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CAIE AS LEVEL
MATHEMATICS
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CAIE AS LEVEL MATHEMATICS
Constant rule

1. Differentiation d
a=0 ​ [Where a is a constant number]
dx
1.1. Introduction 1.2. Chain rule
Differentiation helps us find the gradient of the
The chain rule helps us differentiate a composite
tangent, a line which touches the curve at a single
function.
point.
Consider f ( g(x) ). If we let u = g(x) and y = f (u), and
then differentiate y , we get
dy du dy
=
​
× ​ ​

dx dx du
So we can define the derivative of y = f ( g(x) )
d
f ( g(x) ) = f ′( g(x) ) × g′(x)
​

dx
It may also be thought of like this

Using the formula for finding the gradient, we get

f (x + h) − f (x)
m= ​

h
Applications of chain rule
Where h is a small number that is greater than 0.
The chain rule can be applied to differentiate functions
As h becomes smaller and approaches 0 (but never of the type [f (x)]n
reaches it), we get the gradient of a tangent to a point on
the curve. Using the chain rule and power rule, we can differentiate
y = [f (x)]n to get
From this, we can deduce
d
f ′(x) = tan(θ) = m [f (x)]n = n × [f (x)]n − 1 × f ′(x)
​

dx
Where f ′(x) represents the first derivative, or the Another application is seen while differentiating y = (ax +
result obtained by differentiating f (x) once. b)n

Notation d d
(ax + b)n = n × (ax + b)n − 1 ×
​ ax + b ​

dx dx
It denoted by many notations: d
⟹ (ax + b)n = n × (ax + b)n − 1 × a
dy dx
= f ′(x) = y′
This is valid for all real numbers n = 0
​

dx ​

dy
Where implies a function y has been differentiated
dx
​

with respect to the variable x. Example

It can also be written as dx
d y , where y is the function
​
Differentiate y = (2x + 5)5 .
being differentiated. Answer
Using the chain rule
Basics of Differentiation d d
(2x + 5)5 = 5 × (2x + 5)5 − 1 ×
​ 2x + 5 ​

Power rule dx dx
d
d n ⟹ (2x + 5)5 = 5 × (2x + 5)4 × 2
x = n × xn−1 [For any real number n = 0]
​

​ ​
dx
dx
d
Sum and Difference rule ⟹ (2x + 5)5 = 10 × (2x + 5)4
​

dx
d d d
dx
​f (x) ± g(x) =
dx
f (x) ±
dx
​g(x) ​

1.3. Gradient function

Scalar multiple rule The first derivative is also called the gradient function. It
d d gives us the gradient of the tangent to the curve at a
a × f (x) = a × f (x) [Where a is a constant nu Copyright specific point.
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A general equation of a tangent can be found using
CAIE AS LEVEL MATHEMATICS
To find the gradient of the normal, we first find the general
y = f ′(x)x + c gradient of a tangent to the curve by differentiating the
curve once.
To find the gradient of the tangent at the point (a, b), input x
= a into the first derivative. d − 12 1
f ′(x) = x =− 3 ​

2x 2
​ ​

dx
f ′(a)
​

Now we can use the relationship between the gradients of a

Using this, we can re-write the equation of the tangent to perpendicular and a tangent
the curve at the point (a, b) as
1 1
y = f ′(a)x + c − 3 × m2 = −1 ⟹ m2 = − 1
2x −
​ ​ ​ ​

2 ​

3 ​

2x 2
​

Equation of perpendicular So the gradient of the normal is

To find the equation of a perpendicular to a point, we m2 = 2x 2 ​
3 ​

must first find the equation of the gradient of the

tangent at that point on the curve. Using this gradient, and the y -intercept as 0 (due to the
question stating that the normal passes through the origin),
We can consider the gradient of the tangent at (x, y) to be we get the equation of the normal as
f ′(x)
3
Using the fact that the gradients of a perpendicular and a y = mx + c ⟹ y = 2x 2 × x + 0 ​

tangent follow the relation: 5

y = 2x 2 ​

m1 × m2 = −1
​ ​

Equating f (x) and the equation of the perpendicular will

We can re-write the gradient of the perpendicular as give us the x coordinate of A.
1 1 5 1
f ′(x) × m2 = −1 ⟹ m2 = − x− 2 = 2x 2 ⟹ x = 2− 3
​ ​ ​

f ′(x)
​ ​ ​

Inputting this x-value into any one equation will give us the
Example 1 corresponding y -coordinate of A.
Find the gradient of the tangent to the curve y = 5x2 + 3x
at the point x = 2. − 12
y = (2 − 3 )
1 ​

