TABLE OF CONTENT

ABSTRACT .................................................................................................................................. 1
INTRODUCTION........................................................................................................................... 2
THEORY........................................................................................................................................ 3
SEEBECK EFFECT...................................................................................................................... 4
PELTIER’S EFFECT..................................................................................................................... 7
THOMSON’S EFFECT.................................................................................................................. 8
THERMOPILE............................................................................................................................. 10
OBSERVATIONS.........................................................................................................................11
RESULT AND DISCUSSIONS.................................................................................................... 12
RECOMMENDATIONS............................................................................................................... 13
CONCLUSION.............................................................................................................................14
REFERENCES............................................................................................................................ 15
 ABSTRACT

The thermoelectric effect, encompassing the Seebeck, Peltier, and Thomson effects, plays a vital
role in the direct conversion of thermal energy into electrical energy and vice versa. This paper
explores the fundamental principles and phenomena underlying the thermoelectric effect,
focusing on its applications in temperature sensing, power generation, and cooling. The Seebeck
effect is discussed in the context of thermocouples, widely used for precise temperature
measurement, while the Peltier effect is examined for its relevance to thermoelectric cooling
systems. The less-discussed Thomson effect is also analyzed to provide a comprehensive
understanding of heat and charge carrier interactions in non-uniform temperature conditions.
Additionally, the thermoelectric series, thermopiles, and their applications are elaborated to
emphasize the practical significance of thermoelectric phenomena. This study aims to enhance
the understanding of thermoelectric principles and their potential to revolutionize energy
management systems by leveraging waste heat and providing efficient temperature control
solutions.

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INTRODUCTION
The thermoelectric effect refers to the direct conversion of temperature differences into electric
voltage, or vice versa, through materials. This phenomenon, governed by the principles of
thermodynamics and electrical conductivity, has profound implications in various fields, including
temperature sensing, power generation, and refrigeration. Thermoelectric devices, such as
thermocouples and thermoelectric generators, make use of these effects to harness the flow of
heat and convert it into electrical energy, or to use electricity for cooling purposes. The
thermoelectric effect is typically broken down into three primary phenomena: the Seebeck effect,
the Peltier effect, and the Thomson effect. Each of these effects describes the movement of
charge carriers in response to temperature gradients, leading to the generation or absorption of
voltage or heat.

1.​ Seebeck Effect: Discovered by Thomas Johann Seebeck in 1821, the Seebeck effect
occurs when two different conductors or semiconductors are joined together and
subjected to a temperature difference. This creates a voltage (or electromotive force,
EMF) that is proportional to the temperature gradient across the junction. This
principle is utilized in thermocouples, which are widely used for precise temperature
measurements in various industrial and scientific applications.
2.​ Peltier Effect: The Peltier effect is the reverse of the Seebeck effect. It occurs when
an electric current flows through a junction of two different conductors or
semiconductors, causing heat to be absorbed at one junction (the cold side) and
released at the other junction (the hot side). This effect is used in thermoelectric
coolers (TECs), which are employed in applications where active cooling is needed,
such as in refrigeration and electronic cooling systems.
3.​ Thomson Effect: The Thomson effect, less commonly discussed than the Seebeck
and Peltier effects, describes the generation or absorption of heat in a conductor when
an electric current passes through it in the presence of a temperature gradient. This
effect is significant in understanding the behavior of materials under non-uniform
temperature conditions and is crucial for designing more efficient thermoelectric
devices.
Understanding these three effects is essential for designing thermoelectric devices that can
efficiently convert waste heat into electrical energy or provide cooling for various technological
applications. The efficiency of thermoelectric devices depends heavily on the material properties,
including the Seebeck coefficient, electrical conductivity, and thermal conductivity. Materials
that exhibit high thermoelectric efficiency are considered highly valuable for energy conversion
technologies, such as thermoelectric generators (TEGs), which can convert industrial waste heat
into usable power, and thermoelectric coolers (TECs), used for precise temperature control in
sensitive equipment.
This project aims to explore the principles behind the thermoelectric effect and the specific
phenomena involved, as well as their practical applications. By studying the Seebeck, Peltier,
and Thomson effects in detail, this project will contribute to a deeper understanding of

