Phasors, and SynchrophasorsA Phasor, representation of a sinusoidal waveform (such

as currents and voltages) and is written as a value of magnitude and phase angle. A
timestamped phasor is known as a synchbroln the above diagram, the point V1 on the
sinusoidal voltage waveform consists of magnitude (V1) and phase (d'1) which is the
angular difference between peak voltage phase angle and voltage phase angle at time
reference T=0. "Here the time reference T=0 is provided by the GPS signal.

Phasor Measurement Units

PMU is a device that produces the time synchronized measurements of SynchropbasOrs

(i.e. its amplitude and phase), frequency, ROCOF (Rate of Change Of Frequency) from
voltage and current signals based on a common and accurate time source typically
provided by the Global Positioning System (UTC-GPS). These real time synchronised
measurements enatble the analysis of dynamic behavior for improved efficiency.
Three key Benefits of PMUs over other monitoring systems are:

1. PMU provides phase angle value of the measured synchrophasor, which indicates
"system stress" at the monitoring node
2. PMU provides high speed sampling (256samples/cycle) of synchropbasors and
reporting (200frameselsecond) of data to central software. This high accurate and
rapid sampled data provides critical information of dynamic behaviour of power
system network
3. Accuracy of time synchronisation (with microsecond precision) of PMUs enables
analysis acrossa wide area

Sinusoidal V form Phasor Representation

6, (Phase)

V.
(Magnitude)

time = 0

Wide Area Monitoring System (WAMS)

WAMS consists of PMUs at field substation end and PDC software at Central Load
Dispatch Centre. The PDC software will collect time synchronised data from multiple
PMUs located at different points on the grid and perform specific analytics. Anumber of
software analytical functions have been identified and deployed in Indian Power Sector.
Some of these analytics are:

" Vulnerability analysis of relay

" Dynamic/Linear State Estimator
"Supervised Zone-3 distance protection scheme to prevent unwanted tripping
" On line CVT parameter validation
" Emergency control schemes for controlling frequency and voltage instabilities
" Schemes for controlling angular instabilities /e, out of step protection and adaptive

Super PDC Super PDC Super PDC Rernote Consoles at

at NTAMC at NLDC at Back up NLDC CEA S)

Remote Consoles
Super PDCs at five RLDCs tRPC (S). UTOL

Master PDCs at SLDCs (25) Master PDCs at Strategic

PMU-1 PMU
Location in State (1)
PMUs located at
POWERGRID Substations

PMU -1 n
IPMU1 PMU PMU -1 |PMU- n
PMUs located at PMUs located at PMUs located at
State Sector IPPs across the Central Sector
Substations Grid Substations
islanding.

URTDSM System Hierarchy

Benefits of WAMS Technology in Grid Operations

In-depth insight in to Power System behavio & Elements

Brings efficiency in operation as well as economy
This will enable efficient calibration of measuring equipment.
It would facilitate integration of large quantum of intermittent and variable renewable
generation into the grid.
" Enables synchronous measurement of real time grid parameters across the widely
spread grid with low latency in data transfer to control centers which would be very
effective in reliable, secure and economical grid operation.
"Provides more intelligent/dynamic information to Special Protection Schemes which will
be a step towards self-healing Grids.
Appendix B
Power Swing

B.1 Introduction

In an interonnected power ystem, under stoady state condition, all the generalurs run
in synchronizm There is a balance betwen the lnad znd the generatian. Thia state is
characterized by constant rotor angles, However, when there ia u disturbance in the
sdjunt o he new opereting conditinn ppin o a ue, te yem am t
the roturs need to take on new angular poaitjons Because ofr the inertia af the rotating
aystertn and their dynamics, the rotors alowty reach their new angilar poaitions in an
Rclator her Th m otor angles reaching their naw positions, inCrateing.
rather
The time constants involved in thete oacilation of the onder af a
B.2 Stable and Unstable Power Swing
Figure B.(a) ahows almple Lransnissien syatem There are two parallel line
Peil (E, EJX) sin Ñwhere Kthe shed he power tranter i ven by
angle, al end A, corresponding to thie steady state af operation is 5, as ahown ta Fipure
B2a
Now, let one of the parallel lines be on the lune &s shown
in Pigure B.lb) nd (e), Since Ahe ot, aay, hecuse of a fault
(assuming no action by the spued governar), the ysten settles to s new rotor angle &
whlen a y e nat che power trunsfer curve and the input power ine
The variation of 6with respect te tieie atotd inPre He Net su
a differunt and higher initial power tranafer Paltal a with initial
rotor angle
at end A to
bw 6 Since theru ia no intersection betwoen the power tranafer curve with one line aut
cAe of unstable pouer zuing shownep increaning without bounds. This is a
Firure B21b).
263
220 Anprdi B-Aer Swise

Wth boen Sie

Rotor angle
Figure B ) Situation leading o unatable power ring

Unstle power sng

Sate po

ine

Flgure BIc) Vriation af 5 with mepect to time far stable and untable power ring.

