UNIT – II SIGNAL CONDITIONING CIRCUITS AND PLC

Operational Amplifiers – Inverting and Non-Inverting Amplifier – Wheatstone bridge Amplifier –

Instrumentation Amplifier – PID Controller, Protection Circuits, Filtering Circuits, Multiplexer, Data
Logger and Data Acquisition System –, Switching Loads by Power Semiconductor Devices Circuits –
Thyristors – TRIAC – Darlington Pair –MOSFET and Relays. PLC – Architecture – Input / Output
Processing – Logic Ladder Programming – Functional Block Programming using Timers and Counters –
Applications.

Operational Amplifiers

Inverting and Non-Inverting Amplifier

Wheatstone bridge Amplifier – Instrumentation Amplifier
 ROHINI COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY

PROPORTIONAL PLUS INTEGRAL PLUS DERIVATIVE (PID) CONTROLLER

The PID controller produces and output signal consisting of two terms: one proportional
to error signal, another one proportional to the integral of error signal and the third one
proportional to derivatives of error signal.
𝑑
𝑢(𝑡) ∝ [𝑒 (𝑡) + ∫ 𝑒(𝑡)𝑑𝑡 + 𝑒(𝑡)]
𝑑𝑡
𝐾𝑝 𝑑
𝑢(𝑡) = 𝐾𝑝 𝑒(𝑡) + ∫ 𝑒(𝑡)𝑑𝑡 + 𝐾𝑝 𝑇𝑑 𝑒(𝑡)
𝑇𝑖 𝑑𝑡
On taking Laplace transform of equation with zero initial conditions, we get,
𝑈(𝑠) 1
= 𝐾𝑝 (1 + + 𝑇𝑑 𝑠)
𝐸(𝑠) 𝑇𝑖 𝑠
The equation gives the output of the PID-controller for the input E(s) and it is the transfer
function of PID-controller. The block diagram of PID-controller is shown in figure
2.8.14.

Figure 2.8.14 Block diagram of PID controller

[Source: “Control Systems” by Nagoor Kani, Page: 2.88]

The combination of proportional control action, integral control action and derivative
control action is called PID-control action. This combined action has the advantages of
the each of the three individual control actions. The proportional controller stabilizes the
gain but produces a steady state error. The integral controller reduces or eliminates the
steady state error. The derivative controller reduces the rate of change of error.
Example of Electronic PID-controller
The PID controller can be realized by an op-amp amplifier with integral and
derivative action followed by a sign changer as shown in figure 2.8.15.

IC8451 CONTROL SYSTEMS

 ROHINI COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY

Figure 2.8.15 PID-controller using inverting amplifier

[Source: “Control Systems” by Nagoor Kani, Page: 2.88]

By deriving the transfer function of the controller shown in figure and comparing with
the transfer function of PID-controller defined by equation, it can be proved that the
circuit shown in figure will work as PID-controller.
Analysis of PID-controller
The assumptions made in op-amp circuit analysis are,
3. The voltages of both inputs are equal
4. The input current is zero.
Based on the above assumptions, the equivalent circuit of op-amp amplifier and sign
changer are shown in figure 2.8.16.

Figure 2.8.16 Equivalent circuit of amplifier and sign changer

[Source: “Control Systems” by Nagoor Kani, Page: 2.89]

IC8451 CONTROL SYSTEMS

 ROHINI COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY

From the circuit,

𝑒 (𝑡) 𝑑𝑒(𝑡)
𝑖1 = + 𝐶1
𝑅1 𝑑𝑡
On taking Laplace transform of equation with zero initial conditions, we get,
1
𝐼1(𝑠) = ( + 𝐶1𝑠) 𝐸(𝑠)
𝑅1
Also, from the circuit,
1
𝑢1 (𝑡) = −𝑖1 𝑅2 − ∫ 𝑖 𝑑𝑡
𝐶2 1
On taking Laplace transform of equation with zero initial conditions, we get,
1
𝑈1 (𝑠) = −𝐼1(𝑠)𝑅2 − 𝐼 (𝑠)
𝑠𝐶2 1
Substitute for i1, from equations
𝑅2 𝐶1 1
𝑈1 (𝑠) = − ( + + + 𝑅2 𝐶1𝑠) 𝐸(𝑠)
𝑅1 𝐶2 𝑅1 𝐶2 𝑠
Also, from the circuit,
𝑢(𝑡) = −𝑖2 𝑅
𝑢1(𝑡) = 𝑖2 𝑅
Substitute for i2,
𝑢1 (𝑡) = −𝑢(𝑡)
On equating the equations, we get,
𝑈(𝑠) 𝑅2 𝑅1𝐶1 + 𝑅2 𝐶2 1
= (1 + + + 𝑅1 𝐶1𝑠)
𝐸(𝑠) 𝑅1 𝑅2 𝐶2 𝑅2 𝐶2𝑠

The equation is the transfer function of op-amp PID-controller. On the comparing, we

get,
𝑅2
Proportional gain, 𝐾𝑝 =
𝑅1

Derivative time, 𝑇𝑑 = 𝑅1 𝐶1
Integral time, 𝑇𝑖 = 𝑅2𝐶2
𝑅1 𝐶1 +𝑅2 𝐶2
Also, =1
𝑅2 𝐶2

By varying the values of R1 and R2, the value of Kp , Td and Ti are adjusted.

IC8451 CONTROL SYSTEMS

Introduction to Active Filters:

Filters are circuits that are capable of passing signals within a band of frequencies while
rejecting or blocking signals of frequencies outside this band. This property of filters is also called
“frequency selectivity”.

