Power system stability

· Ability to maintain operation during and after

situations such as:
- large load changes
- Large generation changes
- Network switching operations
- Network faults

· Equilibrium: production = demand

- In transmission system X >> R
-> real power balance ~ frequency
reactive power balance ~ voltage

· After disturbance an oscillation of energy follows:

- is the oscillation attenuated ?

· decisive factor is the synchronization of generators:

Steady-state stability & Transient stability
 Steady state stability
· The ability to maintain the synchronization in normal state
- when frequency decreases the generators increase their production
- when frequency increases the generators decrease their production
· When load is increased the generators must be able to control U and f
· Synchronizing power:
- defines the change of power when frequency is increased
- in stable case:
- positive when frequency is decreased
- negative when frequency is increased
- in unstable case:
- negative when frequency is decreased
- frequency will be further decreased
- positive when frequency is increased
- frequency will be further increased
·Steady-state maximum power:
- theoretical maximum limit for a stable power transmission
- synchronizing power is zero at steady-state maximum power

· Steady-state stability can be lost with no oscillation of power

 The power-angle equation
I X U1V = U1V Ð 0°
U1V U2V U 2V = U 2V Ð - d

S = 3 U1V I* By line voltage U1 = 3 U1V

ì U2 = 3 U 2V
U - U 2V U Ð 0° - U 2V Ð - d =
U1 U 2
sin d
I = 1V = 1V ïï P
X
jX jX í 2
U U cos (-d) + j U 2V sin (-d) ïQ = 1 - U1 U 2 cos d
U
= 1V - 2V ïî X X
jX jX
U U cos d - j U 2V sin d
= 1V - 2V
jX jX
U 2V sin d æ - U1V U cos d ö
= + jç + 2V ÷
X è X X ø
Þ S = 3 U1V I ; U1V = U1V Ð 0°
*

3 U1V U 2 V æ 3U1V 2 3U1V U 2 V ö

= ç
sin d + j ç - cos d ÷÷
X è X X ø
 Static stability
Xg I Xj

G Eg Ug Uv
Ug Xj
Xg
Uv

Eg

jxgI
U vEq
Ug P = sin d
Xg + X j
d jxjI

I
The power-angle equation

U1 U 2
P = sin δ
X

Pmax

0º 90º 180º d

Stable area

Pmax is the biggest stable power

The effect of voltage control
P

E1 E 2
P = × sin δ
å X

Power is constant d

Phase angle versus power

P

d
Voltages are constant
 Static stability and maximum power

δ = δ max = 90°
E1 E 2
Pmax =
åX
E1 E 2
Pmax = sin 90°
å X

In practice the max phase angle dmax » 45° < 90°, since:
- reactive power production limitations in generators
- margin for dynamic changes in network
- margin for voltage control
 Synchronizing power
Eg

Em
d

SX

When load increases the angular frequency tends to decrease.

This leads to the increase in power-angle d.

For stable operation, the power transmission must be able to

increase when power angle is increased.

¶P Eg Em
> 0 P = sin d
¶d åX
¶P Eg Em
= cos d > 0
¶d åX
when d < 90°
The loss of static stability
An example Ug Uv
G
Skv
25 MVA Skv = 50 MVA
105 % Ug = Uv = 1.0
10 kV

Maximum power with regard static stability ? Pmax

Let’s select Sb = 25 MVA Ub = 10 kV E X + Xv

Þ = d Þ E = 2,282
25 c Xv
Þ X d = 1,05 p.u. Xv = = 0,5 p.u.
50 E Uv 2,282 × 1,0
Þ Pmax = = p.u.
Xd Xv + Xd 0,5 + 1,05
Xv
= 1,472 p.u. -ˆ 36,8 MW
~
E Ug Uv
XdI
ìXv a
ï = XvI
í Xd b
ïa + b = U = 1,0
î v E Ug
C
Þ a = 0,323 ; b = 0,677 a
Uv
Þ c = U g - b 2 = 0,736
2
b
 Example 2 Skv = 50 MVA
G Ug = Uv = 1.0
P, Q
25 MVA Sb = 25 MVA IXd
105 %
P = 15 MW = 0,6 p.u. IXv =
E U DUgv
Compute Q, E, d’, d g
d d¢
Ug Uv Uv
P = sin δ' (Xv = 0,5 p.u. Xd = 1,05 p.u.)
Xv
Xv P
Þ sin d' = Þ d' = 17,46° = 0,8572 + j 0,9301 = 1,265Ð 47,3°
Ug U v
2 ì E = 1,265 p.u. = 12,65 kV
Q =
Ug
-
Ug Uv
cos d' = 0,092 p.u. -ˆ 2,3 MVAr
í
Xv Xv î δ = 47,3°
Check :
Xd + Xv
E = D U gv + U v E Uv
Xv P = sin δ
Xd + Xv
Xd + X v
= (U g - U v ) + U v 1,265 × 1,0
Xv = sin 47,3°
Xd + X v 1,05 + 0,5
= (U g cos d' - U v + j U g sin d' ) + U v = 0,6 !
Xv
æ X + Xv X ö X + Xv
= çç d U g cos d' - d U v ÷÷ + j d U g sin d'
è X v X v ø X v
Example 3

UgÐd Xv UgÐ0°
G Ug = Uv = 1.0
P, Q
d d = 17,46°
P = 0,6 ^ 15 MW
Q = 0,092 ^ 2,3 MVAr

Loads in the end of line P, Q = ?