Unatable power swing is an indication that the gneralors are getting out-ofstep.

B.3 Impedance Seen by Relay During Power Swing

Figure B.3a) sbows a simple intarconnected rystem for detailed analysis of the power
wing phenomenon. Generators And Barerotor connected
angle Q
through
ia
a transmialon
positive. Generator
line.is
B
enerator A xporting power, hence its
Valta and currant at the rolay location can be written

where Z Zu + Z + Zm
 Aepentis BPower Shtt 273

relay u ae irr regon o tontherey Caustng the

out-of-4tep blocking relay is usod as shown in Figure B.4la). The out-ofstep blocking relay
has a circular characteristic which is concentric with zune I Let the power swing enter
wchema blkad hh b P e r a*ing entera zone I Thu whole distaAnCe
trip contact drcuit of the three-tepped distance scherne along with the cuntacts of the
blocking relay are shown in Figure B.4b).
X=Im()

Blocking

R Re()

Al A pawer ing elers he blocung raiay at t 0

At B. ne datance shene is completely biockad ( TJ
AL C, pOwer ming enlters one T)
Fiure B,44a) Out-of stap blocking arrangetnant.

110 v

To 3slepped
datanca scheme
wth contact T

Pigure B.4(b) Out-of step biockipg logie.

Since the blocking ralay pruventa the distance scheme frum operating, it is deirable
Lo prove that the blocking reluy does not interfere with the diatance schene for genuine
nter
Consider an internal line fult. During this fault, the impedance seen by the relay
abruptly changes from Z to Z The blocking relay does see this change in impedance
 72 Antis BAer Swsne

-R- Re

Pigure B3te) Locun af power swing when |E,VE -n

C
The radius of power swing cirde is gven by

n-1
Thus, it can be soen that the mpedance seen by the rolay ia a function af the rotor
angte 5 As the rotor angde Sgoes on increasing. the apparent impedance approaches the
characteriatics causing the relay to trip the creuit, thus, dding another ahock to the
syatem and causing further instability Therefore, the protective relay should not trip on
stable power swing. Ths type af scheme is known as outofstp blocking veheme.
mu te poer WIng a unabie and the two machines
in advance through wystem stability studies so that the separated wystems have the
balance betwen
deliberate generation
out-of-step tripping and load. Thus, at the predocided split point, wo need a
scheme.
B.4 Out-of-step Blocking Scheme
As alresdy potnted out, an out-of-step blocking relay is requlred where the zone I distance
relay is hkely to operate but we wish to block tha dintance scheme at thin location so that
the ystem is disconnected elsewhere at the most appropriate point.
impedances (perpendicu lar bisector of Z Z the source and line
sonstant,
decrease the sourco
or increase impedancs are ikely to vary over aperiod of time due to either
in the number of gonerating units or line trippings behind the relay
location. Thus, the ocation of power swing cannot be precisely
predetermined
 Apped -Pone Swing 271

Flpure BAa) Lmpedance seen by reiay on power wing

We can earrange the preceding equations in terma of
I, io.
inpedances alone, by dividing by

and

(: impedance seen by the relay is given by z- VI)

These equations give us a gTaphical method, which la more insightul than the analytical
for conatructing impodance triangles and locating Z, as a function of the rtar
ahown n F S(b)

Lous o power ing as &

Inaeasas tor iEa
Flure B.J(b) Power wing locua constraction

When 5 becomes equal to 180, the apparent impedance is at the electrical centre of
the systern, ausing the ralay to believe that there is a three-phaae short cireuit tbere
In the abeve analysts, it was ansumed that |EAi (Ealfor simplicity However, in
EUE the locus of power urig is acircle with distance fom point Bto centre
given by
 Appends - Power Sung 69
Figure B.2e shows the variation of wiLh rerpect Lo time for suable and unstabie power

(b)

Poa-(aut

Fiure B.1 Power transfer ot a parallel line-pre-fault and poat-fault.

Win boh nes

Wie one lin rippod

Prr

R o r ante

Fiure B3(a) Stuation lesding to sable power swing

 Nigerian Journal of Technology, Val. 17, No. 1, September, 1996 BE 1

SIMULATION OF ELECTROMAGNETIC TRANSIENTS IN POWER

SYSTEMS

By

AO.IBE
Bectrical Engincering Department
UNIVERSITY OF PORT HARCOURT
P. M.B. 5323
pORTHARCOURT
ABSTRACT
Trunsients in power systems ue initiated by abnupt chunges to othenwise steady operating
condtion hese chunges wuld be as a reuli of anv of the followtmg: penng or ckosing of cinuit
nalrts hese conditrns urr stulated use mathematcal mndelk, fn he formulatkn of these
muthenatical models efforts ure nade to represent changes in trnH0SN0on line chanscteristics, such
as the variation of line parameters wih frrquwncy.

faithjul eprxtuetion of tine characterissics in the simulated trunsients with epect to the
performance of fuult lncators lested with the simulated runsients. Such investigation has shown that
the comyutational burken invotved in trying to represent all line characteristics in transients
culculations uld be saved.

