MARTHANDAM COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY

MARTHANDAM COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING

AND TECHNOLOGY
Department of Mechanical Engineering

LABORATORY MANUAL

Academic Year:2020-2021(ODD)
ME – 8781 MECHATRONICS LABORATORY

1
 MECHATRONICS LABORATORY MANUAL

SYLLABUS
Downloaded from www.annauniv.edu
ME 8781 MECHATRONICS LABORATORY LTPC0042

OBJECTIVES:
To know the method of programming the microprocessor and also the design, modeling & analysis
of basic electrical, hydraulic & pneumatic Systems which enable the students to understand the
concept of mechatronics.
LIST OF EXPERIMENTS:
1. Assembly language programming of 8085 – Addition – Subtraction – Multiplication – Division
– Sorting – Code Conversion.
2. Stepper motor interface.
3. Traffic light interface.
4. Speed control of DC motor.
5. Study of various types of transducers.
6. Study of hydraulic, pneumatic and electro-pneumatic circuits.
7. Modelling and analysis of basic hydraulic, pneumatic and electrical circuits using Software.
8. Study of PLC and its applications.
9. Study of image processing technique.
TOTAL : 60 PERIODS
OUTCOMES:
Upon the completion of this course the students will be able to
CO1 Demonstrate the functioning of mechatronics system with various pneumatic, hydraulic and
electrical systems.
CO2 Demonstrate the functioning of control systems with the help of PLC and microcontrollers.
MARTHANDAM COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY

LIST OF EXPERIMENTS
SL.NO TITLE OF EXPERIMENT MARKS SIGNATURE
STEPPER MOTOR INTERFACING WITH 8051
1
MICROCONTROLLER (Forward direction)
STEPPER MOTOR INTERFACING WITH 8051
2
MICROCONTROLLER (Reverse direction)
TRAFFIC LIGHT CONTROL USING 8051
3
MICROCONTROLLER
ADDITION AND SUBTRACTION OPERATIONS
4
USING 8051 MICROCONTROLLER
MULTIPLICATION AND DIVISION OPERATIONS
5
USING 8051 MICROCONTROLLER
OPERATION OF SINGLE ACTING CYLINDER USING
6
3/2 DCV
OPERATION OF DOUBLE ACTING CYLINDER
7
USING 5/2 DCV
OPERATION OF DOUBLE ACTING CYLINDER
8
USING DOUBLE SOLENOID DCV
AUTOMATION OF SINGLE ACTING CYLINDER
9
USING PLC
10 SPEED CONTROL OF AC/DC MOTOR
STUDY CHARACTERISTICS OF PRESSURE
11
TRANSMITTER
ACTUATION OF HYDRAULIC CYLINDER TO
12
FIND OUT FORCE VS PRESSURE
13 STUDY OF IMAGE PROCESSING
14 STUDY ON VARIOUS TYPES OF TRANSDUCERS

3
 MECHATRONICS LABORATORY MANUAL

Program: 8-bit Addition:

Memory Label Opcode Mnemonics Comments
location
4100 Start C3 CLR C Clear the carry flag
4101 74 DA MOV A, # data 1 Moves data 1 to register A
4103 24 DA ADD A, # data 2 Add content of A and data 2 and store
in A
4105 46 45 00 MOV DPTR, # 4500 Moves data 4500 to DPTR
4108 F0 MOV A @DPTR, A Moves control of A to location
pointed DTPR
4109 80 FE SJMP 4109 Short jump to 4109

Execution:
Addition:
ML Input
4101 Output address Value
4103 4500

Program: 8-bit Subtraction:

Memory Label Opcode Mnemonics Comments
location
4100 Start C3 CLR C Clear the carry flag
4101 74 DA MOV A, # data 1 Moves data 1 to register A
4103 24 DA ADD A, # data 2 Subtract data 2 from content of A
and store result in A
4105 46 45 MOV DPTR, # 4500 Moves data 4500 to DPTR
00
4108 F0 MOV A @DPTR, A Moves result by location pointed
DTPR
4109 80 FE SJMP 4109 Short jump to 4109

Execution:
Subtraction:
ML Input
4101 Output address Value
4103 4500
MARTHANDAM COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY

Ex.no:
Date :
ADDITION AND SUBTRACTION OPERATIONS
USING 8051 MICROCONTROLLER

Aim
To do the arithmetic operations using 8051 microprocessor

Apparatus required
1. 8051 microcontroller
2. DAC interface kit
3. Keyboard

Algorithm
Addition/subtraction
1. Step 1:move 1H data to memory
2. Step 2:add or subtract 1H data with 2nd data
3. Step 3:initialize data pointer
4. Step 4: move result to memory pointed by DPTR

START

Out 1H data in memory

Add or subtract 1H 1st data

Initialize DPTR

Move result to memory preset by

DPTR

STOP

Result:
Thus 8-bit addition, subtraction is performed using 8051.

