Human Biology Unit 1 ATAR Notes

Notes from Human Perspectives

Cell Structure and Function

Cell theory: cells are the building blocks for
all living organisms

Cell Membrane:

 The cell membrane, also known as the plasma membrane, separates the cell from its
surroundings.
 It is very thin and not visible with a light microscope.
 Most cells have internal membranes forming organelles.

Cytoplasm:

 The cytoplasm is the jelly-like material inside the cell membrane.

 It fills the space between the nucleus and the cell membrane.
 Organelles are found within the cytoplasm.

Cytosol:

 Cytosol is the liquid part of the cytoplasm.

 It consists of 75% to 90% water and various dissolved substances, including salts and
carbohydrates.
 Some compounds, like proteins and fats, are suspended in cytosol.

Organelles:

 Organelles are specialized structures within cells, each with specific functions.
 Many organelles are formed by internal cell membranes.

Nucleus:

 The nucleus is usually a single oval or spherical structure.

 It is separated from the cytoplasm by a double-membrane nuclear envelope with nuclear
pores.
 The DNA, in the form of chromosomes during cell division, carries genetic information.
 The nucleolus is involved in protein manufacturing.

Ribosomes:

 Ribosomes are small spherical organelles.

  They are sites where amino acids are linked to form proteins.
 Ribosomes can be free in the cytoplasm or attached to membranes.

Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER):

 The endoplasmic reticulum consists of parallel membranes.

 It serves as a surface for chemical reactions and for storing or transporting molecules.
 Ribosomes can attach to its outer membranes.

Golgi Body:

 The Golgi body consists of stacked, flattened membranes.

 It modifies and packages proteins for secretion from the cell.
 It receives proteins from the endoplasmic reticulum and forms vesicles with proteins.

Lysosomes:

 Lysosomes are small, membrane-bound organelles.

 They contain digestive enzymes for breaking down large molecules.
 Lysosomes can fuse with vesicles in the cytoplasm for digestion.

Mitochondria:

 Mitochondria have a double membrane and are often called the cell's "powerhouses."
 They play a key role in cellular respiration, generating energy for cell activities.

Cilia and Flagella:

 Cilia are short, numerous projections that move in a coordinated way.

 Flagella are longer and less numerous, often used for cell movement.
 They are found in certain cells like those lining the windpipe and in sperm cells.

Cytoskeleton:

 The cytoskeleton is a framework of protein fibers.

 It gives the cell its shape and assists in cell movement.
 It consists of microtubules and microfilaments.

Inclusions:

 Inclusions are chemical substances found in the cytoplasm but not part of the cell structure.
 Examples include haemoglobin in red blood cells and melanin in skin and eye cells.

Why are cells small?

 Most human cells are between 10 and 15 micrometers in diameter.

 Nerve and muscle cells may be long but are too thin to see with the naked eye.
Cell Transportation
Cell Environment and Homeostasis:

Cells require a stable environment with a continual supply of materials and the removal of
waste products.

Homeostasis is the process by which body systems work together to maintain a constant
cellular environment, including temperature and fluid concentration.

Tissue Fluid:

The immediate environment of a cell is the tissue

fluid or extracellular fluid, which surrounds and
bathes the cell.

Even closely packed cells have a thin layer of fluid

between them, allowing for the exchange of
materials.

Substances Needed by Cells:

All cells require oxygen for respiration, which generates the energy needed for cellular
activities.

Glucose is essential for respiration as it is broken down to release energy.

Waste Removal:

Respiration also produces carbon dioxide and water as waste products, which cannot be
allowed to accumulate in the cell.

Many cells produce substances like hormones and enzymes, which are released into the
tissue fluid for use in other parts of the body.

Specific Requirements:

Different types of cells have unique requirements based on their specific roles within the
body. For instance, muscle cells need a constant supply of energy to facilitate movement
and thus require large amounts of ATP, generated from glucose and oxygen during cellular
respiration. On the other hand, neurons in the brain require ions like sodium and potassium
for the propagation of electrical signals. Similarly, based on their roles, cells also produce
different products. For instance, endocrine cells produce hormones, liver cells produce bile,
and white blood cells generate antibodies.