There are two broad categories of filters:

An analog filter processes continuous-time signals
A digital filter processes discrete-time signals.
The analog or digital filters can be subdivided into four categories:
1. Lowpass Filters
2. Highpass Filters
3. Bandstop Filters
4. Bandpass Filters
Ideal Filters:
Filter can be also be categorized as passive or active:

Passive filters: The circuits built using RC, RL, or RLC circuits.

Active filters: The circuits that employ one or more op-amps in the design an addition to
resistors and capacitors.

Passive filters use resistors, capacitors, and inductors (RLC networks). To minimize
distortion in the filter characteristic, it is desirable to use inductors with high quality factors.
Practical inductor includes a series resistance. They are particularly non-ideal, they are bulky
and expensive.

Active filters overcome these drawbacks and are realized using resistors, capacitors, and
active devices (usually op-amps) which can all be integrated: Active filters replace inductors
using op-amp based equivalent circuits.
Advantages of active RC filters include:
Reduced size and weight
Increased reliability and improved performance
Simpler design than for passive filters and can realize a wider range of functions as well as
providing voltage gain
In large quantities, the cost of an IC is less than its passive counterpart.
Active RC filters also have some disadvantages:
Limited bandwidth of active devices limits the highest attainable frequency (passive RLC
filters can be used up to 500 MHz)
Require power supplies (unlike passive filters)
Increased sensitivity to variations in circuit parameters caused by environmental changes
compared to passive filters.
Low pass filter:
A low-pass filter is a filter that passes frequencies from 0Hz to critical frequency, fc and
significantly attenuates all other frequencies.
First order Low pass Butterworth Filter:
Butterworth filter is a type of filter whose frequency response is flat over the pass
band region. Low-pass filter (LPF) provides a constant output from DC up to a cutoff frequency
f(H) and rejects all signals above that frequency.

The first order low pass butter worth filter is realized by R-C circuit used along with an
op-amp, used in the non inverting configuration.

The circuit diagram is shown in Fig. This also called one pole low pass butter worth filter.

Analysis of the Filter Circuit:

The impedance of the capacitor C is – j Xc where Xc is the capacitive reactance given by

By the potential divider rule, the voltage at the non inverting input terminal A which is the
voltage across capacitor C is given by,
As the op-amp is in the non inverting configuration,

is the transfer function of the filter and can be expressed in the polar V in – form as,

The phase angle Φ is in degrees. The equation (7) describes the behavior of the low pass filter.
 Thus, for the range of frequencies, 0 < f < fH, the gain is almost constant equal to fH
which is high cut off frequency. At f = fH, gain reduces to 0.707 AF i.e. 3 dB down from AF.
And as the frequency increases than fH, the gain decreases at a rate of 20dB/decade. The rate
20 dB/decade means decrease of 20 dB in gain per 10 times change in frequency.

The frequency fH is called cut off frequency, break frequency, — 3dB frequency or corner
frequency. The frequency response is shown in the Fig..

The rate of decrease in gain is 20 dB/decade i.e. the decrease can be

indicated by a negative slope in the frequency response, as —20 dB/decade.

The design steps for the first order low pass Butterworth filter are
1) Choose the cut off frequency, fH.

2) Choose the capacitance C usually between 0.01 and 1 μF. Generally, it is selected as 1 μF or
less than that. For better performance, Mylar or tantalum capacitors are selected.

3) Now, for the RC circuit,

Hence, as fH and C are known, calculate the value of R.

4) The resistances Rf and R1 can be selected depending on the required gain in the pass band.
First Order High Pass Butterworth Filter:

A high pass filter is a circuit that attenuates all the signals below a specified cut off
frequency denoted as fL. Thus, a high pass filter performs the opposite function to that of low
pass filter. Hence, the First Order High Pass Butterworth Filter circuit can be obtained by
interchanging frequency determining resistances and capacitors in low pass filter circuit.

The first order high pass filter can be obtained by interchanging the elements R and C in
a first order low pass filter circuit. The Fig. 2.79 shows the first order high pass Butterworth
filter.
It can be observed that as compared to first order low pass filter (Fig. 2.74), the positions of R
and C are changed in the high pass circuit shown in Fig. 2.79.

The frequency at which the gain is 0.707 times the gain of filter in pass band is called as low cut
off frequency, and denoted as fL. So, all the frequencies greater than f L is allowed to pass but
the maximum frequency which is allowed to pass is determined by the closed loop bandwidth
of the op—amp used.
Analysis of the Filter Circuit:

The impedance of the capacitor is

where f is the input i.e. operating frequency.

By the voltage divider rule, the potential of the non inverting terminal of the op—amp is

Substituting in the above expression of VA,

This can be represented as

Now, for the op-amp in non-inverting configuration,

This is the required expression for the transfer function of the filter. For the frequency response,
we require the magnitude of the transfer function which is given by,

The equation (6) describes the behavior of the high pass filter.
 • A multiplxer(MUX) is a CLC that allows digital information(data) from several sources
to be routed onto a single line for transmission over that line to a common destination.

• The basic multiplxer has several data-input lines and a single output line.

• It also has data-select inputs, which permit digital data on any one of the inputs to be
switched to the single output line

Multiplexers operate like very fast acting multiple position rotary switches connecting or
controlling multiple input lines called “channels” one at a time to the output.

Multiplexing is the
generic term used to describe the operation of sending one or more analogue or digital signals
over a common transmission line at different times or speeds and as such, the device we use to
do just that is called a Multiplexer.

