates, with
month lines horizontally and hour lines vertically, on
which time points of equal temperatures are
connected by a curve.
The overheated period outlined on the isopleth chart,
together with other ET lines can be transferred to the
solar chart.
These can be produced on a transparent medium in
the form of an overlay and preserved for future
reference
VI
Design of Shading
Devices
When a building elevation is considered from the point of view of
shading, it will be represented (in plan) by a line crossing the
centre point of the solar chart.
Any part of the overheated period behind this line can be
ignored: when the sun is in these positions, it will not strike the
elevation.
The design of a suitable shading device is basically the finding of
a shading mask which overlaps the overheated period with as
close a fit as possible.
Once the necessary shadow angles have been established, the
design of the actual form of the device will be quite a simple task
and it can be postponed to a later stage when it can be handled
together with other considerations, structural or aesthetic,
daylighting or air movement.
 VII

Chapter four

4.3
VIII
Functions of ventilation
Natural ventilation and air movement could be considered under the heading of
'structural controls' as it does not rely on any form of energy supply or mechanical
installation, but due to its importance for human comfort, it deserves a separate
section. It has three distinctly different functions:

1. supply of fresh air

2. convective cooling
3. physiological cooling
IX
Supply of fresh air
The requirements of fresh air supply are governed by the type of occupancy,
number and activity of the occupants and by the nature of any processes carried
out in the space.
For natural ventilation usually certain limited solutions are prescribed and not the
expected performance.
The provision of 'permanent ventilators', i.e. of openings which cannot be closed,
may be compulsory.
These may be grilles or 'air bricks' built into a wall, or may be incorporated with
windows. The size of openable windows may be stipulated in relation to the floor
area or the volume of the room.
X
Convective Cooling
The exchange of indoor air with fresh out-door air can provide cooling, if the latter
is at a lower temperature than the indoor air.
The moving air acts as a heat carrying medium.
A situation where this convective cooling is a practical proposition, can arise in
moderate or cold climates, when the internal heat gain is causing a temperature
increase, but also in warm climates, when the internal heat gain or solar heat gain
through windows would raise the indoor temperature even higher than the outdoor
air temperature.
I
Provision for ventilation:
stack effect
Ventilation involves the movement of air at a relatively slow rate. The motive force
can be either thermal or dynamic.
The stack effect relies on thermal forces, set up by density difference (caused by
temperature differences) between the indoor and outdoor air.
It can occur through an open window (when the air is still): the warmer and lighter
indoor air will flow out at the top and the cooler, denser outdoor air will flow in at
the bottom. The principle is the same as in wind generation.
II
Provision for ventilation:
stack effect
Special provisions can be made for it in the form of ventilating shafts. The higher the
shaft, the larger the cross-sectional area, and the greater the temperature difference:
the greater the motive force therefore, the more air will be moved.
The motive force is the 'stack pressure' multiplied by the cross-sectional area (force in
Newtons– area in m2). The stack pressure can be calculated from the equation:

Ps = 0.042 × h × ΔT
where Ps = stack pressure in N/m2
h = height of stack in m
ΔT temperature difference in degC
(the constant is N/m3 degC)
III
Physiological cooling
The movement of air past the skin surface accelerates heat dissipation in two
ways:
1. Increasing convective heat loss
2. Accelerating evaporation