1
​

⟹ y = 26 ​

Answer
We first start by finding the gradient function, or the first
So the coordinates of A are
derivative.
(2 − 3 , 2 6 )
1 1
d
​ ​

5x2 + 3x = 10x + 3
​

dx
Now we can input x = 2 into f ′(x) 1.4. Rate of change
f ′(2) = 10(2) + 3 = 23 The rate of change of a function can be connected to the
rate of change of its gradient.
So the gradient of the tangent to the curve at x = 2 is 23. A positive gradient means the function has an
increasing y -value as the x-value increases. This is
called an increasing function.
Example 2 A negative gradient means the function has a
A curve is described by the equation decreasing y -value as the x-value increases. This is
called a decreasing function.
1 A gradient of zero means the function is neither
f (x) = for x > 0
decreasing or increasing.
​

x​

The point A is on the curve such that the normal to the

curve at A also passes through the origin. Find the
coordinates of the point A
Answer

With the given information, the point A can be

considered the point of intersection of the curve f (x)
and the perpendicular to the curve at that point.

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CAIE AS LEVEL MATHEMATICS

Using the graph above, we can re-write the rate of change as Given a minima with x coordinate c:
Gradient function - f ′(x) Gradient Function - f (x) Left of minima Right of minima
f ′(x) > 0 Increasing Increasing function Decreasing gradient, f ′(x) < 0 Increasing gradient, f ′(x) > 0
f ′(x) = 0 Stationary Stationary point Function is decreasing Function is increasing
f ′(x) < 0 Decreasing Decreasing function
Example 1
It is also important to note that f ′(x) > 0 does not A function is defined by
always imply f (x) > 0, vice versa. 5
f (x) = for x ≥ 1
1 − 3x
​

Maximum point
Determine wether f is an increasing function, decreasing
function, or neither.
Answer
First we find the first derivative, or the gradient function, of
f (x) using the chain rule.
d
5(1 − 3x)−1 = −1 × 5 × −3 × (1 − 3x)−2
​

dx
f ′(x) = 15 × (1 − 3x)−2
As:

The 15 being multiplied is positive, it does not change the

Given a maxima with x coordinate c: sign of the function.
Left of maxima Right of maxima (1 − 3x)−2 is always positive as it is squared, it does not
change the sign of the function.
Increasing gradient, f ′(x) > 0 Decreasing gradient, f ′(x) < 0
Function is increasing Function is decreasing Using this logic, we can deduce that

Minimum point f ′(x) > 0

So f (x) is an increasing function for all real values of x.

Example 2
Find the set of values of x for which the function f (x) =
(2x−3)3
6 − 4x is increasing.
​

Answer
We start by finding the first derivative, or gradient function,
of f (x) using the chain rule.

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CAIE AS LEVEL MATHEMATICS

1 d d 1 The second derivative helps us find the nature of the

× (2x − 3)3 + − 4x = (3 × 2 × (2x − 3)2 ) −
6 dx 6 stationary point.
​ ​ ​

dx
It helps us figure out if the stationary point is a
f ′(x) = (2x − 3)2 − 4
minima or maxima.
The function is increasing when f ′(x) > 0 To find the second derivative, differentiate the first
5 1 derivative.
(2x − 3)2 − 4 > 0 ⟹ x > or x <
2 2
​ ​

( )=
d d d
​ f ′(x) = f ′′(x)
​ ​

1.5. Stationary points dx dx dx

It is also denoted by
A stationary, or turning, point is a point on the graph
where the gradient is 0. d2 d2 y
or
Graphically - The gradient of the tangent, f ′(x), is dx2 dx2
​ ​

horizontal and parallel to the x-axis at a stationary Inputting the x coordinate of the stationary point into the
point. second derivative, f ′′(x), will tell us the nature of the
stationary point:
Inequality Nature of stationary point
2
d y
dx2
​
>0 Minimum point
d2 y
dx2
​ <0 Maximum point