5
 MECHATRONICS LABORATORY MANUAL

Program: 8-bit multiplication:

Memory Label Opcode Mnemonics Comments
location
4100 Start 74 03 MOV A, # data 1 Move immediate data to accumulator
4101 75 F0 03 MOV B, # data 2 Move 2nd data to B register
4105 A4 MUL A B Get the product in A and B
4106 90 45 00 MOV DPTR, # 4500 Load data in 4500 location
4109 F0 MOV X @DPTR, A Move A to ext RAM
410B E5 F0 MOV A, B Move 2nd data in A
410D F0 MOV A @ DPTR Text Ram
410E 80 FE SJMP 410E Remain idle in infinite loop

Execution:
Multiplication:
ML Input
4101 Output address Value
4103 4500

Program: 8-bit division:

Memory Label Opcode Mnemonics Comments
location
4100 Start 74 08 MOV A, # data 1 Move immediate data to
accumulator
4102 75 F0 MOV B, # data 2 DIV AB Move immediate to B register
02
4105 84 DIV A B Divide the content of A and B
4106 90 45 MOV DPTR, # 4500 Load data pointer with 4500
00 location
4109 F0 MOV X @DPTR, A Move A to ext RAM
410A A3 INC DPTR Increment data pointer
410B E5 F0 MOV A, B Move remainder to A
410D F0 MOV @DPTR, A Move A to ext RAM
410E 80 FE SJMP 410E Remain idle in infinite loop

Execution:
Division:
ML Input
4101 Output address Value
4103 4500
MARTHANDAM COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY

Ex.no:
Date :
MULTIPLICATION AND DIVISION OPERATIONS
USING 8051 MICROCONTROLLER

Aim:
To do the arithmetic operations using 8051 microcontroller.
Apparatus required:
1. 8051 microcontroller
2. DAC interface kit
3. Keyboard
Algorithm
Multiplication/ division
1. Step 1:move 1H and2nd data to memory
2. Step 2:multiply or divide 1H data with 2nd data
3. Step 3:initialize data pointer
4. Step 4: move result to memory pointed by DPTR(first port)
5. Step 5:increment DPTR
6. Step 6:move 2nd part of result to register A
7. Step 7: move result to 2nd memory location pointer by DPTR

START

Get data into the register

Complement the data

Move the data to pointer by DPTR

Increment data

Increment DPTR

Move data into paste location

Short jump to preset location

STOP

Result:
Thus 8-bit multiplication and division is performed using 8051
7
 MECHATRONICS LABORATORY MANUAL

Program:

Opcode &
Address Label Mnemonics Comment
operand
4100 SD 4100 ORG 4100H
4100 90 45 00 START :MOV DPTR # 4500H
4103 78 04 MOV RO# 04
4105 E0 Oly MOVX A@DPTR
4106 C0 83 PUSH DPH
4108 C0 82 PUSH DPL
410A 90 FF C0 MOV DPTR #FF COH
410D 7A 04 MOV R2 # OFH
410F 79 0F MOV R3 # OFH
4111 7B 0F Delay :MOV R3, DLY
4113 DB FE Delay :DJNZ R1, DLY
4115 D9 FA DJNZ
4117 DA F8 MOVX
4119 F0 POP
411A D0 82 .POP
411C D0 83 INC
411E A3 DJNZ
411F D8 E4 SJMP RO, JO
4121 80 DD START
4123 . END
LOOKUP TABLE
SD 4500 - - -
4500 09, 05, 06, 0A
.
GO 4100

OUTPUT:
Execute the program and observe the movement of stepper motor.
MARTHANDAM COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY

Ex.no:
Date :
STEPPER MOTOR INTERFACING WITH 8051 MICROCONTROLLER
(Forward direction)

Aim:
To write an assembly program to interface stepper motor with 8051 microcontroller.

Apparatus required:
1. Stepper motor
2. 8051 microcontroller kit
3. (0-5V) power supply

Algorithm:
1. Start the program.
2. Load the data (no. of steps) into B register.
3. Load the address of the LOOKUP table memory to HL pair.
4. Load the data (containing current info in step-1) to Acc.
5. Send the data to stepper motor interface.
6. Call a Delay routine.
7. Increment pointer to LOOKUP table (Address in HL pair).
8. Check whether all data have been taken from LOOKUP table.
9. If not repeat from step 4. Otherwise repeat from step2.
10. Stop the program.

Result:
Thus the stepper motor is interfaced with 8051 processor and program for the control of
stepper motor is executed to verify the direction of rotation.

9
 MECHATRONICS LABORATORY MANUAL

Program:

Opcode &
Address Label Mnemonics Comment
operand
4100 SD 4100 ORG 4100H
4100 90 45 00 START :MOV DPTR # 4500H
4103 78 08 MOV RO# 04
4105 E0 Oly MOVX A@DPTR
4106 C0 83 PUSH DPH
4108 C0 82 PUSH DPL
410A 90 FF C0 MOV DPTR #FF COH
410D 7A 04 MOV R2 # OFH
410F 79 0F MOV R3 # OFH
4111 7B 0F Delay :MOV R3, DLY
4113 DB FE Delay :DJNZ R1, DLY
4115 D9 FA DJNZ
4117 DA F8 MOVX
4119 F0 POP
411A D0 82 .POP
411C D0 83 INC
411E A3 DJNZ
411F D8 E4 SJMP RO, JO
4121 80 DD START
4123 . END
LOOKUP TABLE
SD 4500 - -
4500 09 08 0A 02 06 04 05 01
.
GO 4100

OUTPUT:
Execute the program and observe the movement of stepper motor.
MARTHANDAM COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY

Ex.no:
Date :
STEPPER MOTOR INTERFACING WITH 8051 MICROCONTROLLER
(Reverse direction)

Aim:
To write an assembly program to interface stepper motor with 8051 microcontroller.

Apparatus required:
1. Stepper motor
2. 8051 microcontroller kit
3. (0-5V) power supply

Algorithm:
1. Start the program.
2. Load the data (no. of steps) into B register.
3. Load the address of the LOOKUP table memory to HL pair.
4. Load the data (containing current info in step-1) to Acc.
5. Send the data to stepper motor interface.
6. Call a Delay routine.
7. Increment pointer to LOOKUP table(Address in HL pair).
8. Check whether all data have been taken from LOOKUP table.
9. If not repeat from step 4. Otherwise repeat from step2.
10. Stop the program.

