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FIBRE
OPTICS
Syllabus

 Basic principle of optical fibre, step index and

graded index fibers
 parameters of optical fibers, acceptance
angle, acceptance cone, numerical aperture,
normalized frequency, No. of modes,
 Attenuation in optical fibers, intermodal and
intramodal dispersion (no derivation), optical
fibers in communication.
 Introduction An optical fiber is essentially
a waveguide for light

 An optical fiber (or fibre) is a glass or plastic fiber designed to guide

light along its length by confining as much light as possible in a
propagating form.
 They are arranged in bundles called optical cables and used to
transmit light signals over long distances.
 Based on the principle of “Total Internal Reflection”
 Optical fibers are widely used in fiber-optic communication, which permits
transmission over longer distances and at higher data rates than other
forms of wired and wireless communications.
The light-guiding principle behind optical fibers was first demonstrated
in by Daniel Colladon and Jaques Babinet in the 1840s,
with Irish inventor John Tyndall offering public displays using water-fountains .
A fibre optic cable consists of glass or plastic
threads, which are protected by the thin
polyvinyl chloride (PVC) or metal sheath.
The central part of optical fibe is known as
core, which is surrounded by cladding. These
layers are further protected by PVC sheath

1. Core is made up of thin glass or plastic

layer through which light travels.

2. Cladding is outer optical material

surrounding the core and reflects back the
light into the core.
Core Refractive Index
3. Sheath is plastic coating that protects fibre Is slightly greater than that of
from any damage or other environmental Cladding
conditions.
The range of the core diameter is 5-
100 micrometer.
The cladding diameter is usually 125
um and sheath diameter is about 250
um.
Optical fibers are very fine fibers of glass. They consist of a glass
core, roughly fifty micrometres in diameter, surrounded by a glass
"optical cladding" giving an outside diameter of about 125
Micrometres.
Core
Glass or plastic
with a higher index
of refraction than
the cladding
Basic Structure Carries the signal
Cladding
Glass or plastic
Core Refractive with a lower index
Index of refraction than
Is slightly the core
greater than that Protective
of Sheath/Buffer Coating
Cladding Protects the fiber
from damage and
moisture
Jacket
Holds one or more
fibers in a cable
 In case of plastics, the core is made up of polystyrene or
polymethyl metha acrylate (PMMA) and cladding is made from
silicon or teflon.
 On the other hand in case of glass, it is made of silica (SiO2) with
refractive index 1.458.
1. The refractive index of pure silica can be increased by doping
with germania (GeO2) or phosphorous pentaoxide (P2O5).
2. Likewise, the refractive index of pure silica can be decreased
by doping with Boria (B2O3) or fluorene.
Hence the doped silica can be used as both core or
cladding materials.
Advantages of optical fiber :

 Greater bandwidth

 Lower loss

 Immunity to crosstalk

 No electrical hazard

 Free from electromagnetic interferences

 Light Propagation

•Visible light extends from 380 nm (violet) to 780 nm (red).

•For smaller wavelengths ultra-violet radiation (UV)
occurs. Longer wavelengths correspond to the infrared
region (IR).

•Optical Fibres communication elements operate in the

micrometer wavelength zone of the frequency spectrum
(frequencies between 1014 Hz to 1015 Hz).
Transmission of Light in Optical Fibre
An optical fiber guides
light waves in distinct
patterns called modes.

Mode describes the

distribution of light
energy across the fiber.

The precise patterns

Total Internal Reflection depend on the
wavelength of light
transmitted and on the
variation in refractive
index that shapes the
core.
 Expression for Critical Angle :
Total Internal Reflection According to Snell' s Law,
& n1 sin 1  n2 sin 1
Critical Angle If angle of incidence  Critical Angle (1  c ),
Then, 2  90 o
n1sin c  n2 sin 90
 n2 
c  sin 1  
 n1 

In case of optical fibre, the

refractive index of core (n1) is
slightly greater than the
refractive index of cladding (n2).
Then light signal is totally
internally reflected. As a result,
light ray undergoes multiple
total internal reflections at core
cladding interface until it
emerges out of the other end of
the fibre even if the fibre is bent.
 • Step-index fibers 
Types of Fiber because the index of
refraction changes
radically (in step)
1. Step Index Single Mode
between the core
2. Multi-Mode and the cladding
1. Step Index
2. Graded Index • Graded-index fiber is
a compromise
multimode fiber,
here the index of
refraction gradually
decreases away from
the center of the
core
• Graded-index fiber
has less dispersion
than a multimode
step-index fiber
 ADVANTAGE:
1. Best for high
speeds
2. Long distances
3. High
bandwidth

Allows only one mode of propagation

• Multi Mode Optical Fibre(Step-Index) : Allows many modes of propagation

 Numerical Aperture (NA) varies from 0.20

to 0.29 respectively.
 Typically the core diameter is 50 μm to
100 μm
 Due to higher value of NA , and larger core
size in this case, fibre connections and
launching of light is very easy
 Due to several modes, the effect of
dispersion gets increased, i.e. the modes
arrive at the fibre end slightly different
times and so spreading of pulses takes
place.