Maintenance of Cell Environment:

Body systems work in harmony to continually maintain the cellular environment, which is of
utmost importance for the optimal functioning of cells. This involves the respiratory system
supplying oxygen and facilitating the removal of carbon dioxide, the digestive system
providing nutrients, and the circulatory system ensuring these substances are transported
efficiently to cells and wastes are carried away. The nervous and endocrine systems regulate
these processes to ensure homeostasis. Without this constant maintenance, cells could not
effectively perform their roles, leading to possible health complications.

Importance of Homeostasis:

Homeostasis is essential for maintaining the balance and stability needed for cells, and
thereby the organism as a whole, to function effectively. It involves various biological
systems working in harmony to regulate and maintain optimal conditions, including
temperature, pH, and nutrient levels. Disruptions to homeostasis can lead to diseases or
potentially life-threatening conditions. Persistent disruptions in homeostasis can lead to
chronic illnesses like diabetes, in which glucose homeostasis is affected, or hypertension,
resulting from long-term disruption of blood pressure homeostasis. Therefore,
understanding and managing homeostasis is a significant part of maintaining overall health
and wellness.

Membrane Proteins

Cell membranes consist of lipids and proteins, with proteins making up about 55% of the
membrane's weight.

Membranes are differentially permeable, allowing some substances to pass while restricting
others.

Transfer mechanisms can be passive (no cell energy required) or active (cell energy needed).

Diffusion

Diffusion is the movement of particles

from areas of higher concentration to
areas of lower concentration.

It happens in gases and liquids as

molecules move randomly.

A concentration gradient drives

diffusion, with steeper gradients
leading to faster diffusion.

Oxygen and carbon dioxide can diffuse through the lipid bilayer, while larger molecules
require protein channels.

Alcohol, steroids, and fat-soluble substances can easily enter cells via diffusion.
Osmosis

Osmosis is a specific type of diffusion involving the movement of water across a

differentially permeable membrane.

It depends on the concentration of

solute in the water.

Small molecules like water can pass

through the membrane, but large
molecules such as sugar and proteins
cannot.

Osmotic pressure increases with

higher solute concentration.

Carrier-Mediated Transport

Carrier proteins in the cell

membrane bind to specific molecules
and facilitate their transport across
the membrane.

Characteristics include specificity,

saturation (limited carriers), and
regulation by substances like
hormones.

Two types: Facilitated diffusion (passive) and Active transport (requires energy).

Vesicular Transport

Vesicular transport involves moving substances

across the cell membrane in vesicles.

It's an active process requiring cell energy.

Endocytosis includes pinocytosis (taking in

liquids) and phagocytosis (taking in solid
particles).
Tissues

Epithelial Tissue:

 Function: It acts as a covering or lining tissue in the body.

 Location: It covers the outer layer of the skin and lines various organs like the heart,
kidneys, intestines, liver, and lungs.
 Cellular Characteristics: Epithelial cells are closely joined together, forming a smooth
surface.
 Shapes: They can vary from thin and flat to column-shaped and cube-shaped,
depending on the specific tissue.

Connective Tissue:

 Function: It provides support for the body and holds body parts together.
 Location: Found in bones, cartilage, tendons, ligaments, fat storage tissue, and
blood.
 Cellular Characteristics: Connective tissue cells are separated by a non-cellular
material called the matrix.
 Matrix: The matrix in blood is the liquid in which blood cells are suspended.

Muscular Tissue:

 Function: It allows for movement by contracting and becoming shorter in response

to stimuli.
 Types: There are three main types of muscular tissue.
o Skeletal Muscle (Striated Muscle):
 Location: Attached to bones, such as in the arms and legs.
 Voluntary Control: We have conscious control over these muscles.
 Appearance: Striated appearance under a microscope.
o Involuntary Muscle (Smooth Muscle):
  Location: Found in the walls of the stomach, intestines, blood vessels,
iris of the eye, uterus, and other organs.
 Voluntary Control: We cannot voluntarily contract these muscles.
 Appearance: No striations.
o Cardiac Muscle (Heart Muscle):
 Location: Makes up most of the heart.
 Voluntary Control: Cannot be voluntarily controlled.
 Function: Responsible for pumping blood.

Nervous Tissue:

 Made up of specialized nerve cells called neurons.

 Neurons have long projections that allow the transmission of messages.
 Location: Found in the brain, spinal cord, and nerves.
 Function: Carries messages and enables communication within the nervous system.