Example
A curve has equation
2
f (x) = x2 + ​

x
Find the coordinates of the stationary point on f (x) and
In this case: determine its nature.
Answer
x1 represents a local maxima, or a maximum point.
​
To find the coordinate of the stationary point, we find the
x2 represents a local minima, or a minimum point.
​
first derivative and equate it to 0.
d 2
First derivative x + 2x−1 = 2x − 2x−2
​

dx
The first derivative helps us find the x coordinate of the 2x − 2x−2 = 0 ⟹ x = 1
stationary point.
Inputting the x coordinate back into the original equation,
To find the stationary point: f (x), will give us the y coordinate of the stationary point.
Differentiate the function, f (x), to get the first 2
f (1) = 12 + =3
derivative, f ′(x). 1
​

d
dx f (x) = f ′(x)
​

So the coordinate of the stationary point is

Equate f ′(x) to 0, as the gradient of the tangent at any
stationary point is always 0. This will give you the x (1, 3)
coordinate of the stationary point.
f ′(x) = 0 To find the nature of this stationary point, we find the
second derivative by differentiating the first derivative
Input the value of the x coordinate, or coordinates in
some cases, back into the original equation f (x) to get d
f ′′(x) = 2x − 2x−2 = 2 + 4x−3
the y coordinate of the stationary point.
​

dx

Second derivative We can now input the x coordinate of the stationary point
into f ′′(x)

f ′′(1) = 2 + 4(1)−3 = 6
d2
As dx2 ​ > 0, this stationary point is a minima.

1.6. Applications of Differentiation

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CAIE AS LEVEL MATHEMATICS

Differentiation can be used in modelling situations c is an arbitrary constant with no specific value.
Such as finding the maximum or minimum This can be thought of as the value lost due to the
volume/area a model can have. differentiation of a constant number.
If the variables in an equation vary with time, or any dx represents that the function is being integrated with
other variable, their rates of change can be connected respect to x.
using
dy dt dy Basics of Indefinite Integration
= ​ × ​ ​

dx dx dt Reverse power rule

Example xn+1
The volume, V , of a spherical balloon is increasing at a ∫ xn dx = + c [For any real number n = − 1]
n+1
​ ​

constant rate of 50 cm3 /s. Find the rate of increase of the

radius when the radius is 10 cm. Sum and Difference rule
Answer
We are given dt = 50, and are asked to find the value of
dV
​

dt .
dr
​
∫ f (x) ± g(x) dx = ∫ f (x) dx ± ∫ g(x) dx
To solve the question, we first note that the volume of a
sphere is given by Scalar multiple rule
4 3
V = πr ∫ a × f (x) dx = a × ∫ f (x) dx [Where a is a constan
3
​

By differentiating the formula for a volume of a sphere, we Constant rule

get
dV ∫ a dx = ax + c [Where a is a constant number]
= 4πr2​

dr
So at r = 10 2.2. Reverse Chain Rule
dV
= 4π(10)2 = 400π The reverse chain rule helps us integrate linear
functions that are raised to an exponent.
​

dr
Using the connected rates of change formula, or chain rule: Consider g( f (x) ) such that
dV dt dV d
= × ​ ​ ​

g( f (x) ) = g′( f (x) ) × f ′(x)

dr dr dr dx
​

We can substitute in our values We can integrate the result as such

dt
400π = × 50 ​

∫ g′( f (x) ) × f ′(x) dx = g( f (x) ) + c

dr
dt 400π
= = 8π An important application of the reverse chain rule is shown
50
​ ​

dr
below.
To find the value of dr
dt ​ we can take the reciprocal of the [a and b are constant real numbers]
result This simplifies to
dt 1 This is valid for all real numbers n = − 1, 0
= ​

8π
​ ​

dr
Example
2. Integration 1
(2x+3)2
​

Answer
2.1. Introduction (2x + 3)−2+1
∫ (2x + 3)−2 = d
+c
[ dx (2x + 3)] × (−2 + 1)
​

The integral can be thought of as the anti-derivative, or

​

the reverse of differentiation. This simplifies to

In mathematical terms 1
Where: − +c
4x + 6
​

2.3. Finding the arbitrary constant

To be able to find the value of the constant we must be
given a point on the curve.
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CAIE AS LEVEL MATHEMATICS
Consider a point (e, f ) on the curve F (x). We are given a We also come across some useful results
derivative f (x). To find the original equation: a
∫ ​ f (x) dx = 0
∫ f (x) dx = F (x) + c a
b c c
∫ f (x) dx + ∫ f (x) dx = ∫ f (x) dx [Where a < b
Using the points given
​ ​ ​

a b a

F (f ) = F (e) + c ⟹ c = F (f ) − F (e)
Example
4
∫2 3x3 − 4x2 + 2x + 5 dx
Example
​