U v Ug
P = sin (-d) = - 0,6 -ˆ - 15 MW
Xv
2
Uv U v Ug
Q = - cos (-d) = 0,092 -ˆ 2,3 MVAr
Xv Xv

Þ to maintain the voltage, reactive power must

be fed into the end of the line
 Transient stability

· the ability to maintain operation during power swings

- in unstable situation two or more network areas lose
the mutual synchronization with the consequence:

* large power swings between the areas

* overload risk for the connecting lines
* risk of damage to generators
* voltage control / power control try to stabilize

If synchronization is lost the network is split into parts

Some of the parts will lose voltage

 Power swings
· In steady state, the mechanical power Pm and electrical power
of the system Ps are equal.

· when the mechanical power of the turbine is constant, but the electrical
power is changed by faults, disconnection etc., the difference in power
balance will increase the kinetic energy of the turbine / generator
1 2
Wkin = Jw
2
The change of kinetic energy:

¶Wkin ¶w w = ws + Dw
Pm - Ps' = = Jw
¶t ¶t ¶ 2 d'
Dw =
¶ 2 d' ¶t 2
= Jw 2
¶t

In the single machine case:

E1' E 2 ¶ 2 d'
Pm = ' sin d' + Jw 2
X d1 + X ¶t
The variation of power angle d¢
during a power swing
¶ 2 d´ No electrical power transm. during the fault:
Pm - P = Jw 2
'

¶t Ps' = 0
s

¶ 2 d´
Jw 2 = Pm
¶t
¶d´ In start, the angular frequency is nominal:
Jw = Pm × t + C1
¶t Dw(0) = d´(0) = 0 Þ C1 = 0
¶d´
Jw = Pm × t
¶t
1 Steady state power angle in the beginning:
Jwd´ = Pm × t 2 + C 2
2 d´(0) = d'0 Þ C 2 = Jwd '0
1
Jwd´ = Pm × t 2 + Jwd '0
2
P
d´ = d'0 + m t 2
2Jw
Jw
t = 2 (d´ - d'0 )
Pm
 Single machine model
Equal area criterion
P´
P´ = transient electrical power

d¢ = transient power angle

Pm = P0 Pm = mechanical power

P0 = electrical power in the

beginning

d'0 δ 'kr d 'max d¢

Assessing the transient stability

Assumptions: Þ areas must be equal, or the braking

area must be bigger
ì Pm = constant
ï
í
=
E´ U
sin d ´
Þ ò (P
m - Pe ) dd £ 0 (stability condition)
ïî e
P
X´
Þ ò (Pm - Pe ) dd Corresponds to:
- accelerating energy, when Pm > Pe
- braking energy, when Pe > Pm
The loss of dynamic stability
 Single machine model
- machine 2 is the stiff grid

E1v jX d1 I jX E2v Steady state stability

' Dynamic stability

E1v jX 'd1 I jX E2v
Transient stability

~ ~

E1v

(X d1 - X 'd1 )I
'
E1v

X 'd1I

XI
d d¢
I

E2v
Power angle equation & single machine model
- In continuous state: E1 E 2
P = sin d
(steady state stability) X d1 + X

- In transient state: E1' E 2

(dynamic stability, P´ = ' sin d´
transient stability) X d1 + X

P P´

P0 = P0'

d
d '0

d0

In static situation the steady state power equals

to the transient state power
 Dynamic stability
An example
Power angle equation in transient case
X Uv
Outage time
G P´ =
E´ U v
sin d ´ P P = 2,69
t = 0,3 s X + Xd'

Xd´, J
P, Q = 2,69 sin d ´
P = 1,0 ; Q = 0 ; Uv = 1,0 P =1,0
X = 0,15 ; X´d = 0,25 ; wJ = 0,05 s2
If d 2' < d max
'
, the
In the stability maintained ? system is stable
d '0 δ1' δ '2 d'max
d
d 'max = 180° - d '0 = 158,2°

Compute emf E´ and power angle d 0' d1' d '2

P = UI Þ I = 1,0 (X + X 'd ) I òP m dd´ = ò (P - Ps m ) dd´

d '0 d1'
E´
Þ (X + X 'd ) I = 0,4 d '2

Þ E´ = 1,08Ð 21,8°
d'0
= ò (2,69 sin d´ - P m ) dd´
U v = 1,0Ð 0° d1'
d = 21,8°
'
0
Pm = 1,0

power angle at switching moment, t = 0,3 s Þ d1' - d 0' = 2,69 (cos d1' - cos d 2' ) - d 2' + d1'
1 P 2 Þ cos d 2' = 0,428 - 0,372 d 2'
d 1' = t + d 0' = 73,37°
2 wJ Þ d 2' = 104,5° < d max
'

Þ the system is stable!