Logic diagram of 4X1 MUX:

74LS151 8X1 Multiplexer :
• The 74LS151 has eight data inputs (D0 – D7) and, therefore, three data select or address
input lines (S0 – S2)

• Three bits are required to select any one of the eight data inputs.

• A LOW on the Enable input allows the selected input data to pass through to the output.

• Notice that the data output and its complement both are available.
Data Acquisition System
• Data acquisition is the process of sampling signals that measure real world physical
conditions and converting into digital values that can be processed by a computer
• Data acquisition system is used to acquire the real-world physical data and convert
into digital data that can be processed by a computer
• It is abbreviated as DAS or DAQ

Types of DAS

There are two types of data acquisition systems

1. Single Channel DAS
2. Multichannel DAS

Single Channel DAS

• The single channel data acquisition system has only one input signal.
• It consists of a transducer, signal conditioner, an analog to digital converter and a
buffer circuitry.
• Sensors, to convert physical parameters to electrical signals.
• Signal conditioning circuitry, to convert sensor signals into a form that can be
converted to digital values.
• Analog-to-digital converters, to convert conditioned sensor signals to digital values.

Multichannel DAS

• There are multiple input signals.

• The output of transducers is processed with signal conditioning circuits.
• A multiplexer is used to select the processed input signal.
• It is then converted in to digital signal with the help of ADC.
Data Logger

• The term ‘Data Logging' refers to collecting or gathering data over a period of
time.
• A data logger is a device that can be used to collect, store and retrieve the data.
• In general, data logger is a comprehensive and highly advanced DAS
 • Basic parts of data logger are: 1. Input scanner 2. Signal conditioner 3. A/D
converter 3. Recording equipment 4. Programmer
Advantages of Data Logger
1. Data logger can accommodate from 10 to 1000 analog signals, depending on its capacity
2. It can be used in remote or dangerous situations
3. Data logging can be carried out 24 hours a day, 365 days of the year
4. Time intervals for collecting data can be very frequent and regular, for example, hundreds
of measurements per second
5. No need to have a person present
6. Data logging is often more accurate because there is no human error
 CONTROL OF ELECTRICAL DRIVES: POWER SEMICONDUCTOR DEVICES 305

Signal
modified
bylC

Figure 17.18 Generation of high frequency PWM waveform.

At higher input frequencies. the form of the input signal may be modified as
in Fig. 17.1 7 by means of the circuit of Fig. 17.18 to give an average value of
holding current. The velocity of the plunger may be reduced shortly before
closure. thus reducing wear and noise. or it may be held in dither at an
intermediate position using a high frequency. low amplitude signal about the
mean. In the second case the effect on the fluid flow is similar to that of a
proportional spool valve.

17.3 Control of electrical drives: power

semiconductor devices
The principal power switching devices are diodes. thyristors. gate turn-off
thyristors. triacs. power transistors. power MOSFETs and insulated gate bipolar
transistors.

17.3.1 DIODES
The diode is the Simplest of the power switching devices and has the characteris-
tics shown in Fig. 17.19. allowing significant current in one direction only.

Leakage current
exaggerated for Forward volt drop
clarity Leakage
current (Conduction)

v
(Blocking)
Reverse
breakdown
Figure 17.19 Diode characteristic.
306 CONTROL DEVICES

-
(a)

An~thode
v

IGate

(b) (c)
Latching current
> holding current
Increasing gate
Reverse Holding c~Latching current
breakdown current ~~
voltage·~====~=.fi==r~-!'
v
Reverse
leakage
current

Figure 17.20 Thyristor: (a) circuit symbol (b) characteristic with zero gate current (c)
switching characteristic.

(b)
Figure 17.21 Switching arrangements (a) high side (b) low side.

(a)

J'----------I
Figure 17.22 Thyristor gate isolation: (a) pulse transformers (b) opto-isolation.
 CONTROL OF ELECTRICAL DRIVES: POWER SEMICONDUCTOR DEVICES 307

Once a diode has been placed into its conducting mode by a forward voltage it
will remain in that condition until the forward current falls to zero. at which
point it will turn off.

17.3.2 THYRISTORS
The thyristor can turn on when forward biased by a current via the gate
terminal. producing the characteristics of Fig. 17.20. Typically. thyristor firing
circuits use pulse techniques which allow precise control of the point-on-wave
at which the thyristor is fired and which dissipate less energy in the gate than
a continuous current. Reliance is not usually placed on a single pulse to fire
the thyristor. and the firing circuit is usually arranged to provide a train of pulses.
A particular problem in many circuits employing thyristors is that the gate
may be at some potential with respect to ground. This may be illustrated by
considering the low side and high side switching arrangements of Fig. 17.21 a
and b. In the case of low side switching. the gate circuit can be referenced to
ground but the load remains directly connected to the supply even when not
conducting. With high side switching. normally the preferred mode of operation.
the load is only directly connected to the supply when the thyristor is conducting
but the gate is now at some potential relative to ground. An isolated gate signal
can be provided in this latter case by the use of pulse transformers and
opto-isolated electronic switches in the gate circuit. as illustrated by Fig. 17.22.

(a)

Figure 17.23 Thyristor with (a) resistive and (b) inductive loads.
308 CONTROL DEVICES

Figure 17.24 Snubber circuits.