Cells at Work
Metabolism:

 Metabolism encompasses all chemical reactions that occur within cells and
organisms.
 It consists of two main types of chemical reactions: catabolism and anabolism.
 Catabolism involves breaking down large molecules into smaller ones, releasing
energy.
 Anabolism involves building small molecules into larger ones and requires energy.
 Metabolism aims to maintain a balance between energy release and utilization.

Organic Compounds:

 Organic compounds are large molecules that always contain carbon.

 Examples of organic compounds include carbohydrates, amino acids, proteins, lipids,
and nucleic acids.
 Inorganic substances, such as water, oxygen, carbon dioxide, and minerals, lack
carbon or have small molecules.

Enzymes and Metabolism:

 Enzymes are proteins that enable chemical reactions to occur at normal body
temperature.
 Enzymes lower the activation energy required to initiate reactions, making them
faster.
 Enzymes are specific, each combining with a particular substrate in a lock-and-key
model.
 The part of the enzyme that binds to the substrate is called the active site.
 When combined, the enzyme and substrate form an enzyme-substrate complex.
Factors Affecting Enzyme Activity:

 Enzyme concentration directly affects reaction rate; more enzymes mean faster
reactions.
 Increasing substrate concentration also increases reaction rate until saturation.
 Products of the reaction must be removed to maintain efficient substrate-enzyme
interactions.
 Temperature affects enzyme activity with an optimum range (around 30-40°C for
most human enzymes).
 pH levels can significantly impact enzyme effectiveness.
 Many enzymes require co-factors, including co-enzymes, to function.
 Enzyme inhibitors are substances that slow or stop enzyme activity and are used for
control in cells.

Cellular Respiration:

 Cellular respiration is a crucial metabolic process where organic molecules are

broken down to release energy for cell activities.
 It occurs in every cell in the body to provide energy.
 The primary energy source for cellular respiration is glucose.
 Cellular respiration is a series of more than 20 separate reactions, each catalyzed by
a different enzyme.
 Energy release is controlled throughout this process to avoid sudden energy release.

Energy from Cellular Respiration:

 Glucose breakdown results in 60% heat release, maintaining body temperature.

 Remaining energy used to form Adenosine Triphosphate (ATP).
 ATP formed by adding inorganic phosphate to Adenosine Diphosphate (ADP).
 High-energy bonds between phosphate groups store energy.
 ATP acts as an energy transfer molecule in cell processes.

Anaerobic Respiration:

 Glycolysis breaks down glucose into pyruvic acid without oxygen.

 Pyruvic acid converted to lactic acid in anaerobic conditions.
 Anaerobic respiration produces ATP in the absence of oxygen.
 Important during vigorous activity when oxygen supply is insufficient.
 Lactic acid may accumulate, causing muscle pain.
 Lactic acid transported to the liver, converted back to glucose.

3. Aerobic Respiration:

 Complete glucose breakdown requires oxygen (aerobic respiration).

 Mitochondria are the sites of aerobic respiration in cells.
 Citric Acid Cycle and Electron Transport System occur in mitochondria.
 Potential ATP yield: 38 molecules from one glucose molecule.
  Mitochondria often referred to as the powerhouse of the cell.

4. Energy Use by the Cell:

 Cells utilize ATP for various processes.

 Only 40% of energy from respiration is incorporated into ATP.
 60% of energy is lost as heat.
 ATP used in anabolic reactions to build large molecules.
 Catabolic reactions release energy; anabolic reactions require energy.

5. Synthesis:

 Synthesis involves combining small molecules into larger ones.

 Anabolism is a synonym for synthesis.
 Examples include glycogen synthesis from glucose and glucose synthesis from lactic
acid and oxygen.
 Synthesis requires both matter and energy.

6. Nutrients and Their Uses:

 Six groups of nutrients: water, carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, minerals, and

vitamins.
 Water is essential for metabolism, participating in chemical reactions.
 Carbohydrates are the main energy source, broken down to glucose.
 Lipids serve as an important energy source, broken down to fatty acids and glycerol.
 Proteins broken down into amino acids, used for energy or building new proteins.
 Minerals and vitamins are crucial for metabolism, serving as enzyme components or
co-enzymes.

Circulatory System
Cardiac cycle: The sequence of events that occurs in one complete beat of the heart.

