processes

Article
Process Improvements for Direct Reduced Iron Melting in the
Electric Arc Furnace with Emphasis on Slag Operation
Marcus Kirschen 1, *, Thomas Hay 2 and Thomas Echterhof 2

1 Thermal Process Engineering, University of Bayreuth, Universitätsstrasse 30, D-94557 Bayreuth, Germany
2 Department for Industrial Furnaces and Heat Engineering, RWTH Aachen University,
D-52074 Aachen, Germany; hay@iob.rwth-aachen.de (T.H.); echterhof@iob.rwth-aachen.de (T.E.)
* Correspondence: marcus.kirschen@uni-bayreuth.de

Abstract: Steelmaking based on direct reduced iron (DRI, and its compacted derivative hot briquetted
iron, HBI) is an anticipated important global alternative to current steel production based on FeOx
reduction in blast furnaces due to its lower specific CO2 emission. The majority of DRI is melted and
refined in the electric arc furnace with different process conditions compared to the melting of steel
scrap due to its raw material composition being rather different. We provide data and analysis of
slag composition of DRI charges vs. steel scrap charges for 16 industrial electric arc furnaces (EAFs).
Suggestions for optimized slag operation and resulting process improvements of DRI melting in the
EAF are given. A dynamic mass and energy model of the DRI melting in the EAF is introduced to
illustrate the implications of the adapted slag operation on the EAF process with DRI charges.

Keywords: electric arc furnace; direct reduced iron; process model; process improvement






1. Introduction
Citation: Kirschen, M.; Hay, T.;
The global steel industry is subject to significant changes in order to decrease its CO2
Echterhof, T. Process Improvements
emission representing the most important contribution within the production industry
for Direct Reduced Iron Melting in
sector to global CO2 emission, approximately 7%. Current steel productions routes are
the Electric Arc Furnace with
mainly (1) ore reduction in the blast furnace and steel refining in the basic oxygen converter
Emphasis on Slag Operation.
(BF-BOF) and (2) melting of steel scrap in the electric arc furnace (EAF) with CO2 emissions
Processes 2021, 9, 402.
in the range 1.6–2.2 tCO2 /tLS (BF-BOF) and 0.25–1.1 tCO2 /tLS (EAF), respectively [1–3]. An
https://doi.org/10.3390/pr9020402
established alternative to coal and coke-based reduction of iron ores in blast furnaces is
Received: 26 January 2021
the ore reduction by coal or reformed natural gas (CO, H2 ) to direct reduced iron (DRI)
Accepted: 18 February 2021 or hot briquetted iron (HBI) in shaft furnaces [4–6], rotary kilns [7–10] or rotary hearth
Published: 23 February 2021 furnaces [11]. The reduction of solid pellets is mainly realized at temperatures below
melting, 900–1100 ◦ C. With increased energy input and adapted reactor design, however,
Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral tapping of liquid iron is also possible [12,13]. Specific CO2 emission figures are in the range
with regard to jurisdictional claims in 0.5–0.7 tCO2 /tDRI [14,15] due to the lower reactor temperature and natural gas-derived
published maps and institutional affil- process gas as an energy source and ore reducing agent.
iations. Global DRI/HBI production surpassed 108 million tons in 2019 [16], with a significant
potential to replace coal-based iron making in blast furnaces globally. Iron ore reduction
by hydrogen only has already been realized by applying reformed natural gas with shift
reactor and CO2 removal unit [5,17] but closed due to technical and commercial reasons.
Copyright: © 2021 by the authors.
New concepts for carbon-free DRI production are available [18]. Generally, the total FeO
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. content of ore grades for DRI production, FeOtot > 65%, is higher than typical ore grades
This article is an open access article applied to the BF, FeOtot < 65%. Today, the majority of DRI/HBI is melted with a varying
distributed under the terms and share of steel scrap in EAFs with specific CO2 emission figures in the range of 0.9 to
conditions of the Creative Commons 1.8 tCO2 /tLS (including local CO2 intensity of electrical energy for EAF) [19,20].
Attribution (CC BY) license (https://
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/
4.0/).

Processes 2021, 9, 402. https://doi.org/10.3390/pr9020402 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/processes

Processes 2021, 9, 402 2 of 10

2. Process Characteristics of DRI/HBI Melting and Refining in the EAF

The EAF production characteristics with high shares of DRI/HBI are, however, rather
different from conventional melting of steel scrap due to the remaining 4–7 wt % gangue
oxides and 1.5–4.3 wt % carbon (Table 1). If high amounts of DRI are charged continuously
to the EAF, different power programs and adapted additions of lime, dolomitic lime or
doloma are required.