The thyristor, once conducting, will remain in this state until the forward
current falls below the holding current level. at which point it will begin to
turn off. This has important implications when a thyristor is used to control an
inductive load such as a motor, as can be seen from Fig. 17.23a and b, which
show a thyristor being used to control a resistive and an inductive load
respectively. With the resistive load, the load current follows the applied voltage
once the thyristor has been fired, turning off at the voltage zero. With the
inductive load, the effect of inductance is to sustain the load current - and hence
the thyristor current - beyond the voltage zero.
The conditions for turn-off occur automatically in naturally commutated
converters. However, there is a range of circuits which are operated from a DC
source voltage in which additional. external circuitry must be employed in order
to turn the thyristor off. These forced commutation circuits drive a reverse
current through the thyristor to reduce the forward current below the holding
level and then maintain the reverse voltage for the time interval necessary to
complete the turn-off (see also section 17.4).
The operation of a thyristor is defined by a series of ratings which define the
operational boundaries for the device. Rating parameters include the peak,
average and RMS currents, the peak forward and reverse voltages and the gate
circuit limits. In addition, there are a number of transient limits which may
need to be taken into account, particularly when duty cycle operation is being
considered.
Turn-on of a thyristor has been considered in terms of the forward breakover
voltage and the effect of the gate current. A thyristor may also be turned on
by an excessively high rate of rise of forward voltage. For this reason a thyristor
has a dv/dt rating chosen to prevent turn-on in this way. The magnitude of
imposed dv/dt can be controlled by a snubber circuit such as those shown in
Fig. 17.24.

17.3.3 GATE TURN-OFF THYRISTORS

The gate turn-off (GTO) thyristor is a variant of the basic thyristor in which
the internal structure has been modified to enable the turn-off of forward current
to be achieved by the application of a reverse or negative gate current. This
 CONTROL OF ELECTRICAL DRIVES: POWER SEMICONDUCTOR DEVICES 309

(a) (b)

T1

Gate

Figure 17.25 The triac: (a) circuit symbol (b) thyristor equivalent.

ability of the GTO thyristor to be both turned off and turned on under the
control of an external signal has led to its extensive use in a range of power
switching circuits.
On turn-on a GTO thyristor must be supplied with a higher forward gate
current than an equivalently rated conventional thyristor to ensure that the
forward current is established. Once conduction is established it may be
necessary to maintain a small forward gate current to prevent any tendency
to drop out from the conducting state.
The turn-off of the GTO thyristor requires the introduction of a reverse gate
current of sufficient magnitude to divert the forward current.

17.3.4 TRIACS
A triac is electrically equivalent to a pair of thyristors connected in reverse
parallel on the same chip (Fig. 17.25), and is capable of being turned on in
either the forward or the reverse direction by the application of an appropriate
signal via the gate circuit. Referring to Fig. 17.25, a triac would normally be
arranged to turn on with the application of a forward current when terminal
T2 is positive with respect to terminal T l ' and a negative current when T1 is
positive with respect to T2' Triacs are used extensively for the control of motors
and heating loads.

17.3.5 POWER TRANSISTORS

In power applications the transistor is used as a controlled switch, with
transitions between the ON or saturated condition with a high base current and
the off condition with zero base current, as in Fig. 17.26. The transition between
the on and off states can introduce high instantaneous losses and forms the
major source of loss in high speed switching circuits such as those used in
inverters. To reduce turn-on times, an excess base current is used to speed up
the transition and force the transistor into saturation. Once the transistor is
conducting, its base current is reduced to the level required to maintain it in
saturation. On turn-off the base current must be reduced as rapidly as possible
consistent with avoiding the occurrence of secondary breakdown in the
310 CONTROL DEVICES

(b) Operating
Increasing Ib!
point when
on (saturation) I
c Forward
Ie Saturation breakdown
voltage Slope =-lIRe
level
) Vee
Vee sat

Ie Vs Vee
Reverse Leakage
e breakdown current

Figure 17.26 The power transistor: (a) npn transistor symbol (b) Ie - Vee characteristic
(forward and reverse voltage scales are unequal).

transistor. In some instances a reverse base current may be used to enhance

turn-off, and this reverse bias is maintained in the OFF condition.
Transistors are capable of SWitching more rapidly than a thyristor, with times
of the order of a few microseconds being achievable. However, the need to
supply the transistor with a continuous base current to maintain it in the on
condition means that the requirements of the base drive circuit are more severe
than those of the thyristor gate circuit. In some devices, the base drive circuit
is incorporated on to the same chip as the power transistor, an arrangement
which reduces the external base current requirements but increases the
switching time of the power transistor.

17.3.6 POWER MOSFETS

The increasing demand for high speed power switching devices has led to the
introduction of power MOSFETs. These provide very short switching times with
low switching losses and require significantly lower levels of gate current to
maintain them in the on condition than equivalently rated power transistors.

17.3.7 INSULATED GATE BIPOLAR TRANSISTORS

The insulated gate bipolar transistor (IGBT) combines MOSFET and bipolar
technology on the same chip to produce devices which offer improved switching
performance with a lower demand for control current.

17.3.8 SMART POWER DEVICES

Developments in semiconductor technology have led to the introduction of
devices which combine logical and control elements alongside the power
switching devices, either on the same chip as in Fig. 17.27 or as part of a hybrid
circuit. These smart power devices have the ability to monitor and control their
 CONTROL OF ELECTRICAL DRIVES: POWER SEMICONDUCTOR DEVICES 311

'--_ _ _ _---'1 ,-I_ _ _ _--'1 ,-I_ _--'I ,-I_ _--'I ,-I_ _ _---'
PowerDMOS CMOS npn pnp HVPMOS
Figure 17.27 Cross-section of hybrid smart power IC (SGS Fairchild).

own operation and to provide status reporting on system behaviour. increasing

the flexibility of the overall system. Figure 17.28 shows the layout of a typical
smart power chip for motor control. incorporating acceleration control and
protection.