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thermoelectric phenomena and their potential to revolutionize energy and temperature
management systems. [1]

THEORY
Thermocouples
A thermocouple is a device that exploits the Seebeck effect to measure temperature. It
consists of two wires made of different materials that are joined at one end to form a junction.
When this junction is exposed to a temperature difference (due to thermal gradients), an
electromotive force (EMF) is generated across the two wires, which can be measured.
Working Principle:
●​ Two different metals (or semiconductors) are joined together to form two junctions:
one exposed to the hot temperature (usually called the hot or measurement junction)
and the other exposed to a known reference temperature (called the cold or reference
junction).
●​ The temperature difference between the hot and cold junctions creates a voltage
difference, proportional to this temperature difference. The voltage is measured and
used to calculate the temperature.
The voltage generated depends on the materials used for the wires (e.g., copper, constantan,
platinum, etc.) and their Seebeck coefficients. Each thermocouple type has its characteristic
voltage-to-temperature conversion formula, making thermocouples versatile in different
temperature ranges.
Types of Thermocouples:
●​ Type K (Chromel-Alumel): Commonly used due to its wide temperature range.
●​ Type J (Iron-Constantan): Suitable for lower temperatures.
●​ Type T (Copper-Constantan): Used for cryogenic applications.
●​ Type R (Platinum-Platinum/Rhodium): Used for very high temperatures.
Thermocouples are widely used in industries for temperature measurement due to their
simplicity, durability, and ability to measure over a wide range of temperatures.
Thermoelectric Series
The arrangement of different metals in the form of series from which any two metals can be used
for used to form a thermocouple is known as thermoelectric series. he arrangement of some of
the metals forming thermoelectric series is
Sb, Fe, Zn, Ag, Mo, Cr,Sn, Pb, Hg, Mn, Cu, Co, Ni, Bi
Arrange the following thermo-couples in the ascending order of producing thermo emf at a
particular constant temperature.
Two advantages of thermoelectric series :
1.​ To know the direction with ABC rule
2.​ To find thermo emf in thermocouple : iron-zinc< Iron-copper [2]

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SEEBECK EFFECT
The Seebeck effect is a phenomenon where a voltage (electromotive force, or EMF) is generated
when there is a temperature difference across two different conductive materials (usually
metals or semiconductors). This voltage arises due to the movement of charge carriers (either
electrons or holes) from the hot side to the cold side of the materials in response to the
temperature gradient.
The Seebeck effect is named after Thomas Johann Seebeck, a German physicist, who
discovered this effect in 1821. This phenomenon is the basis for thermocouples, which are
widely used for temperature measurement.

Fig : Seebeck effect

Cause of the Seebeck Effect

The Seebeck effect occurs due to the redistribution of charge carriers in a material when it
experiences a temperature gradient. Here’s a step-by-step breakdown of the underlying cause
of this effect:​

1.​ Thermal Energy and Charge Carriers:

○​ In any conducting material (metal or semiconductor), the free charge carriers
(electrons in metals, and either electrons or holes in semiconductors) are in
motion due to their thermal energy. At higher temperatures, these charge
carriers gain more energy and move faster.
2.​ Temperature Gradient:
○​ When there is a temperature difference across the material (for example, one
end is heated while the other is kept cooler), the charge carriers at the hotter
end of the material will have higher thermal energy compared to those at the
cooler end.
3.​ Diffusion of Charge Carriers:
○​ The charge carriers (electrons or holes) in the hotter region, now energized,
begin to diffuse toward the cooler region where the thermal energy is lower.
This occurs because particles generally tend to move from areas of higher
energy (hot) to lower energy (cold), trying to reach thermal equilibrium.
4.​ Charge Imbalance:

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 ○​ This movement of charge carriers from the hot side to the cold side causes a
redistribution of charge within the material. At the hot end, a positive
charge builds up (due to the movement of negatively charged electrons), and
at the cold end, a negative charge builds up. This separation of charges
creates an electric potential difference (voltage) across the material.
5.​ Material Properties:
○​ The degree to which charge carriers diffuse (and thus the amount of voltage
generated) depends on the material’s properties, particularly its Seebeck
coefficient. The Seebeck coefficient is a material-specific factor that
quantifies how effectively the material generates voltage in response to a
temperature gradient. [4]

Variation of Thermoelectric e.m.f. with Temperature

Fig : To show Thermoelectric e.m.f. with Temperature

Consider a case in which one junction is immersed in ice and another junction is
immersed in a hot oil bath as in the figure. It is found that the thermo e.m.f. for a given
pair of metals depends on i) the temperature of the cold junction and ii) temperature
difference between two junctions.