Table 1. Typical direct reduced iron (DRI) compositions (in wt %).

Prod. Site C Femet MgO CaO SiO2 Al2 O3 Metallization 1

A 2.0 88.4 2.0 0.7 3.7 0.5 81.5
B 1.8 91.4 0.3 0.4 2.4 0.9 95.1
C 1.7 80.5 1.5 n.a. 3.1 0.2 91.4
D [21] 2.5 88.9 0.3 1.0 1.5 0.4 94.4
E [17] 4.3 87.3 2 3.8 96.0
F [17] 4.0 83.0 2 6.2 94.0
1: xFe /(xFe + xFeO ); 2 : DRI with high share of Fe3 C; n.a.: not available.

DRI and HBI are charged with steel scrap in varying amounts to the EAF, depending
on local costs and availability. HBI is usually charged with the steel scrap by buckets
to the EAF, requiring only minor adaptions to the EAF process at HBI shares up to 10%.
Sidewall natural gas burners are of low importance for DRI melting as the maximum
efficient energy transfer of gas burners is related to a solid scrap in the EAF. DRI is charged
in cold or hot conditions to the EAF continuously via the 5th hole in the EAF roof, with
charge weight portions from 50% to >95%. Depending on the particular EAF shell design,
the remaining melt volume (hot heel) increases up to 30% of the total melt volume in order
to facilitate the melting of the charged DRI (modern EAF shell designs exist even with
a higher share of the hot heel). In these cases, the power programs must be adapted to
continuous charging of material, long flat bath conditions, and increased input of lime and
dololime for slag forming. The usual specific consumption figures of lime and dololime for
scrap charged EAFs, 30–45 kg/tLS , result in a specific amount of slag in the range of 70–100
kg/tLS , according to the CaO mass balance (Equation (1) with mDRI = 0). The total mass of
slag per heat, mslag , is determined by the CaO input with the slag formers (lime, dololime)
and DRI neglecting a small loss of CaO to the off-gas system with EAF dust (Equation (1)):

xCaO,Lime · mLime + xCaO,Dololime · mDololime + xCaO, DRI · mDRI = xCaO,Slag · mSlag , mi in kg or kg/tLS , xi in wt % (1)

With increased lime and dololime input for DRI heats in order to operate at standard
slag basicity (xCaO /xSiO2 ) in the range from 1.8–2.1 for minimum corrosion of the refractory
lining, the specific amount and volume of the process slag are significantly increased up to
140 kg/tLS (Equation (1)). The increased input of burned slag formers increases the electric
energy demand accordingly by approx. 0.37–0.50 kWh/kg [22].
Continuous charging of raw materials provides EAF operation at flat bath conditions
of a steel melt volume at a smoothly increasing level which benefits arc stability and control
and decreased noise at the work floor. The absence of a scrap pile in the DRI-charged EAF,
however, results in power programs with lower arc length, i.e., lower arc voltage, and
slightly lower efficiency of energy transfer to the steel melt. Third, the metal yield of DRI
charges is often lower, mcharged metal /mtapped steel = 87–92%, due to the oxide gangue in
DRI compared with heats of 100% steel scrap with medium or high quality, 90–94%. As a
result of these DRI-specific process conditions, the specific electrical energy demand of DRI
heats is higher than for melting of steel scrap heats for carbon steel grades. The according
melting time and tap-to-tap time of DRI heats is significantly longer than for scrap heats.
EAF production characteristics of scrap heats vs. DRI heats are given in Table 2.
Processes 2021, 9, 402 3 of 10

Table 2. Range of typical production parameters of electric arc furnace (EAF) charges with scrap and
scrap/DRI, respectively, for low alloyed steel grades.