17.3.9 HEAT TRANSFER AND COOLING

The heat generated in a power semiconductor device due to its internal losses
must be removed from the device and dissipated to an ambient temperature

Out lOut 2
Cboot 1 Cboot 2

Enable 1---1>-----1

InlH--+<.t t:>+-+~ln2

Figure 17.28 Layout of a typical smart power chip (SGS Fairchild).

312 CONTROL DEVICES

Virtual Heat transfer

Intemal junction Case system Ambient
heat energy temperature temperature temperature temperature
P(W) 6j 6h 6a

Rjc Rch R ha

Figure 17.29 Semiconductor heat transfer. circuit analogue: Rs and Cs are thermal
resistances and capacitances.

heat sink. The heat transfer path is considered to be as follows:

1. From an internal junction to the case of the device;
2. From the case to a heat transfer system such as a fin;
3. From the heat transfer system to the ambient temperature heat sink.
The thermal characteristics of the heat transfer process can be represented by
the circuit analogue of Fig. 17.29. Under steady state conditions. the thermal
capacitance has no effect and the heat flow can be represented by the series
combination of the thermal resistances as
(17.3)
During transient conditions. the temperature rise in the device can be estimated
using a parameter referred to as the transient thermal impedance Zt. which
incorporates the effects of the thermal capacitance. The transient thermal
impedance is a time dependent function as shown by Fig. 17.30. and relates
the device temperature rise to the energy input in a defined time interval. For
a step change in energy input from 0 to Pt at time t = O.
(17.4)
For a power semiconductor providing a continuous pulse train as in Fig. 17.31,

~u 10°
!!.....
C1l
u
c V
co
-g 10-1 /
II'

V
Q.
E
co
E 10-2
~ 10-3 10-2 10- 1 100 10 10 2 103 104 105
f-
Tjme(s)

Figure 17.30 Transient thermal impedance curve for a 100 A thyristor.

 CONTROL OF ELECTRICAL DRIVES: POWER SEMICONDUCTOR DEVICES 313

t;1
t
Pmean = Pmax T

p::1 D n ~ ~
I l-t~!lr-
.
Of, I""'=-.. r-.
~o~ "........,. 'S
9, av """"J """"J """"J ""'" ...

Ambient
temperature
Figure 17.31 Device temperature variation with a pulsed load.

the mean junction temperature can be expressed in terms of the mean power
loss and the transient thermal impedance Uunction to ambient) at t = 00 as
(17.5)
The junction temperature varies about this mean by an amount c59 j • an
approximation to which is given by considering the last two pulses when.
referring to Fig. 1 7.31.
(17.6)
More complex waveforms can be analysed by representing them as a series of
step functions and applying the principle of superposition.

17.3.10 PROTECfION

(a) OVERCURRENT PROTECTION

As a power semiconductor has a restricted overcurrent capacity. special fast
acting fuses are usually provided for overcurrent protection. The selection of
the appropriate fuse must take account of:
1. The need to permit the continuous passage of steady state current;
2. Permitted overload conditions including transients and duty cycle loads;
3. Prospective fault conditions;
4. The iZt. rating of the device and the need to clear the fault before this is
exceeded;
5. Peak current levels during faults due to current asymmetry;
6. Fuse voltage rating;
7. Ambient temperature conditions.
The overcurrent protection of transistors presents particular problems. A fault
condition can cause an effective reduction in transistor load which will cause
314 CONTROL DEVICES

Fuse
+~--~~--~~r-----~

Figure 17.32 Crowbar protection.

the transistor to come out of saturation and into a region of high internal energy
dissipation. Though this increase in internal energy may damage the transistor.
the increase in collector current may not be sufficient to blow a series fuse. To
overcome this problem a crowbar thyristor is used as in Fig. 17.32. This uses
dedicated circuitry to monitor the collector-emitter voltage (Vee) of the transistor.
and fires the thyristor if any increase in voltage is detected. causing the fuse to
blow.

(b) OVERVOLTAGE PROTECTION

Given that the power semiconductor device is rated to withstand the normal
voltages expected. it remains necessary to provide protection against transient
overvoltages and excessive dv/dt values. This is typically achieved by placing a
non-linear surge suppressor with a characteristic of the form of Fig. 17.33 in
parallel with the power semiconductor. along with the snubber circuit shown
in Fig. 17.24.

17.4 Converters, choppers, inverters and cycloconverters

Power electronic circuits employing thyristors can be divided into two principal
categories depending on whether natural or forced commutation is required.