Keeping cold junction fixed at 0 C, on gradually increasing the temperature of hot junction, the
thermo e.m.f. also gradually increases and reaches maximum value at θn called neutral
temperature after which it begins to decrease and becomes zero at θi called temperature of
inversion.

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 Fig : Variation of Thermoelectric e.m.f. with Temperature

On further increasing, the thermo e.m.f. is reversed.

Experiments show that e.m.f. is almost a parabolic function of temperature as in the figure.
The relation between thermo e.m.f. E and temperature difference θ between hot and cold
junctions can be expressed as;

..........................................................(1)
Where α and β are thermoelectric coefficients or Seebeck coefficients, the values of which
depend upon the pair of metals constituting the thermocouple.

Note:

Neutral temperature

The temperature of the hot junction at which the thermo e.m.f. becomes maximum is called
neutral temperature.
Temperature of inversion
The temperature of the hot junction at which the thermo e.m.f. is zero and reverses the direction
is called temperature of inversion.

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Relation between 𝜽𝒄, 𝜽𝒏 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝜽𝒊

●​ θi always exceed θn almost by the same amount as the θn exceeds θc i.e.

θi − θn = θn − θc
𝜃i − 𝜃n = 𝜃n − 𝜃c
​ or, ​ 2𝜃n = 𝜃i + 𝜃c

...................................(2)

θi depends upon:
a)temperature of cold junction
b) nature of metal of thermocouple θn is independent of a) but depends on b)

PELTIER’S EFFECT

Fig : Demonstration of Peltire’s Effect

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It is the phenomenon of generation or absorption of heat at the two junctions of a thermocouple
due to passing the electric current through it.
It is the conversion of the Sebeck effect and it occurs only at the junction. It is a reversible
phenomenon.

As in the demonstrating figure 4, it is observed that the junction at which the current enters from
Cu to Fe is cooled and that at which currents enters from iron to copper is heated.
Peltier​ coefficient: It is defined as the product of thermo-electric power and absolute
temperature. It is denoted by 𝜋.

π=T
ds
dT
𝜋 = Td𝘴dT

Mechanism
In this effect when current is passed in a thermocouple, one junction becomes cool and another
junction becomes hot.
At the hot junction, the current is in the direction of Peltire’s e.m.f. . So the e.m.f. itself does
work and some energy is absorbed from this junction. Consequently this junction becomes cool.
At the cold junction, current is against Peltire’s e.m.f. work is done and energy is liberated in the
form of heat. The cold junction thus tends to be heated.

THOMSON’S EFFECT
It is the phenomenon of absorption or evolution of heat energy due to the flow of current in an
unequally heated single conductor.
Explanation
Consider a thick copper rod with its ends at the same temperature and centre maintained at the
much higher temperature.
If no current flows, P and Q are at the same temperature due to thermal conduction alone.

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 Fig : Demonstration of positive Thomson’s effect

If current is sent as in the figure 1 , The temperature at P is less than at Q. Means that heat energy
is transformed from P to Q (i,e, along the direction of current). This is called +ve Thomson’s
Effect. It is observed in Cu, Cd, Zn, Ag and Sb.

Figure 2 : Demonstration of negative Thomson’s effect

In figure 2, under the similar condition, temperature at P is larger than at Q, which means that
heat energy is transformed from Q to P. This is called -ve Thomson’s effect. It is observed in Fe,
Pt, Bi, Co, Ni and Hg.
If the direction of current in either of the above cases is reversed, the Thomson’s effect is also
reversed.