Answer
dy
dx ​
= 2x2 − 5(3, 8)
Answer 4
3x3+1 4x2+1 2x1+1
∫ 3x3 − 4x2 + 2x + 5 dx = ( − +
3+1 2+1 1+1
​ ​ ​ ​

2x2+1 2
∫ 2x − 5 dx = 2
− 5x + c
2+1
​

This simplifies to
Giving us 4
3x4 4x4
( − + x2 + 5x)
2x3 4 4
​ ​ ​

2
y= − 5x + c
3
​

Now we can substitute in the upper and lower limit as such

We can now substitute in the points given in the question
3(4)4 4(4)4 3(2)4 4(2)4
2(3) 3 ( − + (4)2 + (4)x) − ( − + (2
4 4 4 4
​ ​ ​ ​

8= − 5(3) + c ⟹ c = +5
3
​

428 46 382
So the equation of the curve is ( )−( )=
3 3 3
​ ​ ​

2x3 4
382
y= − 5x + 5
3
​

∫ 3x3 − 4x2 + 2x + 5 dx =
3
​ ​

2.4. Definite Integration

2.5. Area bounded by the x-axis
A definite integral is an integral that is described by an
upper and lower limit. Finding the area under a curve is an application of definite
Fundamental theorem of Calculus integration.
x=a
∫
a
​ f (x) dx = [F (x)]b = F (a) − F (b) ​ [Where a ≤
x=b

Where:

a is the upper limit.

b is the lower limit.
Note that adding the arbitrary constant is not necessary
in definite integration as it will get cancelled out.

Basics of Definite Integration

The upper and lower limit must be the same for this
rule to apply The definite integral below gives us the area under the
Sum and Difference rule graph bounded by the x-axis.
a a a x=b
∫ ​ f (x) ± g(x) dx = ∫ ​ f (x) ± ∫ ​ g(x) ∫ ​ f (x) dx = F (b) − F (a) [Where a ≤ x ≤ b]
b b b x=a

Scalar multiple rule

a a
∫ ​ zf (x) dx = z × ∫ ​ f (x) dx [Where z is a constant n
b b

Change of limits rule

a b
∫ ​
f (x) dx = − ∫ f (x) dx ​

b a

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CAIE AS LEVEL MATHEMATICS

Here f (x) must be in terms of x.

Integrating a constant, such as y = c, with limits a and b
will give you the area of a rectangle, bounded by the x-
axis, with length c and breadth b − a.

The area bounded below the x-axis

The area bounded below the x-axis is negative, but the
positive value must be taken as area can never have a
negative value.

Find the area of the shaded region enclosed by the curve,

the x-axis and the lines x = 1 and x = 4.
Answer
From the question

x = 4 is the upper limit as it is the greater number.

x = 1 is the lower limit as it is the smaller number.

Now we can integrate the function f (x)

4
∫
1
​
4x− 2 dx ​

1
So the area under the x-axis can be written as
b
Upon integrating, we get
− ∫ f (x) dx 1
4x− 2 +1
​

1
​

a = 8x 2 ​

− 12 + 1
​

Now we can substitute in our limits

To find the area under a graph as such:
1
[8x 2 ]41 ​

(8(4) 2 ) − (8(1) 2 ) = 8
1 1
​ ​

So the area of the shaded region is 8.

2.6. Area bounded by the y -axis

To find the area bounded by the y -axis, we need to get
an equation in terms of y , such as x = F (y).
We can use 3 different definite integrals The limits must converted to y -values, if required.
b c d
∫ f (x) dx − ∫ f (x) dx + ∫
​ ​ ​ f (x) dx
a b c

Example
A curve has the equation
4
f (x) = ​

x ​

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CAIE AS LEVEL MATHEMATICS
We can now begin by integrating, along with the upper and
The definite integral below gives us the area bounded by lower limit
the y -axis.
6 6
y3 4y 2
y=d ∫ y 2 − 4y + 1 dy = ( − + y)
∫ f (y) dy = F (d) − F (c) [Where c ≤ y ≤ d] 3 2
​ ​ ​ ​

​
4 4
y=c
Substituting in the limits gives us
Area bounded left of the y -axis
(4)3 (6)3 38
( − 2(4)2 + 4) − ( − 2(6)2 + 6) =
3 3 3
​ ​

The area bounded below the y -axis is negative, but the

**positive value ** must be taken as area can never 38
So the area of the shaded region is 3 .
have a negative value
​

2.7. Improper Integration

Improper integration is a type of definite integration
where the function being integrated is undefined at the
limits given.
1
Consider the graph of the function f (x) = x ​

So the area left of the y -axis can be written as

d
−∫ ​ f (y) dy
c

Example
A curve has the equation

y =2+ x+3 ​

Here:

As x approaches 0, f (x) approaches ∞

This is written as x → 0, f (x) → ∞
As x approaches ∞, f (x) approaches 0
This is written as x → ∞, f (x) → 0
This is true for the negative x and y axis as well.