17.4.1 NATURALLY COMMUTATED THYRISTOR CONVERTERS

Naturally commutated converter circuits can be separated by their construction
and operation into three categories; uncontrolled. half controlled and fully
controlled.
An uncontrolled converter such as the three-phase bridge rectifier shown in
Fig. 17.34 uses diodes only and operates as a rectifier. permitting power flow
from the AC system to the DC system. The DC output voltage is fixed by the
amplitude of the AC supply.
The fully controlled three-phase bridge converter of Fig. 17.35 uses thyristors
as the switching element throughout. allowing control of the DC output voltage
 MODULE 6
PROGRAMMABLE LOGIC CONTROLLERS (PLC)

SYLLABUS
• Introduction to Sequence Control, PLCs - Working, Specifications of PLC
Onboard/Inline/Remote IO’s, Comparison of PLC & PC,
• Relay Ladder Logic-
• PLC Programming- realization of AND, OR logic, concept of latching,
• Introduction to Timer/Counters, Exercises based on Timers, Counters.
Basic concepts of SCADA, DCS and CNC

1
 A programmable logic controller (PLC) or programmable controller is an industrial digital
computer which has been ruggedized and adapted for the control of manufacturing processes,
such as assembly lines, or robotic devices, or any activity that requires high reliability control and
ease of programming and process fault diagnosis.
PLCs were first developed in the automobile manufacturing industry to provide flexible,
ruggedized and easily programmable controllers to replace hard-wired relays, timers and
sequencers. Since then, they have been widely adopted as high-reliability automation controllers
suitable for harsh environments. A PLC is an example of a "hard" real-time system since output
results must be produced in response to input conditions within a limited time, otherwise
unintended operation will result

PLC architecture

It consists of a central processing unit (CPU) containing the system microprocessor,

memory, and input/output circuitry. The CPU controls and processes all the operations within
the PLC.It is supplied with a clock that has a frequency of typically between 1 and 8 MHz. This
frequency determines the operating speed of the PLC and provides the timing and

2
synchronization for all elements in the system. The information within the PLC is carried by
means of digital signals. The internal paths along which digital signals flow are called buses.
In the physical sense, a bus is just a number of conductors along which electrical signals can
flow. It might be tracks on a printed circuit board or wires in a ribbon cable. The CPU uses the
data bus for sending data between the constituent elements, the address bus to send the
addresses of locations for accessing stored data, and the control bus for signals relating to
internal control actions. The system bus is used for communications between the
input/output ports and the input/output unit.
The operator enters a sequence of instructions ( a program ) into the memory of the PLC.
The controller monitors the inputs carries out the control rules .The control loop is a
continuous cycle of the PLC reading inputs, solving the logic instructions, and then changing
the outputs.
Advantages
• The same basic controller can be used with a wide range of control systems.
• To modify a control system, the rules are to be modified (much easier to program and
reprogram)
• There is no need to rewire
• The result is a flexible, cost-effective system

Comparison of PLC & PC

• PLCs are similar to computers, but computers are optimized for calculation and
display tasks
• PLCs are optimized for control tasks and the industrial environment.
• PLCs: – Are rugged and designed to withstand vibrations, temperature, humidity, and
noise –
• Have interfacing for inputs and outputs, already inside the controller –
• Are easily programmed and have an easily understood programming language –
Primarily concerned with logic and switching operations

3
4
5
6
Specifications of PLC Input Output Modules
1. Input modules convert process level signals from sensors
2. Output modules may be used to drive actuators

Typical Parameters for an Analog Input Module

7
 Typical Parameters for an Analog Output Module

Sequential control
• Sequential problems have long been solved using conventional logic gates as building blocks, but
using certain techniques to express and identify the sequence logic equations that control the
system outputs
• The software design procedure is as follows:
o The process is verbally described
o This description is translated into a function diagram
o The conditions are identified and converted into Boolean equations
o The Boolean equations are converted into ladder logic for the PLC

8
 RELAY LOGIC
 Relays are the most popular components of the PLC hardware
 Relays are used as outputs in the ladder diagram
 They can be used to control ON/OFF actuation of powered device
 A relay can be latching or non latching
 A latching relay needs an electrical impulse to close the power circuit. Another
impulse is needed to release the latch
 Non latching relays hold only while the switching relay is energized and require
continuous electrical signal

Relay logic is a method of implementing combinational logic in electrical control

circuits by using several electrical relays wired in a particular configuration.The
schematic diagrams for relay logic circuits are often called line diagrams, A relay logic
circuit is an electrical network consisting of lines, or rungs, in which each line or rung
must have continuity to enable the output device. A typical circuit consists of a number
of rungs, with each rung controlling an output. This output is controlled by a
combination of input or output conditions, such as input switches and control relays.
Relay logic diagrams represent the physical interconnection of devices.
Main Elements of ladder logic
1. Rails- These are vertical lines and provide the sources of energy to relays and logic system
2. Rungs- These are horizontal and contains the branches ,inputs and outputs
3. Branches
4. Inputs
5. Outputs
6. Timer
7. Counter

9
Symbol format in Ladder logic

PLC INSTRUCTION CODE

10
PLC Programming- realization of AND, OR logic

LD A
AND B
OUT X

LD A
OR B
OUT X

11
12
 Draw ladder diagram for the equations given below

Y=(X1+X2)X3

Y=(X1+X2)(X3+X4)

Y=(X1X2)+X3

Write PLC program for the given ladder diagram

13
 LD X1
ORI X2
ORI X3
OR X4
LDI X5
OR X6
OR X7
ANB
OUT Y3

LD X1
AND X2
ANI X3
AND X4
LD X5
AND X6
ANI X7
AND X8
ORB
OUT Y3

Example of PLC program to automatically stir the liquid in the vat

14
15
 TIMERS AND COUNTERS
A timer is device that introduce a time delay in a circuit or system during its ON or
OFF condition.PLC timer, the time delay is introduced by programming
Classification of timers

Schematic diagram of a function block PLC timer.

• The contacts on the left side of the timer function block are the timer enable contacts
• When they are closed, power passes to the left terminal of the timer, its clock is
enabled and it starts timing.
• When they are open, power stops flowing through this terminal, and the timer stops
functioning
• A timer function block has three output contacts.