Features:
Large core size, so source power can be efficiently coupled to the fiber
High attenuation (4-6 dB / km), Low bandwidth (50 MHz-km)
Used in short, low-speed data links
Also useful in high-radiation environments, because it can be made with pure silica
core
Graded index Multimode Fibre
The profile of the refractive index is nearly parabolic that results in
continual refocusing of the ray in the core, and minimizing the modal
dispersion.
Standard graded index fibres typically have a core diameter of 50 μm or
62.5 μm and the cladding diameter of 125 μm.

(r) is the core index at radial distance ‘r’ from the core
axis,  1 is refractive index at core axis,  is fractional
refractive index difference, d is core diameter and  is
grading profile index number.
 Features of Graded Index Fibre
1. The light wave follow sinusoidal • Low modal Dispersion
paths along the fibre. – Longer path is now located
2. In this fibre, the refractive index of in lower index region; the
the core decreases with increasing larger time taken is
radial distance from the fibre axis. compensated by faster
3. The value of the refractive index is travel leading to less pulse
highest at the centre of the core broadening
and decreases to a value at the
edge of the core that equal the
refractive index of the cladding.
4. Useful for “premises networks”
like LANs, security systems, etc.
1. 62.5/125 micron has been
most widely used
2. Works well with LEDs, but
cannot be used for Gigabit
Ethernet
Types/index profile
Acceptance Angle

 Acceptance angle:- The acceptance angle is the maximum angle

made by incident ray of light with the axis of core at core-outside
medium, so that it gets totally internally reflected at core cladding
interface.

The acceptance angle of an optical fiber is defined based on a purely geometrical

consideration (ray optics): it is the maximum angle of a ray (against the fiber axis) hitting
the fiber core which allows the incident light to be guided by the core.
Acceptance Cone
Fractional Refraction index/Relative refractive index
Relationships

For air, no~1

V-number (normalized frequency) : measure of the number of
supported modes
 V-number
&
Number of Modes
Cutoff Wavelength - this is the minimum wavelength at which the fiber will support
only one mode. Wavelengths that are shorter than the cutoff wavelength, can
actually allow higher-order modes to propagate.

d: diameter of the core

Number of Modes (for large V-number)

Only an Approximate formula

Valid for Large V-Numbers Only
 DISPERSION
The light signals propagate through any optical fibre suffer with various
dispersion effects. As a result the shape of the output signal change
relative to the input signal. This spreading of output pulse in the time
domain known as dispersion or distortion in optical fibre.
TYPES OF DISPERSION
Pulse Dispersion

Intermodal Dispersion

Intramodal Dispersion
Intermodal Dispersion: Affects only Multimode
 Also known as Modal Dispersion
 Spreading of a pulse because different modes (paths)
through the fiber take different times
 Only happens in multimode fiber
 Reduced, but not eliminated, with graded-index fiber
Intermodal Dispersion
Intramodal dispersion/chromatic disp.
Chromatic Dispersion

 Different wavelengths travel

at different speeds through
the fiber
 This spreads a pulse in an
effect named chromatic
dispersion

Chromatic dispersion
occurs in both singlemode and multimode fiber
A far smaller effect than modal dispersion
Chromatic Dispersion
Material Dispersion
This is caused by the fact that the refractive
index varies (slightly) with the wavelength.
•Some wavelengths therefore have
higher group velocities and so travel
faster than others. Since every pulse
consists of a range of wavelengths it will
spread out to some degree during its
travel.
•All optical signals consist of a range of
wavelengths.
 Waveguide dispersion
(Affects mainly single mode)

In a single mode,
•20% signal is travelling through the The shape (profile) of the
cladding and remaining 80% signal fibre has a very significant
travels through the core by multiple effect on the group velocity.
total internal reflections. o This is because the
•As the refractive index of the electric and magnetic fields
cladding is less as compare to the that constitute the pulse of
refractive index of core, therefore light extend outside of the
light signal propagation through the core into the cladding.
cladding is faster as compare to light
signal propagation through core. The amount that the fields
•Hence, the shape of output signal overlap between core and
distorted due to overlapping of core cladding depends strongly on
and cladding signals. Such type of the wavelength. The longer the
dispersion is known as waveguide wavelength the further the the
dispersion. electromagnetic wave extends
into the cladding.
Waveguide dispersion???
 Attenuation

:Attenuation
coefficient

OR

Pi  Input power

Po Output power

Cause/Reasons:

 Absorption
 Scattering
 Bending losses
Optical fibre communication system
Optical fibre communication system
Light Emitting Diodes used in
Optical Fiber Communication
 In optical fiber communication systems, LEDs
serve as optical sources to convert electrical
signals into light pulses.
 LEDs are well-suited for shorter-distance
multi-mode fiber links due to their wider
spectral output compared to lasers. They act as
transmitters by injecting light into the fiber core.
 Optical fibers are like super highways for data,
letting us transmit huge amounts of information
quickly. LEDs play a key role in this fiber optic
technology.
Advantages of LEDs in Fiber Optic Communication
LEDs have some great benefits that make them well-suited for use in fiber optic
communication systems. Let’s look at why LEDs are the preferred light source for transmitting
data over optical fibers.