Charges Based on 100% Scrap 80–95% DRI

Share of DRI/HBI (%) 0–5 (HBI) 60–95 (DRI)
Electric energy demand (kWh/t) 340–390 530–680
Natural gas (m3 /t) 5–10 0–2
Oxygen (m3 /t) 25–37 20–35
Coal and carbon fines (kg/t) 2–9 8–17
Slag former (lime, doloma, etc.) (kg/t) 23–35 27–60
Tap temperature (◦ C) 1600–1635 1600–1635
Tap-to-tap time (min) 50–60 60–100
Metal yield (%) 90–94 87–92

3. Increased Mass and Energy Efficiency by Controlled EAF Slag Operation

3.1. Slag Analysis as Helpful Tool to Monitor, Control and Improve EAF Operation
Besides control of arc length and, occasionally, of analysis of power harmonics [23],
frequent slag sampling and analysis has been implemented as an efficient process moni-
toring tool in order to operate efficiently at foaming slag conditions with an appropriate
slag viscosity that require a certain control of slag composition at MgO saturation [24–26].
In steelmaking processes with high generation rates of CO gas, e.g., increased share of
pig iron, hot metal or DRI, the control of the slag composition is less important for slag
foaming but for controlling the corrosion of the MgO-based lining caused by strongly
MgO-undersaturated slags [21,27,28].
Examples of average slag compositions of EAF heats based on steel scrap charges and
on charges with steel scrap and > 50% DRI are given in Table 3. Figures 1 and 2 visualize
the distributions of slag composition with respect to MgO saturation [26]. The product
portfolio covered rebar and construction steel grades (14 EAFs) to special steel grades
(2 EAFs). The applied raw materials were steel scrap (EAF 1 to 8) and blends of steel scrap
with 50% to 100% DRI (EAF 9 to 16). The sizes of the EAFs ranged from 60 t to >200 t
tap weight, located in nine countries worldwide. Slag samples were taken from the EAFs
shortly before tapping and analyzed at the steel plant laboratory. Only mislabeled slag data,
e.g., those from transport ladles (i.e., FeO < 10% and CaO > 45%) or from raw materials
(e.g., lime, DRI), were excluded from the data sets.

Table 3. Average slag compositions at the tapping of EAFs charged with steel scrap only and charged with scrap and >50%
DRI (slag compositions in wt %).

Scrap # CaO SiO2 FeO MgO Al2 O3 MnO Cr2 O3 Total 1 σ FeO Basicity
EAF 1 1 422 26.1 16.7 29.5 10.5 8.4 5.6 1.6 99.6 4.1 1.6 4 1.5 5
EAF 2 1 359 31.1 11.6 28.1 10.6 5.4 5.0 1.1 94.4 4.6 2.7 4 2.5 5
EAF 3 1 1216 25.6 13.5 34.5 11.3 6.0 6.4 2.5 100.7 5.3 1.9 4 1.9 5
EAF 4 1 472 25.6 12.1 29.7 9.4 14.5 4.6 2.1 97.9 4.9 2.1 4 1.3 5
EAF 5 2 149 27.3 8.8 40.2 8.3 3.5 7.0 3.2 99.4 5.2 3.1 4 2.9 5
EAF 6 1 424 28.4 12.6 36.2 3.8 8.7 9.6 n.a. 99.8 3.9 2.3 4 1.5 5
EAF 7 1 202 30.0 14.5 34.5 10.8 4.5 1.9 0.6 98.3 4.5 2.1 4 2.1 5
EAF 8 1 858 36.1 15.7 25.0 9.3 10.3 0.7 n.a. 97.5 4.0 2.3 4 1.7 5
DRI CaO SiO2 FeO MgO Al2 O3 MnO TiO2 Total 2 σ FeO Basicity
EAF 9 1 132 27.0 16.0 31.1 14.9 6.0 1.9 1.2 98.0 8.3 1.7 4 1.9 5
EAF 10 1 29 39.2 16.6 31.8 5.4 5.9 1.4 n.a. 100.3 6.9 2.4 4 2.0 5
EAF 11 1 325 28.5 19.4 33.9 9.7 3.2 0.2 3.7 99.3 4.9 1.5 4 1.7 5
EAF 12 1 203 36.9 17.4 30.1 7.7 5.1 0.9 n.a. 95.5 5.5 2.1 4 2.0 5
EAF 13 3 519 32.4 18.7 28.5 10.4 8.7 1.2 n.a. 99.8 4.7 1.7 4 1.6 5
EAF 14 1 19 40.5 17.7 21.7 9.4 6.7 1.9 0.8 99.2 9.6 2.3 4 2.0 5
EAF 15 1 918 30.5 21.0 26.3 11.3 5.2 1.2 n.a. 95.9 4.5 1.4 4 1.6 5
EAF 16 1 123 38.9 18.2 31.5 4.3 5.6 2.0 n.a. 100.4 6.2 2.1 4 1.8 5
1:rebar and construction steel grades, 2 : specialty steel grades, 3 : construction and specialty steel grades; #: number of slag data; 4 : B2 =
CaO/SiO2 ; 5 : B4 = (CaO + MgO)/(SiO2 + Al2 O3 ), n.a.: not available, σ standard deviation.
 EAF 13 3 519 32.4 18.7 28.5 10.4 8.7 1.2 n.a. 99.8 4.7 1.7 4 1.6 5
EAF 14 1 19 40.5 17.7 21.7 9.4 6.7 1.9 0.8 99.2 9.6 2.3 4 2.0 5
EAF 15 1 918 30.5 21.0 26.3 11.3 5.2 1.2 n.a. 95.9 4.5 1.4 4 1.6 5
EAF 16 1 123 38.9 18.2 31.5 4.3 5.6 2.0 n.a. 100.4 6.2 2.1 4 1.8 5
Processes 2021, 9, 402 1: rebar and construction steel grades, 2: specialty steel grades, 3: construction and specialty steel
4 of 10
grades; #: number of slag data; 4: B2 = CaO/SiO2; 5: B4 = (CaO + MgO)/(SiO2 + Al2O3), n.a.: not availa-
ble, σ standard deviation.