Structure of the Heart:

 Superior and Inferior Vena Cava: Veins

returning deoxygenated blood from
different parts of the body to the right
atrium.
 Right Atrium and Right Ventricle:
Chambers involved in receiving and
pumping deoxygenated blood to the lungs.
 Tricuspid and Bicuspid (Mitral) Valves:
Prevent backflow of blood between atria
and ventricles during contraction.
 Chordae Tendineae and Papillary Muscles: Prevent valve inversion and assist in
valve closure during ventricular contraction.
  Pulmonary Artery and Aorta: Arteries carrying deoxygenated and oxygenated blood,
respectively, to various body parts.
 Pulmonary Veins and Left Atrium: Receives oxygenated blood returning from the
lungs before passing it to the left ventricle.

Phases of the Cardiac Cycle:

 Systole and Diastole: Contraction (pumping phase) and relaxation (filling phase) of
heart muscles, respectively.
 Atrial and Ventricular Contractions: Atrial systole pushes remaining blood into
ventricles; ventricular systole forces blood into arteries.
 Simultaneous Contractions: Both atria and both ventricles contract together during
the cardiac cycle.

Parameters Affecting Cardiac Function:

 Heart Rate (HR): Number of heartbeats per minute (bpm).

 Stroke Volume (SV): Volume of blood pumped out by a ventricle with each
contraction (mL).
 Cardiac Output (CO): Amount of blood pumped out by a ventricle per minute
(mL/min).
 CO Formula: CO = SV x HR.

Functions of Blood:

 Transportation: Carries oxygen, nutrients, carbon dioxide, hormones, and waste

products.
 Maintaining Homeostasis: Regulates pH, temperature, and water content.
 Defense Mechanisms: Immune responses, clotting, and protection against
pathogens.
 Nutrient and Waste Transport: Conveys essential nutrients and removes metabolic
wastes.

Blood Composition:

 Plasma: Liquid part (55% of blood volume) containing water, proteins, and
electrolytes.
 Formed Elements: Cells and cell fragments constituting the remaining 45% of blood.
o Erythrocytes (Red Blood Cells): Carry oxygen via hemoglobin.
o Leukocytes (White Blood Cells): Part of the immune system, including
different types such as neutrophils, lymphocytes, monocytes, eosinophils,
and basophils.
o Platelets (Thrombocytes): Essential for blood clotting.

Oxygen and Carbon Dioxide Transport:

  Oxygen: Transported in blood as oxyhemoglobin; releases in tissues due to lower
oxygen concentrations.
 Carbon Dioxide: Carried as dissolved gas, bound to hemoglobin, and transported as
bicarbonate ions.

Blood Flow through Vessels:

 Arteries: Carry blood away from the heart, possess muscular and elastic walls, aid in
maintaining blood pressure.
 Capillaries: Microscopic vessels facilitating nutrient and waste exchange between
blood and tissues.
 Veins: Transport blood back to the heart, equipped with valves to prevent backflow.

Blood Clotting (Coagulation):

 Platelet Adherence and Plug Formation: Initiated by platelets adhering to damaged

blood vessel surfaces.
 Fibrin Formation: Series of chemical reactions leading to the creation of fibrin
threads, reinforcing the clot.
 Clot Retraction and Scab Formation: Contraction of fibrin threads pulls wound edges
together, forming a scab.

Blood Types and Compatibility:

 Antigens and Antibodies: Antigens present on blood cells determine blood type;
antibodies are immune proteins.
 Blood Group Compatibility: Certain blood types are compatible for transfusions
based on antigen-antibody reactions.

Rh Factor:

 RhD Antigen: Presence or absence determines Rh-positive (+) or Rh-negative (-)

blood type.
 Compatibility Considerations: Rh factor matching crucial for transfusions to prevent
adverse reactions.

Blood Vessel Function and Blood Flow:

 Arterial Function: Elasticity, vasoconstriction, and vasodilation affecting blood

pressure and flow.
 Venous Return: Movement of blood back to the heart facilitated by skeletal muscle
contractions and one-way valves.
 Capillary Exchange: Allows substances to pass rapidly between blood and
surrounding cells due to their single-cell layered walls.

Blood Functions in Nutrient and Waste Transport:

  Nutrient Transport: Carries organic and inorganic nutrients obtained from food
throughout the body.
 Waste Transport: Removes metabolic wastes, including urea, creatinine, and uric
acid, from cells.

