BIOLOG

Ms. Catherine H. Celemin

 FIRST QUARTER

 Cell Theory
 Cell Structure

and Functions
 Prokaryotic vs

Eukaryotic Cells
 Cell Types

 Cell

Modifications
CELL THEORY
In addition to the cell
theory, the gene theory,
evolution, homeostasis and
the laws of thermodynamics
from the basic principles
that are the foundations for
the study of life.
The generally accepted parts
of modern version of cell
theory include:
1. All known living things are
made up of one or more cells.
2. All living cells arise from pre
existing cells by division.
3. The cell is the fundamental unit
of structure and function in all
living organisms.
 The generally accepted parts
of modern version of cell
theory include:
4. The activity of an organism depends
on the total activity of independent
cells.
5. Energy flow(metabolism and
biochemistry) occurs within cells.
6. Cells contain DNA which is found
specifically in the chromosome and the
RNA found in the cell nucleus and
cytoplasm.
The generally accepted parts
of modern version of cell
theory include:
7. All cells are basically the same in
chemical composition in organisms of
similar species.
8. Heredity information (DNA) is
passed on from cell to cell.
9. All cells have the same basic
chemical composition.
10. All living organisms are composed
of and depend on cells to function
normally
Cell Structure and
Functions
Cell Structure and
Functions
2. Cell Wall
helps in protecting the plasma
membrane. Support and protect the
cells.
Cell Structure and
Functions
3. Cytoplasm
a membrane which protects the cell
by keeping the cell organelles separate
from each other.
 MEMBRANE
BOUND
ORGANELLES
Cell Structure and
Functions
Cell Structure and
Functions
Cell Structure and
Functions
Cell Structure and
Functions
Cell Structure and
Functions
Cell Structure and
Functions
Cell Structure and
Functions
Cell Structure and
Functions
Cell Structure and
Functions
Cell Structure and
Functions
Cell Structure and
Functions
Chromosomes
made up of DNA and stored in
nucleus which contains the instructions for
traits and characteristics.
 NON-
MEMBRANE
BOUND
ORGANELLES
Cell Structure and
Functions
Cell Structure and
Functions
Gradients Across Membrane

 Concentration
gradient

 Electrical gradient
 TRANSPORT ACROSS THE
PLASMA MEMBRANE
 Three types of passive processes

 1
 2
 3

 Active transport requires cellular

 Materials can also enter or leave

the cell through vesicle
transport.
Diffusion

 Crystal of dye placed in

a cylinder of water
 Net diffusion from the
higher dye
concentration to the
region of lower dye
 Equilibrium has been
reached in the far right
cylinder
 Diffusion Through the Lipid
Bilayer
 Nonpolar, hydrophobic
molecules such as
respiratory gases,
some lipids, small
alcohols, and ammonia
can diffuse across the
lipid bilayer.
 It is important for gas
exchange, absorption
of some nutrients, and
excretion of some
wastes.
 Diffusion Through Membrane
Channels
 Most membrane channels are ion
channels, allowing passage of small,
inorganic ions which are hydrophilic.
 Ion channels are selective and specific
and may be gated or open all the time
Osmosis

 Osmosis is the net

movement of a
solvent through a
selectively permeable
membrane, or in
living systems, the
movement of water
(the solute) from an
area of higher
concentration to an
area of lower
concentration across
the membrane
(Figure 3.7).
Tonicity
 In an isotonic solution, red blood
cells

 In a hypotonic solution, red blood

cells

 In a hypertonic solution, red blood

cells
Facilitated Diffusion
 In facilitated diffusion, a solute binds
to a specific transporter on one side
of the membrane and is released on
the other side after the transporter
undergoes a conformational change.

Rate of movement depends upon

 steepness of concentration gradient
 number of transporter proteins
(transport maximum)
Facilitated Diffusion of Glucose
 Glucose binds to transport
protein
 Transport protein changes
shape
 Glucose moves across cell
membrane (but only down
the concentration gradient)
 Kinase enzyme reduces
glucose concentration inside
the cell by transforming
glucose into glucose-6-
phosphate
 Transporter proteins always
bring glucose into cell
 Active Transport

 Active transport

 In primary active transport,

energy derived from ATP
changes the shape of a
transporter protein, which
pumps a substance across a
plasma membrane against
its concentration gradient.
 Primary Active Transport
 The most prevalent primary active transport
mechanism is the sodium ion/potassium ion
pump (Figure 3.10).
 requires 40% of cellular ATP
 all cells have 1000s of them
 maintains low concentration of Na+
and a high concentration of K+ in the cytosol
 operates continuously
Secondary Active Transport
 In secondary active transport, the
energy stored in the form of a
sodium or hydrogen ion
concentration gradient is used to
drive other substances against their
own concentration gradients.
 Plasma membranes contain several
antiporters and symporters
powered by the sodium ion gradient
(Figure 3.11a).
One in & one out. vs. Both
going in
 Digitalis