(a) (b)

(c) (d)

Figure 1. Distribution of slag analysis data from EAF heats for carbon steelmaking based on steel scrap (4 different EAFs
(a–d)), in the system CaO-SiO2 -FeO-MgO-5% Al2 O3 ; lines indicate MgO saturation at 25% to 35% CaO and 1600 ◦ C [26].
Besides controlling the slag basicity, e.g., B2 = xCaO /xSiO2 or B4 = (xCaO + xMgO )/(xSiO2
+ xAl2 O3 ), and MgO saturation, the control of FeO is important for avoiding unnecessary
high Fe losses with the slag and increasing the metal yield; typical values are currently in
the range of 25–30% FeO. Scatter of slag data provides information about the control on
mass balance in the EAF, e.g., the appropriate input of CaO via lime and dololime for SiO2
compensation and controlled slag basicity. Variations of FeO content of the tapped slag
indicate the quality of FeO control by carbon and oxygen injectors. There is evidence from
slag analysis data in Table 3 that (1) the average Fe loss in DRI-charged EAFs is higher than
for steel scrap heats, and (2) the control of FeO is more difficult for DRI-charged EAF heats.
The standard deviation of FeO is in the range of 3.9–5.5 for heats based on steel scrap and
4.1–9.6 for heats based on steel scrap, and >50% DRI. This is unexpected as DRI provides a
more defined mass input to the EAF due to DRI production from iron ores and continuous
monitoring of the DRI composition, in contrast to steel scrap with distinct quality classes
and impurities. The lower control of slag compositions in DRI heats also seen in Figure 1
(heats based on steel scrap) vs. Figure 2 (heats based on >50% DRI).
 slag if an MgO-carrier is not applied as slag former due to cost reasons or low availability
of high-quality doloma or dolomitic lime. In these cases, the slag compositions show final
MgO concentrations between the initial slag composition and the MgO saturation surface
(e.g., EAF 10, 11, 12 in Figure 2). EAF 11 displays an unusually large distribution of MgO
Processes 2021, 9, 402 concentrations due to losses of MgO gunning and hearth repair mixes to the slag. Remark-
5 of 10
ably, the average slag composition of EAF 11 seems to be close to MgO saturation, alt-
hough the slag operation is rather out of control.

(a) (b)

(c) (d)

Figure 2. Distribution of slag analysis data from EAF heats for carbon steelmaking based on DRI (4 different EAFs (a–d)), in
the system CaO-SiO2 -FeO-MgO-5% Al2 O3 ; lines indicate MgO saturation at 25% to 40% CaO and 1600 ◦ C.