INTRODCTION e based on the Fourier transform nd the z

Accurate fault location in power syses is translom lechnques Thexe can casily

power supply. In modern power sysems these transtissin lipe parameiers, byt they invove
faults are located by nunning progrums with mare complicated mathematics than the
built-in faalt location algorithms using post travelling wave methods. The computatioal
huge. moever, he turen preseile by rourner and 2- transtorms
with simulated fault data from electromagnetic in line characteristics in the transients
(EM) transsents cakculation. The reliability af alculations does not pruvide any extra detail
about the fault or system conditio.
the nresuts of such iests depends mainly on the EM
deally the method should falthfully reproduce transients caleulation may be bruadly
the faut being simulaied. clasfied into: () Time-domain methods
EM transients are essentially of travelling using travelling wave appruach ||4 b)
Wave lncd hy the (C)
bundary conditions imposcd on individual methods |9-111
sysem EM transients program whose
computational techniques are based oft This paper will look at cach technique and
rl nn faul iransents Fault siew of esuhiishing which mdel is the best
lacatioa algorithns treated by locating fauls suited for fault simulation, taking into acount
simulaled with such programs produced the the computational burden vis-a-vis the detaits
Sne arter of tault lcation xcuracy as produced in the simulation.
Other methods of EM trunsients calculation 20 The Computational Technigues
MODEL ELTH EV

Smntthe CVT

e
e

laturs

tit
eiay da t iteaiae (1
 MPHNEp IMULATIUN MOE

Mi en Mnir wWL Kertes Menie, R i

aalrptl
W s Mti Cnst k N
Cumas ttumat, pntal s e a , CVT

ut ttr rIIy

MODEL FOR THE MAGNITIC CORE

Cn-Las

by te r n Srm
LkvvJH
df/dt Relay - Rate of Change of Frequency (ROCOF) RelayRate of Change of Frequency (ROCOF
or df/dt) relay is used for fast load shedding. to speed up operation time in over- and under
frequency situations and to detect loss of grid. For better understanding of role and operation of
df/dt relay, let us first study the variation of frequency with load for a Grid. Graphical
relationship between power and frequency of a Grid is shown in figure below.
We can have two things to be noted from the above graph:a) If the power available in the Grid
Increases ie. in other words generation is more than the load, frequency will go up b) I the
generation is less than load l.e. power deficient in the Grid then frequency will decreases.
Large power grids (here large power grid means having large Installed capacity in MW) are
characterized by a very high stiffness constant which means that a large perturbation (load
generation mismatch) is required to cause the grid frequency to change by 1 Hz Thus we can
say that, for the same magnitude of perturbation, the rate of change of frequency (df/dt) will be
much smaller for a very large power grid as compared to a medium sized grid. Therefore, large
sized grids are inherently resilent to rapid frequency fluctuations.
If it happens that due to increase in load, frequency dips below a certain threshold the
Generators connected to the Grid will trip which will result into further dip in frequency and such
a cumulative dip in frequency result into complete failure of Grid. Thus there is a need of Rate
of Change of Frequency or df/dt relay which can detect the dip In frequency earlier and initiate
load shedding to resume the normal frequency of the Grid ROCOF or dt/dt relays are particularly
effective in arresting the frequency collapse of a grid in the event of sudden loss of major
generation. This is because by measuring the frequency decay rate, the corrective action can be
initiated much ahead of the time when frequency of the synchronous interconnection would
have actually dipped to a point at which generator under-frequency relays or unit auxiliaries
would trip/operate leading toa complete systerm shutdown. The df/dt is used for load
shedding in situations where sudden loss of generating capacity on a system will be
accompanied by a decrease in system frequency. In such a situation of load Generation
mismatch, the system frequency tends to fall. The df/dt relay can control the circuit breakers
and allow feeders to be disconnected from the network, one by one. Figure below shows a
typical d/dt Relay.

Picture taken from L&T Products & Services

Operating principle and Setting of df/dt Relay

The Rate of Change of Frequency (ROCOF) Relay operation is based on the measurernent of two
successive frequency and the time difference between the frequency measurements. The
setting of the df/dt relay is in Frequency/Time eg. 0.3Hz/second or 0.4 Hz/.5 seconds. The
minimumn dt/dt relay setting available is 0.1 Hz/sec. However, some df/dt relays have a
minimum setting of 0.2 Hz/sec only
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