Result:
Thus the stepper motor is interfaced with 8051 processor and program for the control of
stepper motor is executed to verify the direction of rotation.

11
 MECHATRONICS LABORATORY MANUAL

Program:

Opcode &
Address Label Mnemonics Comment
operand
4100 SD 4100 ORG 4100H
4100 90 41 45 START :MOV DPTR # 4500H
4103 7A 0C MOV RO# 04
4105 E0 MOVX A@DPTR
4106 C0 83 PUSH DPH
4108 C0 82 PUSH DPL
410A 90 FF 0F MOV DPTR #FF COH
410D F0 MOV R2 # OFH
410F D0 82 MOV R3 # OFH
4110 D0 83 :MOV R3, DLY
4112 A3 :DJNZ R1, DLY
4113 :DJNZ
4113 E0 MOVX
4114 C0 83 POP
4116 C0 82 .POP
4118 90 FF 0C INC
411B F0 DJNZ
411C D0 82 SJMP RO , JO
411E D0 83 START
4120 A3
4121 E0 END
4122 C0 83
4124 C0 82
4126 90 FF 0D
4129 F0
412A 12 41 36
412D D0 82
412F D0 83
4131 A3
4132 D0 DF
4134 80 CA
4136
4136 7F 10
4138
4138 7D FF
413A
413A 7E FF
413C
413C 00
413D 00
MARTHANDAM COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY

Ex.no:
Date :
TRAFFIC LIGHT CONTROL USING 8051 MICROCONTROLLER

Aim:
To write an assembly program to interface traffic light with 8051 microcontroller.

Apparatus required:
1. Stepper motor
2. 8051 microcontroller kit
3. (0-5V) power supply

Algorithm:
1. Start the program.
2. Load the data (no. of steps) into B register.
3. Load the address of the LOOKUP table memory to HL pair.
4. Load the data (containing current info in step-1) to Acc.
5. Send the data to traffic light interface.
6. Call a Delay routine.
7. Increment pointer to LOOKUP table(Address in HL pair).
8. Check whether all data have been taken from LOOKUP table.
9. If not jump to step 4. Otherwise jump to step2.
10. Stop the program.

13
 MECHATRONICS LABORATORY MANUAL

Opcode &
Address Label Mnemonics Comment
operand
413E DE FC
4140 DD F8
4142 DF F4
4144 22
4145 80 1A A1 64
4149 A4 81 5A 64
414D 54 8A B1 A8
4151 B4 88 DA 68
4155 D8 1A E8 46
4159 E8 83 78 86
415D 74
.
GO 4100

OUTPUT:
Execute the program and observe the movement of stepper motor.
MARTHANDAM COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY

Result:
Thus the traffic light is interfaced with 8051 microcontroller successfully.

15
 MECHATRONICS LABORATORY MANUAL

Normal position:

Actuated position:
MARTHANDAM COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY

Ex.no:
Date :
OPERATION OF SINGLE ACTING CYLINDER USING 3/2 DCV

Aim:
To operate a single acting cylinder using the direction control valve.

Apparatus required:
1. Single acting cylinder
2. 3/2 hand lever operated spring return DCV
3. FRL unit

Procedure:
1. Connect the FRL unit to the main air supply.
2. The various components are connected as per circuit.
3. Block the valve openings if necessary.
4. Check the leakage of air supply and correct it.
5. Open the valve and operate the cylinder.

Result:
Thus the single acting cylinder was operated using DCV in Pneumatic Trainer Kit.

17
 MECHATRONICS LABORATORY MANUAL

Normal position:

Actuated position:
MARTHANDAM COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY

Ex.no:
Date :
OPERATION OF DOUBLE ACTING CYLINDER USING 5/2 DCV

Aim:
To operate a double acting cylinder using the direction control valve in Pneumatic Trainer
Kit.

Apparatus required:
1. Double acting cylinder
2. 5/2 hand lever operated spring return DCV
3. FRL unit

Procedure:
1. Connect the FRL unit to the main air supply.
2. The various components are connected as per circuit.
3. Block the valve openings if necessary.
4. Check the leakage of air supply and correct it.
5. Open the valve and operate the cylinder.

Result:
Thus the double acting cylinder was operated using DCV in Pneumatic Trainer Kit.

19
 MECHATRONICS LABORATORY MANUAL

Actuated position:

Ladder diagram:
MARTHANDAM COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY

Ex.no:
Date :
OPERATION OF DOUBLE ACTING CYLINDER
USING DOUBLE SOLENOID DCV

Aim:
To operate a double acting cylinder using the double solenoid valve in Electro Pneumatic
Trainer Kit.

Apparatus required:
1. Double acting cylinder
2. Input / output Relay box
3. 4/2 solenoid operated DCV
4. FRL unit

Procedure:
1. Connect the FRL unit to the main air supply.
2. The various components are connected as per circuit.
3. Block the valve openings if necessary.
4. Check the leakage of air supply and correct it.
5. Open the valve and operate the cylinder.

Result:
Thus the double acting cylinder was operated using double solenoid DCV in Electro
Pneumatic Trainer Kit.

21
 MECHATRONICS LABORATORY MANUAL

Actuated position:

Ladder diagram:
MARTHANDAM COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY

Ex.no:
Date :
AUTOMATION OF SINGLE ACTING CYLINDER USING PLC

Aim:
To the automatic sequence of single acting cylinder using PLC.