In Lead, Thomson’s effect is zero. Due to this Thermoelectric behaviour of metal is studied by
taking lead as the second element.
Mechanism
It is explained on the basis of free electron theory of metal. As we know that the electron density
in a metal depends on temperature. There are different electron densities in different parts of an
unequally heated metal rod.
The hotter portion has more energies, so electrons move from hotter parts to colder parts. In this
way at the region of low temperature the electron density is more. Consequently, the potential of
a hotter region is more.
Thus an e.m.f. acts from the colder portion to hotter portion called Thomson’s e.m.f.
When current is passed, the work is done either against or along the direction of electric intensity.
This produces absorption or evolution of energy.

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Note :
The free electron theory does not explain the -ve Thomson’s effect. It also does not explain
almost zero Thomson’s effect in case of Lead.

THERMOPILE

A thermopile is an electronic device that consists of multiple thermocouples connected in series

or parallel to measure temperature differences. It works based on the Seebeck effect, where a
temperature gradient across the junctions of two different conductors generates a voltage. A
thermopile is used to detect and measure heat, and it's often used in applications such as infrared
thermometers, gas fireplaces, and non-contact temperature sensing.
Working Principle:
●​ In a thermopile, many thermocouples are connected together, and when there is a
temperature difference between the hot and cold junctions, a voltage is generated. The
total voltage output of the thermopile is the sum of the voltages generated by each
individual thermocouple.
●​ Thermopiles are typically designed to be highly sensitive, allowing for precise
temperature measurements, especially in infrared sensing applications.

Applications:
1.​ Infrared Sensors: Thermopiles are used in infrared thermometers to detect
temperature without needing direct contact with the object.
2.​ Gas Flame Detection: Used in gas-powered appliances (e.g., gas stoves for
fireplaces) to detect the presence of a flame.
3.​ Heat Flow Measurement: Thermopiles are used to measure the amount of heat
transferred in scientific and industrial applications. [5]

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OBSERVATION

This project investigated the Seebeck, Peltier, and Thomson effects, as well as the practical
applications of thermocouples and thermopiles in various temperature-related phenomena.

Seebeck Effect: The Seebeck effect was observed by connecting two different metals, such as
copper and constantan, and subjecting the junction to a temperature gradient. As the temperature
difference between the two junctions increased, the voltage generated was proportional to this
gradient. Different materials produced different voltage values, with copper and platinum
showing distinct responses to temperature differences. This confirmed that the Seebeck effect is
directly related to the temperature gradient, with higher gradients producing higher voltages.

Peltier Effect: In the Peltier effect demonstration, when an electric current passed through a
copper-iron thermocouple, one junction became hot and the other cold. Reversing the current
caused the heating and cooling effects to switch. This effect, which is the reverse of the Seebeck
effect, is used in thermoelectric coolers (TECs) for applications like refrigeration and electronic
cooling. The experiment highlighted how the direction of current determines the absorption and
release of heat at the junctions.

Thomson Effect: The Thomson effect was observed in conductors like copper, where a
temperature gradient was applied, and current was passed through the material. In the positive
Thomson effect, heat moved from the cooler to the hotter part of the conductor, while in the
negative Thomson effect, heat moved in the opposite direction. This showed how the direction of
current and temperature gradient influences heat transfer within a single conductor.

Thermocouples and Thermopiles: The thermocouple experiment demonstrated that voltage

generated from a temperature difference is directly related to the properties of the materials used,
such as their Seebeck coefficients. Thermopiles, which are arrays of multiple thermocouples
connected in series or parallel, were found to generate larger voltages, allowing for more
sensitive measurements of temperature differences. Thermopiles are commonly used in
non-contact temperature measurements, such as infrared thermometers and gas flame detection.

Thermoelectric Materials: We also observed the efficiency of various thermoelectric materials.

Materials like bismuth telluride, with a high Seebeck coefficient and low thermal conductivity,
proved to be highly effective for converting heat into electricity or providing active cooling.
These materials are key in the development of thermoelectric generators (TEGs) and
thermoelectric coolers (TECs), which have important applications in energy conversion and
temperature management systems.