Example
f
Find the area of the shaded region, bounded by the y -axis 1 1
for x > −
and the curve. (4x + 2) 2 2
​ ​

Answer ∞
x Find ∫1 f (x) dx.
​

Answer
2 2
x = (y − 2) + 3 = y − 4y + 1 ∞ ∞
(4x + 2)−2+1
∫ (4x + 2)−2 = ( )
Next, find the corresponding y -values for the x limits. 4 × (−2 + 1) 1
​ ​

y =2+ 1+3=4 ​
Substitute a dummy variable, t, for the upper limit and
evaluate the definite integral
y =2+ 13 + 3 = 6 ​

−1 −1
( )−( )
16t + 8 16(1) + 8
​ ​

As t → ∞, −1 → 0.
16t+8 ​

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CAIE AS LEVEL MATHEMATICS

1
0+
24
​

1
So the answer to the improper integral is 24 .​

Example 2
2
∫0 x52
​ ​
dx
Answer
2 2
5x−2+1
∫ 5x−2 dx = ( )
−2 + 1 0
​ ​ ​

0
Find the area of the shaded region.
Substitute a dummy variable, t, for the lower limit and Answer
evaluate the definite integral O(0, 0)xP
−5 5
( ) − (− ) 3 x=x ⟹ x=9
2
​
​ ​

t
The point P has coordinates (9, 9).
As t → 0, − 5t → ∞. ​

Method 1
−5 y = 3 xy = x
+∞
​

2
​

9 9 9

As there is no finite value given to this improper integral, it is ∫ ​

3 x dx − ∫
​ ​
x dx = ∫ ​
3 x − x dx
​

0 0 0
undefined.
9
x2
(2x 2 − )
3

2.8. Area between curves

​

2 0
​ ​

92
The area between two curves can be found by finding 0 − (2(9) 2 − ) = 13.5
3
​

2
​

the difference of the areas of the top curve and bottom

curve.
The area between the two curves is 13.5.
Method 2
y = 3 xy = x99 ​

9
1
∫ 3 x dx − ( × 9 × 9)
2
​ ​ ​

81 81
(2x 2 )90 − ( ) = 2(9) 2 −
3 3
​

= 13.5 ​

2 2
​ ​ ​

We can find the area between two curves as such The area between the two curves is 13.5.
b
∫ f (x) − g(x) dx
​ [Where a ≤ x ≤ b] 2.9. Volume of Revolution
a

While finding the area between two curves, it is

important to identify which function is on top and on the
bottom.
You may also need to find their points of intersection,
and use them as the upper and lower limit in
questions.

Example
The curve y = 3 x and the line y = x intersect at the
​

origin O and the point P .

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CAIE AS LEVEL MATHEMATICS
y2
The volume of revolution of a solid rotated around an
axis by 360∘ degrees gives us a 3D shape. y = x3 ⟹ y 2 = x6
It is also possible to find the volume between two solid
areas by subtracting the upper volume from the lower Now we can evaluate the integral using the limits given
volume. 6
To find the volume of revolution around the x-axis by V = π∫ ​ x6 dx
360 degrees 3
6
x6+1
π( )
x=b
V = π∫ ​
2
y dx 6+1 3
​ ​

x=a
67 37
V = π( − )
7 7
​ ​

277749π
V =
7
​

So the volume of revolution the around x-axis by 360

degrees is 277749π
7 ​

Example 2
y 4 = x2 y24y
Answer
As the equation is already in terms of x2 , we can directly
evaluate the integral.
To find the volume of revolution around the y -axis by
360 degrees 4
V = π∫ ​
y 4 dy
y=d 2
V = π∫ x2 dy 4
y 4+1
​

π( )
y=c
4+1 2
​ ​

45 25
π( − )
5 5
​

992π
V =
5
​

992π
So the volume is equal to 5
​

Note that you do not need to square the equation if it is

already in terms of y 2 or x2

Example 1
y= x3 36
Answer

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CAIE AS Level
Mathematics

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