16
 • When the timer is timed out, DONE BIT(DN) is set.
• The ENABLE BIT follows the input enable contact status.
• If the enable contact is true then output ENABLE BIT(EN) is true.
• The timer timing(TT) bit is set when the timer is operating
Functions in TIMER
1. Variety of time base is available
2. The most common time bases are 0.01 sec, 0.1 sec and 1 sec
3. Accumulator value(ACC)- This is the time that has elapsed, since the timer was last reset.
4. When enabled, a timer updates this continuously
5. Preset Value(PRF)- This specifies the value that the timer must reach before the controller
sets the done bit
6. The programmer determines the preset time.
7. When the accumulator value becomes equal to or greater than the preset value, the timer
stops operating and the done bit is set
8. This bit can be used to control an output device
TIMER ON DELAY
The instruction is used to delay turning an output ON or OFF. The TON instruction begins to
count time base intervals when the rung condition become true. As long as the rung condition
remains true the time increments its accumulator value, over each scan until reaches the
preset value. The accumulator value is reset when the rung condition becomes false,
regardless of whether the timer has timed out

FUNCTIONS OF AN ON DELAY TIMER

17
TIMER OFF DELAY
The TOFF instruction begins t count time base intervals when the rung condition makes a true
to false transition. As long as the rung condition remains false the timer increments its
accumulator vale over each scan until it reaches the preset value. The controller resets the
accumulated value when the rung conditions becomes true regardless of whether the timer
has timed out
FUNCTIONS OF AN OFF DELAY TIMER

RETENTIVE AND NON RETENTIVE TIMERS

Retentive refers to the device's ability to remember its exact status such that when the circuit
is again activated, the timer continues from the previous point. RTO - Retentive Timer. Counts
time base intervals when the instruction is true and retains the accumulated value when the
instruction goes false or when power cycle occurs. The Retentive Timer instruction is a
retentive instruction that begins to count time base intervals when rung conditions become
true.Non-retentive timers reset to zero and start from zero each time the timer function block
is energized.

FUNCTION BLOCK

18
 EN- timer enable bit
TT- Timer timing bit
DN-Timer done bit
Each timer address is made up of a 3 word element
Word 0 is the control word
Word 1 stores preset value and word 2 stores accumulated value

COUNTERS
Counters are used to count the number of items produced, and the number of
operations performed.PLC counter utilizes a sensor t count operations, which is
processed by software execution in the PLC. Thus the failure rate is reduced and
the accuracy level is increased in a PLC counter.he major difference between
the counter and the timer is that timer instructions will continually increment
its accumulative value at a rate determined by the time base when the enable
contact is on. Counter must see a complete contact transition from 0 to 1 each
time it increments the accumulative value.This means that the contact must
returns to its zero state before it can have a transition for a second time.
COUNTER PARAMETERS
1. Accumulative value(ACC)-number of false to true transitions that have
occurred since the counter was last reset
2. Preset value(PRE)- Specifies the value that the counter must reach, before
the controller sets the done bit. When the accumulator value becomes equal
to or greater than the preset value, the done status bit is set. This can be
used to control an output device

19
 Count UP(CTU)
The CTU is an instruction that counts false to true rung transition

Count DOWN(CTD)

20
 BASICS CONCEPTS OF SCADA,DCS,CNC
1. Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition (SCADA)
2. distributed control system (DCS)
3. Computer Numerical Control(CNC)

Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition (SCADA)

Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition (SCADA) is a control system architecture that uses
computers, networked data communications and graphical user interfaces for high-level
process supervisory management, but uses other peripheral devices such as programmable
logic controller (PLC) and discrete PID controllers to interface with the process plant or
machinery
Why SCADA?
• Saves Time and Money
▪ Less traveling for workers (e.g. helicopter ride)
▪ Reduces man-power needs
▪ Increases production efficiency of a company
▪ Cost effective for power systems
▪ Saves energy
• Reliable
• Supervisory control over a particular system
Objectives of SCADA
1. Monitoring : Continuous monitoring of the parameters of voltage , current, etc..
2. Measurement: Measurement of variables for processing.
3. Data Acquisition: Frequent acquisition of data from RTUs and Data Loggers / Phasor
data Concentrators (PDC)..
4. Data Communication: Transmission andreceiving of large amounts of data from field
to control centre’s.
5. Control: Online real time control for closed loop and open loop processes.
6. Automation:: Automatic tasks of switching of transmission lines, CBs, etc.
Functions of SCADA

• Data Acquisition
• Information Display
• Supervisory Control
• Alarm Processing
• Information Storage and Reports
• Sequence of Event Acquisition
• Data Calculation
• Special RTU Processing/Control

21
 ARCHITECTURE OF SCADA

RTU-REMOTE TERMINAL UNIT

A collection of equipment that will provide an operator at remote location with enough
information to determine the status of a particular piece of a equipment or entire substation and
cause actions to take place regarding the equipment or network.SCADA systems are used to
monitor or to control chemical or transport processes in municipal water supply systems, to
control electric power generation, transmission and distribution, gas and oil pipelines, and other
distributed processes. Supervisory control and data Acquisition (SCADA) achieves this
requirement collecting reliable field data through remote terminal units (RTUs) Intelligent
Electric Devices (IEDs) and presenting them to user requirement.
The user interface or the man machine interface (MMI) provides various options of data
presentation according to specific application and user needs. There are many parts of a working
SCADA system. A SCADA system usually includes signal hardware (input and output), controllers,
networks, user interface (HMI), communications equipment and software. All together, the term
SCADA refers to the entire central system. The central system usually monitors data from various
sensors that are either in close proximity or off site. SCADA refers to a system that collects data
from various sensors at a factory, plant or in other remote locations and then sends this data to
a central computer which then manages and controls the data.A SCADA system refer to a system
consisting of a number of remote terminal units (or RTUs) collecting field data connected back to
a master station via a communications system.
The master station displays the acquired data and also allows the operator to perform
remote control tasks. The accurate and timely data (normally real-time) allows for optimization
of the operation of the plant and process. A further benefit is more efficient, reliable and most
importantly, safer operations. This all results in a lower cost of operation compared to earlier
non-automated systems.The RTU provides an interface to the field analog and digital signals
situated at each remote site.