3.2. Slag Characteristics of DRI-EAF Heats

The distribution of slag compositions for DRI heats is more complex than for heats
based on steel scrap. In most cases, the EAF slags at tapping after melting and refining are
close to the MgO saturation surface (Figure 1). This is due to the dissolution of MgO from
the MgO-based EAF hearth and sidewall lining to the initial slag based on the remaining
slag from the preceding heat and input of lime and dololime. Precisely defined mixtures of
lime and doloma or another MgO-carrier provide an initial process slag closer to the MgO
saturation with lower corrosion potential to the MgO hearth or MgO-C sidewalls (EAFs
in Figure 1). Initial process slags based on lime or dolomitic lime only provide a higher
corrosion potential (e.g., EAF 1 for scrap-based heats and EAF 11, and 12 for DRI-based
heats in Table 3).
For DRI heats, the slag compositions show a more complex figure (Figure 2). The
distribution and scatter of slag compositions at tapping are often higher than for scrap-
based EAF heats. One reason is the EAF operation with an MgO-undersaturated initial
slag if an MgO-carrier is not applied as slag former due to cost reasons or low availability
of high-quality doloma or dolomitic lime. In these cases, the slag compositions show
final MgO concentrations between the initial slag composition and the MgO saturation
surface (e.g., EAF 10, 11, 12 in Figure 2). EAF 11 displays an unusually large distribution
of MgO concentrations due to losses of MgO gunning and hearth repair mixes to the slag.
Remarkably, the average slag composition of EAF 11 seems to be close to MgO saturation,
although the slag operation is rather out of control.
 Processes 2021, 9, 402 6 of 10

Even more important for DRI-based heats is the control of FeO. Standard variation
of FeO in Table 3 and the visual distribution of slag compositions in Figure 2 indicate a
tendency to lower FeO control for DRI charges. Independent from basicity control, FeO
ranges from 20 to >45%. Even if the lime and dololime input provides a more balanced
process slag in order to operate at MgO saturated conditions (e.g., EAF 9 in Figure 2), the
distribution of FeO at tapping is higher than usual. Recalling that composition control of
DRI metallic raw material is usually better than for steel scrap due to better control on raw
materials, continuous DRI production and usually DRI production on-site, low FeO control
depends more likely on inappropriate EAF operation than on DRI input.

3.3. Slag Operation of DRI Heats at Lower Total Slag Mass

Specific slag masses are given in Figure 3, Equation (1), for heats based on steel
scrap (up to 5% HBI) and DRI-based heats, assuming 2.5% SiO2 and 0.5% CaO in DRI
(Table 1) and 33% CaO in slag (Table 3). As the slag mass is higher for DRI heats due to
the increased SiO2 input, similar FeO concentration of the slag represents an elevated loss
of Fe, approximately 0.9 kg/tLS Fe loss per% FeO in 120 kg/t slag (instead of 0.5 kg/tLS
Fe loss per% FeO for steel scrap-based heats with lower slag mass, 70 kg/t). It is very
likely that the lower control on FeO in the slag of DRI heats is due to the significantly
increased slag volume that is continuously discharged from the EAF during the second half
of DRI melting at elevated melt levels. Then, the retention time of the slag in the EAF is
short, resulting in FeO levels with low control by carbon injectors or mixing with steel melt.
With lower total slag volume, the discharging of slag starts at a later period of melting,
providing an increased reduction of FeO by increased mixing with steel melt. Operating
DRI heats at lower slag volume, however, requires lower input of lime, doloma, i.e., EAF
operation at lower basicity in the range xCaO /xSiO2 = 1.6–1.7 (Figure 3). In order to control
and minimize corrosion of the MgO hearth and lining at low slag basicity, it is important
to operate with slags near the MgO saturation from the very beginning by the adapted
mass balance of lime and MgO carrier. MgO saturation can be efficiently monitored and
controlled with diagrams in Figures 1 and 2 [26] or other saturation diagrams [23–25].
Some DRI-EAFs are operating at low basicity (EAF 9, 11, 13, 15 in Table 3), but half of the
DRI-EAFs are still operating at high slag volumes and basicity near 2 (EAF 10, 12, 14, 16 in
Table 3) following general EAF operating rules in order to minimize corrosion of the MgO
Processes 2021, 9, x FOR PEER REVIEW
lining and to operate at efficiently foaming slag in steel scrap charges. Due to increased
7 of 10
input of carbon with DRI compared to steel scrap, CO formation is increased, and slag
foaming is generally very well for DRI heats.