 Digitalis slows the sodium ion-calcium ion

antiporters, allowing more calcium to stay
inside heart muscle cells, which increases the
force of their contraction and thus strengthens
the heartbeat.
Transport in Vesicles
 A vesicle is a small membranous sac
formed by budding off from an
existing membrane.
 endocytosis
 exocytosis
Overview: Vesicular Transport of
Particles

 Endocytosis = bringing something into cell

 phagocytosis = cell eating by macrophages &
WBCs
 particlebinds to receptor protein
 whole bacteria or viruses are engulfed & later
digested
 pinocytosis = cell drinking
 no receptor proteins
 Exocytosis = release something from cell
 Vesiclesform inside cell, fuse to cell membrane
 Release their contents
Endocytosis
 In endocytosis,
materials move
into a cell in a
vesicle formed
from the plasma
membrane.
 Receptor-
mediated
endocytosis is the
selective uptake
of large molecules
and particles by
cells (Figure
3.12).
Exocytosis
 In exocytosis, membrane-enclosed
structures called secretory vesicles
that form inside the cell fuse with
the plasma membrane and release
their contents into the extracellular
fluid.
 CYTOPLASM

 Cytosol is
composed mostly
of water, plus
proteins,
carbohydrates,
lipids, and
inorganic
substances.
 Cytosol is the
medium in which
many metabolic
Organelles
 Organelles are specialized
structures that have characteristic
shapes and perform specific
functions in cellular growth,
maintenance, and reproduction.
Cytoskeleton

 Network of protein
filaments
throughout the
cytosol
Microfilaments

(Figure 3.15a)
Intermediate Filaments

(Figure 3.15b)
Microtubules
Centrosomes
Cilia and Flagella
 Cilia

 Flagella
 Cilia and Flagella

 Structure
 pairs of microtubules
(9+2 array)

 Differences
 cilia
 short and multiple
 flagella
 longer and single
 Ribosomes

 Composed of Ribosomal RNA & protein

 Free ribosomes
 synthesize proteins found inside the cell
 Membrane-bound ribosomes

 synthesize proteins needed for plasma

membrane or for export
Ribosomal
Subunits

 Large + small
subunits
 made in the

nucleolus
 assembled in

the cytoplasm
Endoplasmic
Reticulum
Endoplasmic Reticulum
 Rough ER

 Smooth ER

 The ER transports substances, stores

newly synthesized molecules,
synthesizes and packages molecules,
detoxifies chemicals, and releases
calcium ions involved in muscle
contraction.
Golgi Complex
Golgi Complex
 The principal function of the Golgi
complex is to process, sort, and deliver
proteins and lipids to the plasma
membrane, lysosomes, and secretory
vesicles
 Lysosomes

 membrane-enclosed
vesicles that
contain powerful
digestive enzymes

 Functions
 digest foreign
substances
Peroxisomes
 Peroxisomes are similar in structure
to lysosomes, but are smaller.
 They contain enzymes (e.g.,
catalase) that use molecular oxygen
to oxidize various organic
substances.
Mitochondria

 The mitochondrion is
bound by a double
membrane.
 The outer membrane is
smooth with the inner
membrane arranged in
folds called cristae
 surface area for chemical
reactions of cellular
respiration
 central cavity known as
Mitochondria
 Mitochondria are the site of ATP
production in the cell.

 Mitochondria self-replicate using their

own DNA.
 increases with need for ATP
 circular DNA with 37 genes

 Mitochondrial DNA (genes) are usually

inherited only from the mother.
NUCLEUS
 The nucleus is usually the most
prominent feature of a cell
NUCLEUS
 Most body cells have a single nucleus.

 The parts of the nucleus include the

nuclear envelope which is perforated
by channels called nuclear pores,
nucleoli, and genetic material (DNA),
 Within the nucleus are the cell’s
hereditary units, called genes, which
are arranged in single file along
chromosomes.
Function of the Nucleus

 46 human DNA molecules or

chromosomes
 genes found on chromosomes
 gene is directions for a specific protein
 Non-dividing cells contain nuclear
chromatin
 loosely packed DNA
 Dividing cells contain chromosomes
 tightly packed DNA
 it doubled (copied itself) before condensing
 Chromosomes

 Each chromosome
is a long molecule
of DNA that is
coiled together
with several
proteins
PROTEIN SYNTHESIS
 The instructions for protein
synthesis is found in the DNA in the
nucleus.
 Protein synthesis involves
transcription and translation (Figure
3.26).
 Transcription

 DNA sense strand is template for

the creation of messenger RNA
strand
 Transcription begins at promoter
sequence where RNA polymerase
attaches
 When RNA polymerase reaches
the terminator sequence it
detaches and transcription stops
 Pre-mRNA contains intron region
that are cut out by enzymes
 Exon regions of mRNA will code
for segments of the protein
 Translation

 sequence of nucleotides on mRNA is “read” by

rRNA to construct a protein (with its specific
sequence of amino acid)
3 nucleotide sequences on mRNA are called codons
 specific tRNA molecule carry specific amino
acids
 anticodons on tRNA are matched to specific
codons on mRNA so proper amino acids can be
strung together to create a protein molecule
sequence
of
translation