Apparatus required:
1. Compressor
2. FRL unit
3. 3/2 solenoid operated DCV
4. Single acting cylinder
5. Autosim software
6. PLC

Procedure:
1. Draw the circuit diagram.
2. Provide +24V and – 24V from PLC trainer to panel.
3. Open the versa pro software in desktop.
4. Interface the PLC with PC using RS232 cable.
5. Draw the ladder diagram.
6. Output of PLC (Q1) is directly connected to input of solenoid coil.
7. Follow the opening procedure of versa pro software.
8. Check the ladder diagram.
9. Connect the air supply to FRL unit.
10. Run the PLC.
11. Observe the working of single acting cylinder for automatic reciprocation.

Result:
Thus the automation of single acting cylinder is done by using PLC.

23
 MECHATRONICS LABORATORY MANUAL

Ex.no:
Date :
SPEED CONTROL OF AC/DC MOTOR

Aim:
To study the open loop and closed loop of PMDC motor using VSPM-LCD-01 trainer.

Apparatus required:
1. VSPM-LCD-01 unit.
2. AC-DC motor coupling setup.
3. Patch chords

Procedure:
Connection:
1. Connect single phase AC supply to the points P & N on VSPM-LCD-01 unit.
2. Connect PMDC motor terminals to the points R and Yon front panel of VSPM-
LCD-01.
3. Speed sensor output from motor is connected to 5-pin mic plug connector (speed
feedback) on front panel.
Experiment:
1. Verify the connections as per the connection diagram.
2. Switch ON the power supply to the VSPM-LCD-01 unit.
3. LCD displays the following one by one.
4. Select DC motor option using ‘UP’ key provided below the LCD and then the
display blinks below.
5. Connect once again and make sure the connections of PMDC motor are proper or
not. After that press the ‘ENTER’ key then the LCD displays the below.
6. Select the forward / reverse option shown in the display.
Open loop operation
7. Select the open loop option using ‘UP’ key provided and the display shows the
following.
8. Vary the frequency parameter using ‘UP / DOWN’ keys provided below the LCD;
because of varying frequency, speed will vary and thereby the current.
9. Long press (say 3 seconds) the RUN switch (which is in front panel) to run the
motor. After pressing the RUN switch PWM pulses will apply to IGBT module and
at the same time single phase supply is applied to relay. Now the display shows
below,
10. If you increase load then it increases current rate and in our unit the maximum
current rate should be 2A (for 3kg load).
11. If Amps rating exceeds 2A, then the relay is turned to OFF state which
automatically stops the supply to the IGBT module and the controller stops the
PWM pulses. Display shows as below.
Closed loop operation
12. Select the closed loop using ‘UP / DOWN’ keys, then the display shows as below
if motor feedback is not connected properly.

After this intimation we have to connect the motor feedback properly and press
‘ENTER’. Then the display shows as below.
MARTHANDAM COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY

13. Select the default setting option using ‘UP’ key and the LCD displays the following
(In default setting the fixed values are Kp =0.041, Ki=0.007).

14. Using ‘UP / DOWN’ keys speed can be set to some particular value and then long
press the ‘RUN’ key.
15. After that PWM pulses are applied to IGBT leads to run the motor and the display
shows as follows.
16. If you increase load then it increases current rate and in our unit the maximum
current rate should be 2A (for 3kg load).
17. If Amps rating exceeds 2A, then the relay is turned to OFF state which
automatically stops the supply to the IGBT module and the controller stops the
PWM pulses. Display shows as below.
18. Select the new setting optin using ‘DOWN’ key and the display shows as follows.
Vary the Kp values using ‘UP / DOWN’ keys.
19. Press the ‘ENTER’ key and then the display shows the following.
20. Vary the Ki values using ‘UP / DOWN’ keys and press ‘ENTER’.
21. Using ‘UP / DOWN’ keys speed can be set to some particular value and then long
press the ‘RUN’ key.
22. After that PWM pulses are applied to IGBT leads to run the motor and the display
shows as follows.
23. If you increase load then it increases current rate and in our unit the maximum
current rate should be 2A (for 3kg load).
24. If Amps rating exceeds 2A, then the relay is turned to OFF state which
automatically stops the supply to the IGBT module and the controller stops the
PWM pulses. Display shows as below.

Result:
Thus the study of speed control of PMDC motor was done using VSPM-LCD-01 trainer.

25
 MECHATRONICS LABORATORY MANUAL

Tabulation:
Gauge pressure (mm Wc Pressure transmitter
Current output (mA)

Model graph:
MARTHANDAM COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY

Ex.no:
Date :
STUDY CHARACTERISTICS OF PRESSURE TRANSMITTER

Aim:
To study the characteristics of pressure transmitter.

Apparatus required:
1. VMPA – 62A
2. VDPID – 03
3. PC with process control
4. Patch chords
5. Multimeter
6. RS 232 cable and loop cable.

Hand valve settings:

1. HV1 – Fully open.
2. HV2 – Fully Open.
3. HV3 – Fully Closed
4. HV4 – Fully closed.

Pressure range:
1. Input – (0 – 250) mm Wc
2. Output - (4- 20) mA DC

Procedure:
1. Ensure the availability of water.
2. Interface the Digital controller with process and PC.
3. Make the connections as per connection diagram - 2.
4. Ensure the hand valve settings are correct.
5. Switch ON VMPA – 62A unit and digital controller with PC.
6. Heater / pump ON switch are in pump 1 mode. Invoke the Process Control software
or Labview software.
7. Once tank pressure reaches 250 mm Wc note down the current readings.
8. Gradually open the HV4 valve every 50 Wc and note down the current readings.
9. Select Pressure / Process control >> manual mode and enter a controller output of
100%
10. Note down the current readings for various pressure readings.
11. Switch OFF the pump.
12. Draw the graph between Pressure Vs output current and conclude the behavior of
pressure transmitter.