Respiratory System
Anatomy of the Lungs:

 Pleura: Membrane covering the

lungs and lining the chest cavity.
Contains pleural fluid that helps
the lungs expand and contract
during breathing.
 Bronchi and Bronchioles:
Branching tubes within the lungs
leading to tiny air sacs called
alveoli.
 Alveoli: Site of gas exchange in
the lungs, surrounded by
capillaries for efficient oxygen
and carbon dioxide exchange.

Features Favouring Gas Exchange:

 Alveolar Surface Area: Enormous

internal surface area provided by
alveoli, crucial for gas exchange.
 Rich Blood Supply: Capillary
network around alveoli facilitates
efficient exchange between air
and blood.
 Thin Alveolar Membrane: Extremely thin membrane aids quick diffusion of gases
between air and blood.
 Moisture on Alveolar Surface: Essential for gas diffusion; gases must dissolve in fluid
to diffuse into/out of the blood.
 Adjustable Lung Volume: Respiratory muscles enable changes in lung volume, aiding
airflow.

Mechanics of Breathing:

 Ventilation (Breathing): Movement of air into and out of the lungs.

 Inspiration (Inhalation): Diaphragm and intercostal muscles contract, increasing lung
volume and reducing air pressure for air intake.
 Expiration (Exhalation): Relaxation of muscles decreases lung volume, increasing air
pressure for air expulsion.
 Passive vs. Forceful Expiration: Quiet breathing involves passive relaxation; forceful
breathing engages intercostal muscles.
Gas Exchange Process:

 Oxygen Exchange: Oxygen diffuses from alveolar air into blood due to a
concentration gradient.
 Carbon Dioxide Exchange: Carbon dioxide diffuses from blood into alveolar air.
 Concentration Gradient Maintenance: Sustained by blood flow in capillaries and
continual air movement during breathing.

Effects of Lifestyle and Environment:

 Emphysema: Caused by long-term exposure to irritants, damaging alveoli, reducing

elasticity, and affecting gas exchange.
 Lung Cancer: Linked to smoking, asbestos exposure, and pollutants, leading to
uncontrolled cell growth in lung tissues.
 Lung Infections: Pneumonia and tuberculosis reduce air capacity in alveoli due to
inflammation and fluid accumulation.
 Asthma: Allergic response causing air passage spasms, mucus secretion, and
decreased airflow, impacting gas exchange.

Digestive System
Alimentary Canal and Digestive Process:

 Alimentary Canal: A
continuous tube from
mouth to anus comprising
organs for digestion and
absorption.
 Digestion: Process breaking
down complex molecules
(carbohydrates, proteins,
fats) into smaller units for
absorption.
 Six Basic Digestive
Activities:
1. Ingestion: Intake of
food and water.
2. Mechanical Digestion: Physical breakdown of food through chewing and
muscle contractions.
3. Chemical Digestion: Enzymatic breakdown of food into smaller molecules.
4. Movement of Food: Peristalsis moves food along the alimentary canal.
5. Absorption: Uptake of digested food and water into the bloodstream.
6. Elimination: Expulsion of undigested materials as waste.

Mouth and Mechanical Digestion:

  Teeth Function: Four types of teeth: incisors, canines, premolars, molars, aiding in
biting, cutting, tearing, and grinding food.
 Saliva: Secreted in the mouth containing salivary amylase for starch digestion.
 Tongue Action: Assists in forming food into a rounded lump and pushing it toward
the pharynx.

Oesophagus and Peristalsis:

 Oesophagus Structure: Double muscle layers facilitating peristalsis.

 Peristalsis: Wave-like muscular contractions propelling food through the oesophagus
toward the stomach.

Stomach and Chemical Digestion:

 Stomach Mechanics: Muscular contractions aid in mechanical digestion, churning

food into a soupy liquid.
 Gastric Juice: Secreted by gastric glands containing hydrochloric acid, mucus, and
enzymes for protein digestion.
 Protein Digestion: Start of protein breakdown through enzymes in gastric juice.

Small Intestine and Absorption:

 Duodenum: First part of the small intestine where food mixes with intestinal,
pancreatic, and bile juices.
 Pancreatic Juice: Contains enzymes like pancreatic amylase, trypsin, lipases for
breaking down carbohydrates, proteins, and fats.
 Bile: Aids in fat digestion by emulsifying fats for better enzymatic action.
 Villi Structure: Finger-like projections increasing surface area for absorption.
 Microvilli: Tiny projections on cell surfaces enhancing nutrient absorption.
 Nutrient Absorption: Simple sugars, amino acids, fatty acids, and water-soluble
vitamins absorbed into blood capillaries while fatty acids and fat-soluble vitamins
enter the lacteals.
 Absorption Mechanisms: Occur through simple diffusion and active transport,
requiring energy for nutrient uptake.