200
95% DRI
180
80% DRI
Specific slag mass (kg/t)

160
50% DRI
140 5% HBI
120
100
80
60
40
20
1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2.0 2.2 2.4
Basicity B2 = CaO/SiO2

Specificslag
Figure3.3.Specific
Figure slagvolume
volumeas asaafunction
function of
of slag
slag basicity
basicity (x
(xCaO /xSiO
CaO/xSiO2
) for
) 2for variousratios
various ratiosofofDRI/hot
DRI/hot
briquetted iron (HBI) to steel scrap (assuming 2.5% SiO and 0.5% CaO in
briquetted iron (HBI) to steel scrap (assuming 2.5% SiO2 2and 0.5% CaO in DRI and 33% CaO inDRI and 33% CaO in slag,
Equation
slag, (1)).(1)).
Equation

4. EAF Process Modeling and Results.

The impact of a decreased use of slag formers on the energy efficiency of the EAF
process was evaluated using a comprehensive process model for continuous charging of
Processes 2021, 9, 402 7 of 10

4. EAF Process Modeling and Results.

The impact of a decreased use of slag formers on the energy efficiency of the EAF
process was evaluated using a comprehensive process model for continuous charging of
DRI developed from the EAF model for discontinuous charging of steel scrap proposed by
Meier et al. [29–31] and described in previous publications [32,33].

4.1. Consistent Mass and Energy Balance Model for EAF Process
The model had to be adjusted for the DRI-based process since it has previously been
developed and validated only for the scrap-based operation of EAF. The simulation was
therefore adapted to accept a DRI feed rate instead of a scrap charge from a bucket. The
DRI is added to the solid scrap zone in the model, and the parameters determining the
heat transfer to the scrap zone were adjusted to account for the different behavior of the
DRI compared to a pile of scrap melting down. Furthermore, while previously a SiO2 and
FeO content of the feed material could be set in addition to the Fe and trace elements, the
significant gangue content of DRI necessitated the consideration of the CaO, MgO and
Al2 O3 content as well. The oxides are added to the liquid slag zone as the DRI melts. The
option to define a mass flow of slag formers such as lime and doloma was already present
in the model and could therefore be used without additional adjustments. The de-slagging,
however, was added by defining a mass flow that is removed from the liquid slag zone
and increases with the height of the slag (being zero below a set threshold). Other parts of
the model, such as the heat transfer and chemical models, mainly remained unchanged as
the operation with DRI is mostly identical to the flat-bath phase of the scrap-based process.
The operation chart determining inputs such as the electrical power or the mass
flows of oxygen and carbon fines was based on the operation of an industrial EAF with
a 100% DRI charge. Additional inputs, as well as empirical model parameters and the
furnace geometry, were estimated based on similar sized EAF for scrap melting, for which
extensive validation data were available. Based on this operation chart, the input of lime
and dololime was both increased and decreased in 10% steps simulating an input from 70%
to 150% of slag formers compared to the original industrial operation. The initial slag and
hot heel composition were based on the average measured compositions available from
the data, and the DRI composition was set according to measured values as well with a
temperature of the charged DRI of 250 ◦ C. Hot heel and initial slag mass and the beginning
of the heat were estimated, and the parameters determining the de-slagging rate and the
heating and melting rates of the DRI were adjusted so that all DRI is melted by the end
of the heat and the slag amount remaining is similar to the initial slag mass as would be
expected for the continuous operation of the furnace.
While the model has been extensively validated using process data from scrap-based
operations [29–31,33] and remains mostly unchanged, the data available for this study
was limited to the average operation chart and compositions already mentioned as well as
tapping temperatures for three heats with the time of measurements given as within 3–5
min before tapping. Therefore, only the general temperature range, as well as qualitative
results such as the already mentioned expected melting of all DRI and amount of slag
produced and removed from the furnace, were available for validation of the model results.
As the aim of this study is only a rough estimation and qualitative evaluation of the impact
of the number of slag formers used in the process, this is, however, considered to be
sufficient.

4.2. Results–Implications on Energy Balance, Savings and Productivity

As expected, the results showed the energy demand for the same tapping temperature
increasing with a higher amount of slag formers charged. The adapted electrical energy
input was adjusted by increasing or decreasing the power-on time of the same power
program accordingly. Additionally, the basicity ratio changes as expected for the constant
amount of DRI and therefore SiO2 charged and varying amounts of CaO delivered from
the added lime and doloma. The results of the simulations are summarized in Figure 4
 4.2. Results–Implications on Energy Balance, Savings and Productivity
As expected, the results showed the energy demand for the same tapping tempera-
ture increasing with a higher amount of slag formers charged. The adapted electrical en-
ergy input was adjusted by increasing or decreasing the power-on time of the same power
Processes 2021, 9, 402 8 of 10
program accordingly. Additionally, the basicity ratio changes as expected for the constant
amount of DRI and therefore SiO2 charged and varying amounts of CaO delivered from
the added lime and doloma. The results of the simulations are summarized in Figure 4
concerning
concerning savings in in
savings power–on time
power–on and
time specific
and electrical
specific energy
electrical demand
energy byby
demand decreasing
decreasing
thethe
lime and
lime dololime
and dololimeinput.
input.