Result:
Thus the characteristics of pressure transmitter were studied.
27
 MECHATRONICS LABORATORY MANUAL

Diagrammatic representation:
MARTHANDAM COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY

Ex.no:
Date :
ACTUATION OF HYDRAULIC CYLINDER
TO FIND OUT FORCE VS PRESSURE

Aim:
To actuate the hydraulic cylinder and find out the force Vs pressure.

Apparatus required:
1. Oil tank
2. Single- phase motor
3. Gear pump
4. Pressure relief valve
5. 4/3 double solenoid valve
6. Double acting cylinder
7. Load cell
8. Data actuation card
9. Lab view software

Procedure:
1. Switch on the electrical power supply with motor.
2. Switch on the power supply to the control unit.
3. Open the lab view software in the system
4. Interface hydraulic trainer with system using RS – 232.
5. Open Force. Go to ‘OPERATE’ and click ‘RUN’. Then power is ON below.
6. Now extend the system by pressing the ‘UP’ button.
7. Load cell indicates the force value in the monitor.
8. Now adjust the pressure regulator and set the maximum pressure as 25 Kg/cm2
9. Retract the cylinder
10. Once again forward the cylinder and adjust the pressure in pressure regulator.
11. You can see the force value in the monitor.
12. Repeat the force value for different pressure.

Result:
The actuation of double acting cylinder was carried out to find out Force Vs Pressure.

29
 MECHATRONICS LABORATORY MANUAL

Ex.no:
Date :
STUDY OF IMAGE PROCESSING

Image Processing – an overview:

Image processing is a method to convert an image into digital form and perform some
operations on it, in order to get an enhanced image or to extract some useful information from it.
It is a type of signal dispensation in which input is image, like video frame or photograph and
output may be image or characteristics associated with that image. Usually Image
Processing system includes treating images as two dimensional signals while applying already set
signal processing methods to them.
It is among rapidly growing technologies today, with its applications in various aspects of
a business. Image Processing forms core research area within engineering and computer science
disciplines too.

Image processing basically includes the following three steps.

1) Importing the image with optical scanner or by digital photography.
2) Analyzing and manipulating the image which includes data compression and image
enhancement and spotting patterns that are not to human eyes like satellite photographs.
3) Output is the last stage in which result can be altered image or report that is based on
image analysis.

Purpose of Image processing

The purpose of image processing is divided into 5 groups. They are:
I. Visualization - Observe the objects that are not visible.
II. Image sharpening and restoration - To create a better image.
III. Image retrieval - Seek for the image of interest.
IV. Measurement of pattern – Measures various objects in an image.
V. Image Recognition – Distinguish the objects in an image.
Types
The two types of methods used for Image Processing are Analog and Digital Image
Processing.
Analog or visual techniques of image processing
It can be used for the hard copies like printouts and photographs. Image analysts use various
fundamentals of interpretation while using these visual techniques. The image processing is not
just confined to area that has to be studied but on knowledge of analyst. Association is another
important tool in image processing through visual techniques. So analysts apply a combination of
personal knowledge and collateral data to image processing.

Digital Processing techniques

It helps in manipulation of the digital images by using computers. As raw data from
imaging sensors from satellite platform contains deficiencies. To get over such flaws and to get
originality of information, it has to undergo various phases of processing. The three general phases
that all types of data have to undergo while using digital technique are Pre- processing,
enhancement and display, information extraction.
MARTHANDAM COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY

Flow Chart Showing Different Phases in Digital Image Processing

Various steps in Digital Image Processing

31
 MECHATRONICS LABORATORY MANUAL

Various steps in Digital Image Processing:

There are eleven basic steps in Digital Image processing. They are,
i. Image Acquisition:
This is the first step or process of the fundamental steps of digital image processing. Image
acquisition could be as simple as being given an image that is already in digital form. Generally,
the image acquisition stage involves pre-processing, such as scaling etc.
ii. Image Enhancement:
Image enhancement is among the simplest and most appealing areas of digital image processing.
Basically, the idea behind enhancement techniques is to bring out detail that is obscured, or simply
to highlight certain features of interest in an image. Such as, changing brightness & contrast etc.
iii. Image Restoration:
Image restoration is an area that also deals with improving the appearance of an image. However,
unlike enhancement, which is subjective, image restoration is objective, in the sense that
restoration techniques tend to be based on mathematical or probabilistic models of image
degradation.
iv. Color Image Processing:
Color image processing is an area that has been gaining its importance because of the significant
increase in the use of digital images over the Internet. This may include color modeling and
processing in a digital domain etc.
v. Wavelets and Multi-Resolution Processing:
Wavelets are the foundation for representing images in various degrees of resolution. Images
subdivision successively into smaller regions for data compression and for pyramidal
representation.
vi. Compression:
Compression deals with techniques for reducing the storage required to save an image or the
bandwidth to transmit it. Particularly in the uses of internet it is very much necessary to compress
data.
vii. Morphological Processing:
Morphological processing deals with tools for extracting image components that are useful in the
representation and description of shape.
viii. Segmentation:
Segmentation procedures partition an image into its constituent parts or objects. In general,
autonomous segmentation is one of the most difficult tasks in digital image processing. A rugged
segmentation procedure brings the process a long way toward successful solution of imaging
problems that require objects to be identified individually.
ix. Representation and Description:
Representation and description almost always follow the output of a segmentation stage, which
usually is raw pixel data, constituting either the boundary of a region or all the points in the region
itself. Choosing a representation is only part of the solution for transforming raw data into a form
MARTHANDAM COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY

suitable for subsequent computer processing. Description deals with extracting attributes that
result in some quantitative information of interest or are basic for differentiating one class of
objects from another.
x. Object recognition:
Recognition is the process that assigns a label, such as, “vehicle” to an object based on its
descriptors.
xi. Knowledge Base:
Knowledge may be as simple as detailing regions of an image where the information of interest is
known to be located, thus limiting the search that has to be conducted in seeking that information.
The knowledge base also can be quite complex, such as an interrelated list of all major possible
defects in a materials inspection problem or an image database containing high-resolution satellite
images of a region in connection with change-detection applications.

Applications
Intelligent Transportation Systems
This technique can be used in Automatic number plate recognition and Traffic sign
recognition.
Remote Sensing
For this application, sensors capture the pictures of the earth’s surface in remote sensing
satellites or multi – spectral scanner which is mounted on an aircraft. These pictures are processed
by transmitting it to the Earth station. Techniques used to interpret the objects and regions are used
in flood control, city planning, resource mobilization, agricultural production monitoring, etc.
Moving object tracking
This application enables to measure motion parameters and acquire visual record of the
moving object. The different types of approach to track an object are:
I. Motion based tracking
II. Recognition based tracking
Defense surveillance
Aerial surveillance methods are used to continuously keep an eye on the land and
oceans. This application is also used to locate the types and formation of naval vessels of the ocean
surface. The important duty is to divide the various objects present in the water body part of the
image. The different parameters such as length, breadth, area, perimeter, compactness are set up
to classify each of divided objects. It is important to recognize the distribution of these objects in
different directions that are east, west, north, south, northeast, northwest, southeast and south west
to explain all possible formations of the vessels. We can interpret the entire oceanic scenario from
the spatial distribution of these objects.
Biomedical Imaging techniques
For medical diagnosis, different types of imaging tools such as X- ray, Ultrasound,
computer aided tomography (CT) etc are used. The diagrams of X- ray, MRI, and computer aided
tomography (CT) are given below.

33
 MECHATRONICS LABORATORY MANUAL

Representational Image Of X- ray, MRI, And Computer Aided Tomography (CT)

Some of the applications of Biomedical imaging applications are as follows.

Heart disease identification
The important diagnostic features such as size of the heart and its shape are required to
know in order to classify the heart diseases. To improve the diagnosis of heart diseases, image
analysis techniques are employed to radiographic images.
Lung disease identification
In X- rays, the regions that appear dark contain air while region that appears lighter are
solid tissues. Bones are more radio opaque than tissues. The ribs, the heart, thoracic spine, and the
diaphragm that separates the chest cavity from the abdominal cavity are clearly seen on the X-ray
film.
Digital mammograms
This is used to detect the breast tumour. Mammograms can be analyzed using Image
processing techniques such as segmentation, shape analysis, contrast enhancement, feature
extraction, etc.
Automatic Visual Inspection System
This application improves the quality and productivity of the product in the industries.
Automatic inspection of incandescent lamp filaments
This involves examination of the bulb manufacturing process. Due to no uniformity in the
pitch of the wiring in the lamp, the filament of the bulb gets fused within a short duration. In this
application, a binary image slice of the filament is created from which the silhouette of the filament
is fabricated. Silhouettes are analyzed to recognize the non uniformity in the pitch of the wiring in
the lamp. This system is being used by the General Electric Corporation.
Automatic surface inspection systems
In metal industries it is essential to detect the flaws on the surfaces. For instance, it is
essential to detect any kind of aberration on the rolled metal surface in the hot or cold rolling mills
in a steel plant. Image processing techniques such as texture identification, edge detection, fractal
analysis etc are used for the detection.

Faulty component identification

This application identifies the faulty components in electronic or electromechanical
systems. Higher amount of thermal energy is generated by these faulty components. The Infra-red
images are produced from the distribution of thermal energies in the assembly. The faulty
components can be identified by analyzing the Infra-red images.
MARTHANDAM COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY

Research & future

CURRENT RESEARCH
A wide research is being done in the Image processing technique.
Cancer Imaging
Different tools such as PET, MRI, and Computer aided Detection helps to diagnose and be
aware of the tumor.
Brain Imaging
Focuses on the normal and abnormal development of brain, brain ageing and common
disease states.
Image processing
This research incorporates structural and functional MRI in neurology, analysis of bone
shape and structure, development of functional imaging tools in oncology, and PET image
processing software development.
Imaging Technology
Development in image technology have formed the requirement to establish whether new
technologies are effective and cost beneficial. This technology works under the following areas:
i. Magnetic resonance imaging of the knee
ii. Computer aided detection in mammography
iii. Endoscopic ultrasound in staging the oesophageal cancer
iv. Magnetic resonance imaging in low back pain
Ophthalmic Imaging
This works under two categories:
Development of automated software
Analyzes the retinal images to show early sign of diabetic retinopathy
Development of instrumentation
Concentrates on development of scanning laser ophthalmoscope

FUTURE RESEARCH
We all are in midst of revolution ignited by fast development in computer technology and
imaging. Against common belief, computers are not able to match humans in calculation related
to image processing and analysis. But with increasing sophistication and power of the modern
computing, computation will go beyond conventional, Von Neumann sequential architecture and
would contemplate the optical execution too. Parallel and distributed computing paradigms are
anticipated to improve responses for the image processing results.