 Messenger
RNA
associates
with
ribosomes,
which consist
of tRNA and
proteins.
sequence
of
translation
Specific amino
acids attach to
molecules of
tRNA. Another
portion of the
tRNA has a
triplet of
nitrogenous
bases called an
anticodon, a
codon is a
segment of
three bases of
mRNA.
 sequence
of
translation
 Transfer RNA
delivers a
specific amino
acid to the
codon; the
ribosome
moves along an
mRNA strand
as amino acids
are joined to
form a growing
polypeptide.
CELL DIVISION
 Cell division is the process by which
cells reproduce themselves. It
consists of nuclear division (mitosis
and meiosis) and cytoplasmic
division (cytokinesis).
 The Cell Cycle in Somatic
Cells
 The cell cycle is
an orderly
sequence of
events by which
a cell duplicates
its contents and
divides in two.
 It consists of
interphase and
the mitotic phase
Chromosome number
 Human somatic cells contain 46
chromosomes or 23 pairs of
chromosomes
 The two chromosomes that make up a
chromosome pair are called
homologous chromosomes or homologs.
 A cell with a full set of chromosomes is
called a diploid cell (2N).
 A cell with only one chromosome from
each pair is termed haploid (N).
 Interphase Stage of Cell
Cycle
 During interphase the cell carries on
every life process except division.
(Figure 3.30).
 Doubling of DNA
 Phases of interphase stage -- G1, S,
and G2
 G1 = cytoplasmic increase
 S = replication of chromosomes
 G2 = cytoplasmic growth
 Replication of
Chromosomes
 Doubling of genetic
material during
interphase. (S phase)
 DNA molecules unzip
 Mirror copy is formed
along
each old strand.
 Nitrogenous bases pick
up complementary base
 2 complete identical
DNA molecules formed
Interphase
 A cell in interphase shows a distinct
nucleus and the absence of
chromosomes
Mitotic Phase The mitotic phase consists
of mitosis (or nuclear division) and
cytokinesis (or cytoplasmic division).

 Mitosis is the
distribution of two sets
of chromosomes, one
set into each of two
separate nuclei.
 Stages of mitosis are
 Prophase
 Metaphase
 Anaphase
 Telophase
 Prophase

 Chromatin condenses into visible

chromosomes
 pair of identical chromatids held together by a
centromere
 Nucleolus & nuclear envelope disappear
 Each centrosome moves to opposite ends of
cell
 forms a mitotic spindle
 spindle is responsible for the separation of
chromatids to each new daughter cell
Metaphase
 During metaphase, the centromeres
line up at the exact center of the
mitotic spindle
Anaphase
 Anaphase is characterized by the
splitting and separation of
centromeres and the movement of
the two sister chromatids of each
pair toward opposite poles of the
cell
Anaphase
 Sister chromatids move toward opposite
poles of cell
 now called daughter chromosomes
 movement is due to shortening of
microtubules
 Chromosomes appear V-shaped as they
are dragged towards the poles of the cell
 pull is at centromere region
 Telophase
 Telophase begins as
soon as chromatid
movement stops; the
identical sets of
chromosomes at
opposite poles of the cell
uncoil and revert to their
threadlike chromatin
form, microtubules
disappear or change
form, a new nuclear
envelope forms, new
nucleoli appear, and the
new mitotic spindle
eventually breaks up
 Cytoplasmic Division:
Cytokinesis
 Cytokinesis is the
division of a
parent cell’s
cytoplasm and
organelles. The
process begins in
late anaphase or
early telophase
with the formation
of a cleavage
Cytoplasmic Division:
Cytokinesis
 When cytokinesis is complete,
interphase begins again
Cell Death

 Cell death, a process called

apoptosis, is triggered either from
outside the cell or from inside the
cell due to a “cell-suicide” gene.
 Necrosis is a pathological cell death
due to injury.
 Reproductive Cell Division

 Meiosis results
in the
production of
haploid cells
that contain
only 23
chromosomes.
 Meiosis occurs
in two
successive
stages: meiosis
I and meiosis II.
Meiosis I
 Meiosis I
consists of
four phases:
prophase I,
metaphase I,
anaphase I,
and telophase
I.
 Prophase I
 During prophase I, the chromosomes become
arranged in homologous pairs through a
process called synapsis (Figure 3.33b). The
resulting four chromatids form a structure
called a tetrad. The tetrads may exchange
genetic material between non-sister
chromatids through a process known as
crossing over.
Metaphase I
 During metaphase I, the
homologous pairs of chromosomes
line up along the metaphase plate
of the cell, with the homologous
chromosomes side by side
 Anaphase I

 During anaphase I, the members of each

homologous pair separate, with one member
of each pair moving to an opposite pole of the
cell.
 The net effect of meiosis I is that each
resulting cell contains only one member of
each pair of homologous chromosomes. It is
 Meiosis II

 Meiosis II consists of
prophase II,
metaphase II,
anaphase II, and
telophase II.
 These phases are
similar to those in
mitosis, but result in
four haploid cells.