0 0.0

Electrical energy savings (kWh/t)

Power-on time savings (min)

-10 -0.5

-20 -1.0

-30 -1.5

Electrical energy
-40 -2.0
Power-on time
-50 -2.5
1.1 1.3 1.5 1.7 1.9 2.1 2.3
Basicity B2 = CaO/SiO2

Figure 4. Calculated influence of lime and dololime input via slag basicity on power-in time and
Figure 4. Calculated influence of lime and dololime input via slag basicity on power-in time and
electrical energy demand of a 100% DRI-charged EAF model.
electrical energy demand of a 100% DRI-charged EAF model.

5. 5. Discussion
Discussion
Increased
Increased useuse
ofof
DRIDRIinin
thethe
EAFEAF process
process increases
increases thethe input
input ofof SiO
SiO 2 with
2 with DRIDRI gangue
gangue
oxides. An adapted EAF slag operation from standard
oxides. An adapted EAF slag operation from standard basicity xCaO basicity x CaO /x = 2.0 to lower
/xSiO2SiO=2 2.0 to lower
basicity values in the range 1.4 to 1.7 decreases the total slag mass
basicity values in the range 1.4 to 1.7 decreases the total slag mass and corresponding FeOand corresponding
FeO
loss lossslag
to the to the slagas
as well asthe
well as the energy
electrical electrical energybydemand
demand approx.by 8–17approx.
kWh/t and 8–17conse-
kWh/t
and consequently
quently the power–on the power–on
time. At lower time.
slag At lowerhowever,
basicity, slag basicity, however,MgO
the increased the increased
satura-
MgO saturation concentrations must be considered, e.g., by adapted
tion concentrations must be considered, e.g., by adapted saturation figures (Figure 2 [26]), saturation figures
(Figure 2 [26]), in order not to increase the wear rate of the MgO lining.
in order not to increase the wear rate of the MgO lining. Due to the lower total slag mass, Due to the lower
total slag mass, the efficiency of FeO reduction by carbon injection may be improved. In
the efficiency of FeO reduction by carbon injection may be improved. In addition, the FeO
addition, the FeO losses by slag during DRI charging may be decreased: whereas dense
losses by slag during DRI charging may be decreased: whereas dense HBI is usually
HBI is usually charged with steel scrap by buckets to the EAF at minor amounts, DRI
is charged continuously with or besides slag formers via the 5th hole in the EAF roof.
Commercially produced DRI tends to form fines due to its high porosity [34]. Usually, the
feeding spot is chosen near or between the electrodes (often between electrodes one and
two near the slag door). Charged pellets fall into the steel melt due to the increased density
of the reduced material (3.5–3.9 g/cm3 [35]), whereas DRI fines stick to the slag layer above
the steel melt.
Both the contamination of the slag samples with unreacted DRI fines and decreased
efficiency of carbon injectors could be explanations of the observed increased FeO variation
of slags from DRI charges in contrast to steel scrap charges (Table 3). An alternative DRI
feeding spot between electrodes two and three (opposite to the slag door) could provide
a longer retention time of DRI fines in the EAF for improved reduction of FeO residuals.
Adapted oxygen injector positions may be necessary for an optimized DRI feeding spot.
The adapted EAF mass and energy model indicates differences between scrap charges
and DRI charges due to different oxides input and flat bath conditions, e.g., improved slag
foaming due to the carbon content of the DRI in agreement with common observation
at DRI-EAFs. However, further improvements to the model are necessary in order to
investigate the details of the DRI charging spot.

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, methodology, analysis of slag data, M.K.; modeling,

software, validation, T.H., T.E.; writing, M.K., T.H., T.E.; All authors have read and agreed to the
published version of the manuscript.
Processes 2021, 9, 402 9 of 10

Funding: The APC was funded by the German Research Foundation (DFG) and the University of
Bayreuth in the funding program Open Access Publishing.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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