Large Intestine and Waste Processing:

 Large Intestine Functions: Absorption of water, further breakdown of organic

compounds by bacteria, vitamin production, and absorption of minerals.
 Mucus Secretion: Lubricates the passage of semi-solid material in the large intestine.
 Bacterial Action: Breakdown of organic compounds and production of certain
vitamins.
 Faeces Formation: Contains undigested material, water, bacteria, bile pigments, and
broken cells.
 Defecation: Process of eliminating faecal material through the anus.
Excretory System
Excretion in the Body:

 Purpose of Excretion: Elimination of

metabolic waste products and maintenance
of body fluid composition.
 Organs involved in Excretion:
o Lungs: Excrete carbon dioxide
produced during cellular respiration.
o Liver: Processes and excretes various
substances, detoxifies alcohol, drugs,
and excretes bile pigments.
o Skin: Secretes sweat, containing
water, salts, urea, and lactic acid.
o Alimentary Canal: Passes out bile
pigments and waste products like
some drugs.
o Kidneys: Principal excretory organs responsible for maintaining body fluid
concentration and excreting nitrogenous wastes like urea, uric acid, and
creatinine.

Liver's Role in Excretion:

 Proteins and Deamination: Liver processes excess protein through deamination,

converting amino acids to urea and releasing carbon and hydrogen.
 Urea Formation and Elimination: Conversion of ammonia to urea in the liver; urea is
eliminated through urine.
 Detoxification: Liver detoxifies alcohol, drugs, deactivates hormones, and breaks
down haemoglobin into bile pigments for excretion.

Skin's Excretory Function:

 Sweat Glands: Secrete about 500mL of sweat daily, containing water, sodium
chloride, lactic acid, and urea for excretion.
 Excretion via Skin: Some drugs are also excreted through the skin.

Kidneys and Urinary System:

 Kidney Structure: Composed of nephrons and

collecting ducts; nephrons are functional units of
urine formation.
 Nephron Composition: Renal corpuscle and
renal tubule; each kidney contains about 1.2
million nephrons.
 Blood Supply to Kidneys: Blood enters via renal
arteries and leaves through renal veins.
 Urine Formation Process:
 1. Glomerular Filtration: High-pressure filtration in the renal corpuscle,
producing the filtrate.
2. Reabsorption: Selective reabsorption of water, glucose, amino acids, ions
back into blood by renal tubules.
3. Tubular Secretion: Active or passive process adding materials to filtrate like
potassium, hydrogen ions, creatinine, and drugs.
 Urinary Tract: Filtrate becomes urine, drains through collecting ducts into the renal
pelvis, then to the ureters and urinary bladder for storage before elimination
through the urethra.

Relationship between Kidney Structure and Function:

 Structural Adaptations for Function:

1. Glomerular capsule for collecting fluid.
2. Afferent arteriole wider than efferent arteriole, increasing blood pressure for
filtration.
3. Nephron's convolutions and loop for a large surface area.
4. Millions of nephrons in each kidney to enhance reabsorption and secretion.

Urine Composition:

 Waste Excretion: Urea, sulfates, phosphates regularly excreted, requiring water loss.
 Concentration of Urine: Concentration varies with body fluid levels; low water
content leads to concentrated urine.
 Comparison of Filtrate and Urine Composition: Table showing components and
amounts reabsorbed during a 24-hour period, varying based on diet and individual
differences.

Skeletal System - Muscle

Muscle Properties and Structure:

 Muscle Properties: Contractibility, Extensibility, Elasticity - collectively allow muscles

to create movement.
 Muscle Bundle Structure: Muscle cells held together in bundles with connective
tissue sheaths, giving meat its appearance. Connective tissue toughens meat.
 Connective Tissue in Aging: Increased connective tissue in older animals contributes
to decreased tenderness and muscular strength.