Result:

Thus the basics of image processing were studied successfully.

35
 MECHATRONICS LABORATORY MANUAL

Ex.no:
Date :
STUDY ON VARIOUS TYPES OF TRANSDUCERS
Aim:
At the end of the lab session, students will have the acquaintance on transducers, and its
types.
Transducer
“An element when subjected to some physical change experiences a related change or an
element which converts a specified measurand into a usable output by using a transduction
principle”, “A device that converts a signal from one form of energy to another form”. A large
number of devices transform values of physical variables into equivalent electrical signals. Such
devices are called transducers and have been mentioned frequently in the preceding sections of
this chapter. Some of the more widely used transducers and their principles of operation are
discussed.
Types
1) Variable-Resistance Transducer
2) Differential Transformer
3) Capacitive Transducers
4) Piezoelectric Transducers
5) Photoelectric Effects
6) Photovoltaic Cells
7) Photoconductive Transducers
8) Ionization Transducers
9) Hall-Effect Transducers
10) Digital Displacement Transducers
The Variable-Resistance Transducer
The variable-resistance transducer is a very common device which may be constructed in
the form of a moving contact on a slide-wire or a moving contact that moves through an angular
displacement on a solid conductor like a piece of graphite. The device may also be called a
resistance potentiometer or rheostat and is available commercially in many sizes, designs, and
ranges. Costs can range from a few cents for a simple potentiometer used as a volume control in a
radio circuit to hundreds of dollars for a Precision device used for accurate laboratory work. The
variable-resistance transducer fundamentally is a device for converting either linear or angular
displacement into an electric signal; however, through mechanical methods it is possible to convert
force and pressure to a displacement so that the device may also be useful in force and pressure
measurements.

Schematic Diagram of Variable-Resistance Transducer

MARTHANDAM COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY

The Differential Transformer (LVDT)

A schematic diagram of the differential transformer is shown in Fig. Three coils are placed
in a linear arrangement as shown with a magnetic core which may move freely inside the coils.
The construction of the device is indicated in Fig. An alternating input voltage is impressed in the
center coil, and the output voltage from the two end coils depends on the magnetic coupling
between the core and the coils. This coupling, in turn, is dependent on the position of the core.
Thus, the output voltage of the device is an indication of the displacement of the core. As long as
the core remains near the center of the coil arrangement, the output is very nearly linear, as
indicated in Fig. The linear range of commercial differential transformers is clearly specified, and
the devices are seldom operated outside this range. When operating in the line arrange, the device
is called a linear variable differential transformer (LVDT).

Schematic Diagram of a Differential transformer

Construction of a Commercial linear variable Differential transformer

Output Characteristic of a LVDT

The frequency response of LVDTs is primarily limited by the inertia characteristics of the
device. In general, the frequency of the applied voltage should be 10 times the desired frequency
response. Commercial LVDTs are available in a broad range of sizes and are widely used for

37
 MECHATRONICS LABORATORY MANUAL

displacement measurements in a variety of applications. Force and pressure measurements may

also be made after a mechanical conversion.

Capacitive Transducers
Consider the capacitive transducer shown in Fig. The capacitance (in picofarads) of this
arrangement is given by

Where
d = distance between the plates, in or cm
A = overlapping area, in2 or cm2
ε = dielectric constant (ε= 1 for air; ε= 3 for plastics)
The constant 0.225 is 0.0885 when the area is in square centimeters and the separation
distance is in centimeters. This plate arrangement may be used to measure a change in the distance
d through a change in capacitance. A change in capacitance may also be registered through a
change in the overlapping area. A resulting from a relative movement of the plates in a lateral
direction or a change in the dielectric constant of the material between the plates. The capacitance
may be measured with bridge circuits. The output impedance of a capacitor is given by

Where
Z = impedance, Ώ
f = frequency, Hz
C = capacitance, F
In general, the output impedance of a capacitive transducer is high; this fact may call for
careful design of the output circuitry to avoid loading.

Schematic of a capacitive Transducer

Use of capacitive transducer for liquid level measurement

The capacitive transducer may be used for displacement measurements through a variation
of either the spacing distance d or the plate area. It is commonly used for liquid-level
measurements, as indicated in Fig. Two electrodes are arranged as shown, and the dielectric
constant varies between the electrodes according to the liquid level. Thus, the capacitance between
the electrodes is a direct indication of the liquid level. A charge amplifier may be used to increase
the signal level before transmission to readout circuits.
Piezoelectric Transducers
MARTHANDAM COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY

Consider the arrangement shown in Fig. A piezoelectric crystal is placed between two plate
electrodes. When a force is applied to the plates, a stress will be produced in the crystal and a
corresponding deformation. With certain crystals this deformation will produce a potential
difference at the surface of the crystal, and the effect is called the piezoelectric effect. The induced
charge on the crystal is proportional to the impressed force and is given by
Q = dF
Where,
Q is in coulombs
F is in newtons
proportionality constant d is called the piezoelectric constant.
The output voltage of the crystal is given by
E = gtp
Where
t is the crystal thickness in meters
p is the impressed pressure in newtons per square meter
g is the voltage sensitivity