22
• Sensors (either digital or analog) and control relays that directly interface with the
managed system.
• Remote telemetry units (RTUs). These are small computerized units deployed in the
field at specific sites and locations. RTUs serve as local collection points for gathering
reports from sensors and delivering commands to control relays.
• SCADA master units. These are larger computer consoles that serve as the central
processor for the SCADA system. Master units provide a human interface to the
system and automatically regulate the managed system in response to sensor inputs.
• Communications network that connects the SCADA master unit to the RTUs in the
field.
Usage of SCADA
1. Electric power generation, transmission and distribution: Electric utilities use SCADA
systems to detect current flow and line voltage, to monitor the operation of circuit
breakers, and to take sections of the power grid online or offline.
2. Water and sewage: State and municipal water utilities use SCADA to monitor and
regulate water flow, reservoir levels, pipe pressure and other factors.
3. Buildings, facilities and environments: Facility managers use SCADA to control HVAC,
refrigeration units, lighting and entry systems.
4. Manufacturing: SCADA systems manage parts inventories for just-in-time
manufacturing, regulate industrial automation and robots, and monitor process and
quality control.
5. Mass transit: Transit authorities use SCADA to regulate electricity to subways, trams
and trolley buses; to automate traffic signals for rail systems; to track and locate trains
and buses; and to control railroad crossing gates.
6. Traffic signals: SCADA regulates traffic lights, controls traffic flow and detects out-of-
order signals.

23
 DISTRIBUTED CONTROL SYSTEM(DCS)

A distributed control system (DCS) is a computerised control system for a process or plant
usually with a large number of control loops, in which autonomous controllers are distributed
throughout the system, but there is central operator supervisory control. This is in contrast
to systems that use centralized controllers; either discrete controllers located at a central
control room or within a central computer. The DCS concept increases reliability and reduces
installation costs by localising control functions near the process plant, with remote
monitoring and supervision
The key attribute of a DCS is its reliability due to the distribution of the control processing
around nodes in the system. This mitigates a single processor failure. If a processor fails, it
will only affect one section of the plant process, as opposed to a failure of a central computer
which would affect the whole process. This distribution of computing power local to the field
Input/Output (I/O) connection racks also ensures fast controller processing times by
removing possible network and central processing delays

• Level 0 contains the field devices such as flow and temperature sensors, and final
control elements, such as control valves
• Level 1 contains the industrialised Input/Output (I/O) modules, and their
associated distributed electronic processors.
• Level 2 contains the supervisory computers, which collect information from
processor nodes on the system, and provide the operator control screens.
• Level 3 is the production control level, which does not directly control the
process, but is concerned with monitoring production and monitoring targets
• Level 4 is the production scheduling level.

24
Advantages of DCS

• Access a large amount of current information from the data highway.

• Monitoring trends of past process conditions.
• Readily install new on-line measurements together with local computers.
• Alternate quickly among standard control strategies and readjust controller
parameters in software.
• A sight full engineer can use the flexibility of the framework to implement his latest
controller design ideas on the host computer.

25
 Computer Numeric Control (CNC)
Numerical control (NC) refer to control of a machine or a process using symbolic
codes consisting of characters and numerals.

Computer Numerical Control (CNC) Machine

Computer numerical control (CNC) is the numerical control system in which a dedicated
computer is built into the control to perform basic and advanced NC functions. CNC controls
are also referred to as softwired NC systems because most of their control functions are
implemented by the control software programs. CNC is a computer assisted process to
control general purpose machines from instructions generated by a processor and stored in
a memory system.
Advantages and Disadvantages of CNC
Advantages:

• High Repeatability and Precision e.g. Aircraft parts.

• Volume of production is very high.
• Complex contours/surfaces can be easily machined.
• Flexibility in job change, automatic tool settings, less scrap.
• More safe, higher productivity, better quality.
• Less paper work, faster prototype production, reduction in lead times.

Disadvantages:

• Costly setup, skilled operators.

• Computer programming knowledge required.
• Maintenance is difficult.

26
 QUESTION BANK
1. What is PLC

2. Draw and explain the architecture of PLC. Also mention advantages and disadvantages
3. Compare PLC and PC
4. How PLC works
5. What is sequential control
6. What do you mean by relay logic in PLC programming

7. Explain the concept of latching

8. Draw any three symbols used ladder programming
9. What are the basic instructions used in ladder logic
10. Realize AND,OR,NOT logic in PLC leader logic

11. Draw the ladder diagram of NAND,NOR and XOR gate

12. Write ladder program for the given expression and also draw ladder logic

Y=(X1+X2)+X3X4

Y=(X1+X2)(X3+X4)(X5X6)
Y=(X1X2)+X3

27