Cooling by air movement is most needed where there are no other forms of
heat dissipation available, when the air is as warm as the skin and the
surrounding surfaces are also at a similar temperature.
IV
Provision for air movement:
wind effects
Thermal forces will rarely be sufficient to create appreciable air movements. The only
'natural' force that can be relied on is the dynamic effect of winds.
When the creation of air movements indoors is the aim, the designer should try to
capture as much of the available wind as possible.
Negative control – when the wind is too much – is easy, if windows and openings can be
shut.
Air has a mass (around 1.2 kg/m3), and as it moves, has a momentum, which is the
product of its mass and its velocity (kg m/s). This is a vectorial quantity, which can be
changed in direction or in magnitude only by another force. When moving air strikes an
obstacle such as a building, this will slow down the air flow but the air flow will exert a
pressure on the obstructing surface.
V
Provision for air movement:
wind effects
This pressure is proportionate to the air velocity, as expressed by the equation:
Pw = 0-612 × v2
where Pw = wind pressure in N/m2
v = wind velocity in m/s
(the constant is Ns2/m4)
This slowing down process effects a roughly wedge-shaped mass of air on the
windward side of the building, which in turn diverts the rest of the air flow upwards and
sideways. A separation layer is formed between the stagnant air and the building on
the one hand and the laminar air flow on the other hand. The laminar air flow itself may
be accelerated at the obstacle, as the area available for the flow is 122 narrowed down
by the obstacle.
VI
Provision for air movement:
wind effects
At the separation layer, due to friction, the upper surface of the stagnant air is moved
forward, thus a turbulence or vortex is developed.
Due to its momentum, the laminar air flow tends to maintain a straight path after it has
been diverted, therefore it will take some time to return to the ground surface after the
obstacle, to occupy all the available 'cross-section'.
Thus a stagnant mass of air is also formed on the leeward side, but this is at a reduced
pressure.
Consequently, vortexes are formed wherever the laminar flow is separated from the
surfaces of solid bodies. On the windward side, such vortexes are at an increased pressure
and on the leeward side at a reduced pressure. If the building has an opening facing a
high-pressure zone and another facing a low pressure zone, air movement will be
generated through the building.
VII
Air flow through buildings
As no satisfactory and complete theory is available, air flow patterns can only
be predicted on the basis of empirical rules derived from measurements in
actual buildings or in wind tunnel studies.
Such empirical rules can give a useful guide to the designer but in critical
cases, it is advisable to prepare a model of the design and test it on a wind
simulator.
Wind simulators may be of the open-jet type or the wind tunnel type . The
former type is in use with the Architectural Association School of Architecture
which has been developed with the cooperation of the Department of Fluid
Mechanics, University of Liverpool. The latter type is best represented by an
economical model developed by the Building Research Station which is
described in BRS Current Paper 69/1968.
I
Factors Affecting Indoor Air Flow
Factors Affecting Indoor Air Flow (both patterns and velocities):
A) Orientation
B) External Features
C) Cross-Ventillation
D) Position Of Openings
E) Control Of Openings

A) Orientation
The greatest pressure on the windward side of a building is generated when the elevation is at
right angles to the wind direction, so it seems to be obvious that the greatest indoor air velocity
will be achieved in this case. A wind incidence of 45° would reduce the pressure by 50%. Thus
the designer must ascertain the prevailing wind direction from wind frequency charts of wind
roses 6 and must orientate his building in such a way that the largest openings are facing the
wind direction.
 I
Orientation
The optimum solar orientation and the optimum
orientation for wind may not coincide. In equatorial regions
a north–south orientation would be preferable for sun
exclusion but most often the wind is predominantly
easterly. The usefulness of the above findings is obvious for
such a situation – it may resolve the contradictory
requirements.
I
External Features
b.External Features-
Wind shadows created by obstructions upwind, should be avoided in positioning the building
on the site and in positioning the openings in the building. The wind velocity gradient is made
steeper by an uneven surface, such as scattered buildings, walls fences, trees or scrub

to avoid specific obstructions) the building is often elevated on stilts. External features of the
building itself can strongly influence the pressure build-up

A similar 'funnelling' effect can be created by upward projecting eaves. Any extension of the
elevational area facing the wind will increase the pressure build-up

The opposite of the above means will produce a reduction of pressures:

 I
Cross ventilation
C) Cross-Ventillation

In the absence of an outlet opening or with a full partition there can be no effective air movement through a
building even in a case of strong winds. With a windward opening and no outlet, a pressure similar to that in
front of the building will be built up indoors, which can make conditions even worse, increasing discomfort.
In some cases oscillating pressure changes, known as 'buffeting' can also occur.

Lack Of Cross ventillation

I
Cross ventilation

Effect of opening positions

 I
Cross ventilation
The optimum solar orientation and the optimum
orientation for wind may not coincide. In equatorial regions
a north–south orientation would be preferable for sun
exclusion but most often the wind is predominantly
easterly. The usefulness of the above findings is obvious for
such a situation – it may resolve the contradictory
requirements.
I
Position Of Openings
D) Position Of Openings - air movement
must be ensured through the space mostly
used by the occupants: through the 'living
zone' (up to 2 m high).