The Piezoelectric effect

The voltage output depends on the direction in which the crystal slab is cut in respect to
the crystal axes. Piezoelectric crystals are used as pressure transducers for dynamic measurements.
Photoelectric Effects
A photoelectric transducer converts a light beam into a usable electric signal. Consider the
circuit shown in Fig. Light strikes the photo emissive cathode and releases electrons, which are
attracted toward the anode, thereby producing an electric current in the external circuit. The
cathode and anode are enclosed in a glass or quartz envelope, which is either evacuated or filled
with an inert gas. The photoelectric sensitivity is defined by
I = SΦ
Where, I = photoelectric current
Φ= illumination of the cathode
S = sensitivity

The Photoelectric effect

The sensitivity is usually expressed in units of amperes per watt or amperes per lumen.
Photoelectric-tube response to different wavelengths of light is influenced by two factors: (1) the
transmission characteristics of the glass-tube envelope and (2) the photo emissive characteristics

39
 MECHATRONICS LABORATORY MANUAL

of the cathode material. Photo emissive materials are available which will respond to light over a
range of 0.2 to 0.8 μm. Most glasses transmit light in the upper portion of this range, but many do
not transmit below about 0.4 μm. Photoelectric tubes are quite useful for measurement of light
intensity. In expensive devices can be utilized for counting purposes through periodic interruption
of a light source.
Photoconductive Transducers
The principle of the photoconductive transducer is shown in Fig. A voltage is impressed
on the semiconductor material as shown. When light strikes the semiconductor material, there is a
decrease in the resistance, thereby producing an increase in the current indicated by the meter. A
variety of substances are used for photo conductive materials, and a rather detailed discussion of
the pertinent literature on the subject .Photoconductive transducers enjoy a wide range of
applications and are useful for measurement of radiation at all wavelengths. It must be noted,
however, that extreme experimental difficulties may be encountered when operating with long-
wavelength radiation. The responsivity Rv of a detector is defined as

The noise-equivalent power (NEP) is defined as the minimum-radiation input that will
produce a S/N ratio of unity. The detectivity D is defined as

rms noise-voltage output of cell. The detectivity is the reciprocal of NEP. A normalized detectivity
D∗ is defined as

Where A is the area of the detector and f is a noise-equivalent bandwidth. The units of D∗
are usually cm · Hz 1/2/W, and the term is used in describing the performance of detectors so that
the particular surface area and bandwidth will not affect the results. The lead-sulfide cell is very
widely used for detection of thermal radiation in the wavelength band of 1 to 3 μm. By cooling the
detector more favorable response at higher wavelengths can be achieved up to about 4 or 5 μm.
For measurements at longer wavelengths the indium-antimonide detector is preferred, but it has a
lower detectivity than lead sulfide.

Schematic of a photoconductive transducer

Photovoltaic Cells
The photovoltaic-cell principle is illustrated in Fig. The sandwich construction consists of
a metal base plate, a semiconductor material, and a thin transparent metallic layer. This transparent
layer may be in the form of a sprayed, conducting lacquer. When light strikes the barrier between
the transparent metal layer and the semiconductor material, a voltage is generated. The output of
the device is strongly dependent on the load resistance R. The open-circuit voltage approximates
a logarithmic function, but more linear behavior may be approximated by decreasing the load
resistance. Perhaps the most widely used application of the photovoltaic cell is the light
MARTHANDAM COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY

exposuremeter in photographic work. The logarithmic behavior of the cell is a decided advantage
in such applications because of its sensitivity over a broad range of light intensities.

Schematic diagram of a Photovoltaic cell

Hall-Effect Transducers
The principle of the Hall Effect is indicated in Fig. A semiconductor plate of thickness t is
connected as shown so that an external current I passes through the material. When a magnetic
field is impressed on a plate in a direction perpendicular to the surface of the plate, there will be
potential EH generated as shown. This potential is called the Hall voltage and is given by

Where,I is in amperes,B is in gauss,t is in centimeters. The proportionality constant is called

the Hall coefficient and has the units of voltcentimeters per ampere gauss.

The Hall Effect

Ionization Transducers
A schematic of the ionization transducer is shown in Fig. The tube contains a gas at low
pressure while the RF generator impresses a field on this gas. As a result of the RF field, a glow
discharge is created in the gas, and the two electrodes 1 and 2 detect a potential difference in the
gas plasma. The potential difference is dependent on the electrode spacing and the capacitive
coupling between the RF plates and the gas. When the tube is located at the central position
between the plates, the potentials on the electrodes are the same; but when the tube is displaced
from this central position, a DC potential difference will be created. Thus, the ionization transducer
is a useful device for measuring displacement.

Schematic diagram of an ionization-displacement transducer

Digital Displacement Transducers
A digital displacement transducer can be used for both angular and linear measurements.
In Fig. an angular measurement device is shown. As the wheel rotates, light from the source is
41
 MECHATRONICS LABORATORY MANUAL

alternately transmitted and stopped, thereby submitting a digital signal to the photo detector. The
signal is then amplified and sent to a counter. The number of counts is proportional to angular
displacement. The frequency of the signal is proportional to angular velocity. Sensitivity of the
device may be improved by increasing the number of cutouts. A linear transducer which operates
on a reflection principle is shown in Fig. Small reflecting strips are installed on the motion device.
Light from the source is then alternately
reflected and absorbed with linear motion, thereby presenting a digital signal to the photo detector.
Readout is the same as with the angular instrument. Calibration with a known displacement
standard must be performed.

Digital transducer for Angular Displacement Digital transducer for Linear Displacement

Result:
Thus the study on transducers was done.