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In conclusion, this project demonstrated the principles behind the Seebeck, Peltier, and Thomson
effects, and how they are applied in real-world thermoelectric devices. The experiments
confirmed that thermoelectric phenomena can be used to convert waste heat into electrical
energy, and to provide active cooling, with the potential for widespread applications in industries
such as electronics, energy, and manufacturing. [6]

RESULT AND DISCUSSION

The thermoelectric effect, encompassing the Seebeck, Peltier, and Thomson effects,
demonstrates significant potential in energy conversion, cooling, and temperature sensing
applications. This project successfully highlighted how temperature differences could be
harnessed to generate electricity, with the Seebeck effect proving particularly effective for waste
heat recovery. Similarly, the Peltier effect showed promise for compact cooling solutions, though
its efficiency is currently inferior to traditional cooling systems. The study emphasized the
importance of materials, with bismuth telluride and similar compounds offering high efficiency
due to their favorable thermoelectric properties. However, challenges such as material cost and
availability, coupled with relatively low conversion efficiency compared to conventional energy
systems, limit widespread adoption. Despite these obstacles, thermoelectric technology's ability
to function in low-maintenance and extreme environments underscores its utility in niche
applications like space exploration, wearable electronics, and renewable energy systems. With
further advancements in material science and device design, thermoelectric systems could play a
pivotal role in sustainable energy solutions and innovative technologies.

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RECOMMENDATIONS

To enhance the application and efficiency of thermoelectric technologies, several steps can be
taken. First, research should focus on developing cost-effective and sustainable thermoelectric
materials with higher efficiency and stability, such as advanced nanostructured compounds or
hybrid systems. Integrating thermoelectric devices with renewable energy sources like solar or
geothermal systems can further maximize their utility in sustainable energy applications.
Additionally, improving the design and architecture of these devices can optimize heat transfer
and minimize energy losses, leading to better overall performance. Industries that generate
substantial waste heat, such as manufacturing and transportation, should adopt thermoelectric
systems to recover and utilize this energy, contributing to energy conservation and cost
reduction. To facilitate broader adoption, pilot projects should aim at scaling thermoelectric
systems for commercial use, ensuring they are economically viable and easily integrated into
existing technologies. Lastly, raising awareness among policymakers, industries, and the public
about the benefits of thermoelectric technologies, along with government incentives and
subsidies, can further accelerate their development and implementation. By addressing these
areas, thermoelectric technology can play a significant role in advancing sustainable energy
solutions.

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CONCLUSION

In conclusion, this project has successfully explored the principles and applications of the
thermoelectric effect, specifically focusing on the Seebeck, Peltier, and Thomson effects. The
experiments conducted confirmed the theoretical understanding of how temperature differences
across materials can lead to the generation of electrical voltage, heat absorption, or heat release.
The Seebeck effect was demonstrated through thermocouples, showing how voltage is generated
in response to temperature gradients, while the Peltier effect highlighted the ability to use
electricity for cooling or heating, as seen in thermoelectric coolers (TECs). The Thomson effect
provided further insight into the behavior of materials under temperature gradients and electric
currents.
The study of thermoelectric materials such as bismuth telluride and lead telluride demonstrated
their importance in optimizing the efficiency of thermoelectric devices for both power generation
and cooling applications. The use of thermopiles, which combine multiple thermocouples to
enhance sensitivity, proved valuable in non-contact temperature sensing and detection
applications, such as in infrared thermometers and gas flame detection.
This project has not only deepened the understanding of the thermoelectric effect but also
highlighted the potential of thermoelectric devices in practical applications like energy
harvesting, waste heat recovery, and temperature management. With further advancements in
material science and engineering, thermoelectric technologies can play a pivotal role in creating
sustainable solutions for energy conversion and cooling systems in various industries.

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 REFERENCES

1.​ Rowe, D. M. (1995). CRC Handbook of Thermoelectrics. CRC Press.

2.​ Shakouri, A. (2011). Recent trends in thermoelectric materials and devices. Annual
Review of Materials Research, 41(1), 399-431.
3.​ Snyder, G. J., & Toberer, E. S. (2008). Complex thermoelectric materials. Nature
Materials, 7(2), 105-114.
4.​ Bell, L. E. (2008). Cooling, heating, generating power, and recovering waste heat with
thermoelectric systems. Science, 321(5895), 1457-1461.
5.​ Goldsmid, H. J. (2010). Introduction to Thermoelectricity. Springer Series in Materials
Science.
6.​ Tritt, T. M., & Subramanian, M. A. (2006). Thermoelectrics: Current and potential
applications. Materials Research Society Bulletin, 31(8), 188-193

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