The relative magnitude of pressure build-up

in front of the solid areas of the elevation
(which in turn depends on the size and
position of openings) will, in fact, govern
the direction of the indoor air stream and
this will be independent of the outlet Pressure built at Inlet
opening position
I
Position Of Openings

Air-Flow In 2-Storey Building

 I
Control Of Openings
E) Control Of Openings - Sashes, canopies, louvres and other elements controlling the openings, also
influence the indoor air flow pattern.

The following will divert air flow -

a.) Sashes - upwards

b.) Casement or reversible pivot sash - downwards into the living zone
 I
Control Of Openings
c.) Canopies - can eliminate the effect of pressure
build-up above the window, thus the pressure
below the window will direct the air flow upwards. A
gap left between the building face and the canopy
would ensure a downward pressure, thus a flow
directed into the living zone

d.) Louvres and shading devices - The position of blades in a slightly upward position would
still channel the flow into the living zone (up to 20° upwards from the horizontal)

e) Fly Screens and Mosquito Nets - can substantially reduce the air flow
I
Air flow around buildings
While designing a settlement or a cluster of buildings utmost important must be given to air
movement.
After a careful analysis of site climatic conditions a design hypothesis may be produced on the
basis of general information derived from experimental findings.
A positive confirmation (or rejection) of this hypothesis can only be provided by model studies
in a wind simulator. If the construction of adjustable or variable layout models is feasible,
alternative arrangements can be tested and the optimum can be selected.
The effect of tall blocks in mixed developments has been examined in experiments conducted
by the Building Research Station at Garston. how the air stream separates on the face of a tall
block, part of it moving up and over the roof part of it down, to form a large vortex leading to a
very high pressure build-up. An increased velocity is found at ground level at the sides of the
tall block. This could serve a useful purpose in hot climates, although if the tall block is not
fully closed but is permeable to wind, these effects may be reduced.
II
Air flow around buildings
A series of studies in Australia , relating to low industrial buildings, produced the surprising
(but post facto obvious) result that if a low building is located in the wind shadow of a tali
block , the increase in height of the obstructing block will increase the air flow through the low
building in a direction opposite to that of the wind. The lower (return-) wing of a large vortex
would pass through the building.
III
Experiments
Experiments at the Architectural Association
Department of Tropical Studies yielded the
following results:
If in a rural setting in open country, single storey
buildings are placed in rows in a grid-iron pattern,
stagnant air zones leeward from the first row will
overlap the second row . A spacing of six times the
building height is necessary to 129 ensure
adequate air movement for the second row. Thus
the 'five times height' rule for spacing is not quite
satisfactory.
In a similar setting, if the buildings are staggered in
a checker-board pattern, the flow field is much
more uniform, stagnant air zones are almost
eliminated
IV
Humidity control
Dehumidification is only possible by mechanical means ; without this, in warm-humid climates,
some relief can be provided by air movement. In hot-dry climates humidification of the air may
be necessary, which can be associated with evaporative cooling. In these climates the building
is normally closed to preserve the cooler air retained within the structure of high thermal
capacity, also to exclude sand and dust carried by winds. However, some form of air supply to
the building interior is necessary.

All these functions:

controlled air supply
filtering out sand and dust
evaporative cooling
humidification
are served by a device used in some parts of Egypt
– the wind scoop.

WIND SCOOP
V
Humidity control
The large intake opening captures air movement above the roofs in densely built up areas. The water
seeping through the porous pottery jars evaporates, some drips down onto the charcoal placed on a
grating, through which the air is filtered. The cooled air assists the downward movement – a reversed
stack effect.
This device is very useful for ventilation (the above four functions), but it cannot be expected to create
an air movement strong enough for physiological cooling.
Architects in Israel have used a porous honeycombed brick grill, with a perforated water pipe at the top,
for a similar purpose. The water pipe may be supplied by an automatic flush-cistern, of the type used
for urinals.
The 'desert cooler' developed in Delhi, is a cube shaped frame, of 500 to 600 mm sides. The top and
bottom are shallow tanks. The sides are covered with cascas mats, the top of which is immersed in the
upper tank. Water seeps down through the mat and is collected in the lower tank. Inside the box is an
ordinary table fan, which blows air through the cascas mat, cooling and humidifying it.
The fan motor may also drive a small pump, which lifts the surplus water back to the upper tank. If the
box is mounted in or near a window, it is quite effective during the dry season. It is not used during the
monsoon period.
VI

Thank you