Structure of Muscle Cells (Fibres) and Myofibrils:

 Muscle Fibre Structure: Elongated cylinders with multiple nuclei, containing

sarcoplasm and myofibrils.
 Myofibril Composition: Thread-like structures within sarcoplasm; composed of
myofilaments - thick (myosin) and thin (actin).
 Sarcomere Composition: Myofibrils divided into sarcomeres; actin and myosin
arrangement creates banded appearance in muscle fibres.
Sliding Filament Model of Muscle Contraction:

 Muscle Contraction Model:

Actin and myosin filaments
sliding over one another cause
sarcomeres to shorten, leading
to muscle contraction.
 Energy for Contraction: ATP
breakdown provides energy for
muscle fibre shortening; ATP is
essential for muscle contraction
and reformation.

Coordination and Working of Skeletal Muscles:

 Muscle Attachment: Muscles attached to bones via tendons, bridging joints for bone
movement.
 Muscle Function: Muscles only contract, pulling bones together; muscle pairs
(agonists and antagonists) work in opposition for movement.
 Antagonistic Muscle Pairs: Coordinate movement in opposite directions; e.g., biceps
and triceps in the upper arm.
 Synergist and Fixator Muscles: Synergists aid prime movers, while fixators stabilize
joints during movement.

Muscle Tone and its Significance:

 Muscle Tone Definition: Partial contraction of skeletal muscles maintaining muscle

tension without causing movement.
 Role of Muscle Tone: Holds body parts in position, like neck muscles maintaining
head posture; loss of tone leads to relaxed positions.

Skeletal System - Skeleton/Bones

Functions of the Skeleton:

1. Support and Shape: Provides framework and structure for the body.
2. Muscle Attachment and Movement: Serves as attachment points for muscles, enabling
movement.
3. Articulation and Movement: Allows bones to articulate, determining the extent of body
movement.
4. Protection of Vital Organs: Safeguards vital organs like the brain, spinal cord, heart, lungs,
etc.
5. Mineral and Fat Storage: Stores minerals (calcium, phosphorus, sodium, potassium) and fat.
6. Blood Cell Production: Red marrow within bones produces blood cells (erythrocytes,
leukocytes, platelets).
Structure of Bone:

 Long Bone Structure: Consists of diaphysis (shaft) and epiphyses (enlarged ends), covered
with periosteum.
 Microscopic Structure: Compact bone forms osteons; central canal with lamellae, lacunae,
and canaliculi.
 Spongy Bone Structure: Porous, contains red or yellow marrow, with trabeculae and spaces
filled with marrow.

Cartilage:

 Connective Tissue Similarities with Bone: Contains collagen and protein fibers (chondrin).
 Microscopic Structure: Matrix with chondroblasts producing cartilage, later trapped as
chondrocytes.
 Types of Cartilage:
o Hyaline: Strength with flexibility; found in trachea, bronchi, and at bone ends.
o Elastic: Rich in elastic fibers; provides flexible support in places like the external ear.
o Fibrocartilage: Coarse appearance, ideal for cushioning; found between vertebrae
and in joints.

Types of Joints:

 Fibrous Joints: No movement; held by fibrous connective tissue (e.g., sutures in the skull).
 Cartilaginous Joints: Slight movement; held by cartilage (e.g., pubic symphysis, vertebrae
joints).
 Synovial Joints: Freely movable; have a synovial cavity with articular cartilage (e.g., shoulder,
knee).

Structure of Synovial Joints:

 Synovial Cavity: Space filled with synovial fluid for lubrication and nourishment.
 Articular Capsule: Surrounds the joint, comprising fibrous and synovial membranes.
 Articular Cartilage: Covers bone surfaces within the joint, preventing bone-to-bone contact.
 Accessory Structures: Bursae, ligaments, and tendons support and protect the joint.

Movements at Joints:

 Flexion and Extension: Decrease and increase angle between bones.

 Abduction and Adduction: Movement away from and towards the body midline.
 Rotation: Bone movement around its long axis.
 Specific Joint Movements: Differentiated based on joint type and bone articulation.

Effects of Ageing on the Skeletal System:

 Bone Mass and Density Reduction: Bones lose calcium and minerals after the age of 30.
 Osteoporosis: Severe bone mass reduction leading to increased fracture risk.
 Osteoarthritis: Degeneration of joint cartilage, causing joint pain and stiffness.
 Preventive Measures: Adequate calcium intake, vitamin D, exercise, and lifestyle changes to
mitigate bone loss.