1.Compact Size
LEDs are super small, allowing them to be easily coupled to the tiny cores of optical
fibers. Their small emitting area matches well with the small diameter fiber cores. This
maximizes light injection into the fiber.
2.Cost Effective
Producing LEDs is relatively affordable compared to other light sources like lasers. This
makes LEDs a cost-effective option for cheaper, shorter-distance fiber links.
3.Energy Efficient
LEDs convert electrical currents to light very efficiently. This results in lower power
consumption compared to lasers or other sources. Being energy efficient is a big plus!
4.Reliable
LEDs are solid-state devices with no fragile filaments or glass. This makes them resistant
to vibrations and shocks. LEDs can withstand fluctuating temperatures and harsh
conditions. This high reliability is a key advantage.
5.Easy Modulation
The output light from LEDs can be easily modulated and encoded with data by varying
the input electrical signal. This allows rapid flickering for high-speed data transmission.
6.Directional Emission
Unlike ordinary light bulbs that spread light everywhere, LEDs emit light in a narrow,
directed beam. This makes it easy to capture the light into optical fibers.
 Photodiodes in Fiber communication

Photodiodes are essential components in optical fiber communication systems,

primarily functioning as light detectors that convert optical signals into electrical
signals. Their role is crucial for the operation of receivers in fiber-optic
communication systems. Here's how photodiodes are used in optical fibers:

1. Signal Detection:
•A photodiode is used at the receiving end of the system to convert the optical
signals (light) back into electrical signals, which can then be processed further.

2. High-Speed Operation:
•Photodiodes are designed to operate at high speeds to handle the rapid
transmission of data over optical fibers.

3. Noise and Signal Integrity:

•The efficiency of a photodiode directly impacts the signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) in
optical systems. An ideal photodiode will minimize noise, maintaining the integrity
of the transmitted data.
 Injection Laser Diode (ILD)
An Injection Laser Diode (ILD), commonly referred to as a semiconductor laser
or laser diode, is a vital component in optical fiber communication systems. Its
primary function is to convert electrical signals into coherent light that can
be transmitted through optical fibers over long distances.
Laser diodes are preferred in high-speed communication systems due to their
efficiency, high output power, and ability to operate at the precise wavelengths
required for fiber optic communication.
Role of Injection Laser Diodes in Optical Fibers:
1. Light Source for Data Transmission:
•Injection laser diodes are used as light sources at the transmitting end of the optical fiber
communication system. They emit a narrow, coherent beam of light, which is modulated with
data (digital signals). This light is then coupled into the optical fiber for transmission over
long distances.

2. Precise Wavelength Emission:

•Injection laser diodes emit light at specific wavelengths that correspond to the low-loss
transmission windows of optical fibers. The most common wavelengths used are:
• 850 nm for multimode fiber systems.
• 1310 nm and 1550 nm for single-mode fiber systems, which are the most widely
used in long-distance communication.
• These wavelengths minimize attenuation (loss of signal strength) and dispersion,
allowing data to travel long distances with minimal signal degradation.
 Difference of Injection laser diode and photodiode in fiber communication

Injection laser diode (ILD) Photodiode

• Transmitter Component: ILDs are used • Receiver Component: Photodiodes
as the light source at the transmitting are used at the receiving end of the
end of the optical fiber system. They optical system to detect the incoming
convert electrical signals into light signals light signals from the fiber and convert
that carry data through the optical fiber. them back into electrical signals. They
perform the reverse operation of the
• Capable of high-speed modulation,
ILD.
meaning the intensity or phase of the
light can be varied rapidly, allowing for • Converts optical signals back into
the transmission of high-bandwidth data. electrical signals.

• Converts electrical signals into optical • Acts as a detector of light at the

signals (light). receiver.

• Acts as the source of light, usually • Its primary role is to absorb photons
emitting at specific wavelengths like 850 from the light signal and generate
nm, 1310 nm, or 1550 nm. electron-hole pairs, producing a
current proportional to the light
intensity.
Assignment:
1. What are Optical Fibres? Summarize the principle behind the
transmission of light signal through an optical Fibre.
2. Write the advantages of using optical fibre communication system.
3. Explain the structure/construction of an optical fibre with the help
of an appropriate diagram.
4. The refractive index of core should be slightly greater than that of
cladding. Justify the statement by citing appropriate reasons.
5. Compare single mode and multimode optical fibres.
6. Justify the name “step index optical fibre” .
7. Difference between step index and graded index multimode OF
8. Derive the expression for (i) Critical Angle (ii) Acceptance Angle
(iii)Numerical Aperture.
9. Define and/or write expressions for : (i) Critical Angle (ii)
Acceptance Angle (iii)Numerical Aperture (iv) Fractional Refractive
Index Difference (v) V-number (vi) Number of Modes
10. Express acceptance angle and numerical aperture in terms of
fractional refractive index difference.