The Socioeconomic Impact of Floods on Vulnerable and Disadvantaged Households:

A Case Study of Barangay Almacen, Hermosa, Bataan

A research proposal submitted by:

Alyssa Torno
Christian T. Chavez
Felicia May S. Dablo
Jihad M. Egaloy
Nicole A. Dela Cruz
Summer A. Dela Cruz

December 2024
 CHAPTER 1

THE PROBLEM AND ITS BACKGROUND

Background of the Study

One of the most disturbing natural disasters that occurs globally is flooding. According to

the World Health Organization (WHO) it is the most frequent natural disaster, and it has already

affected billions of people worldwide. Flood occurs due to rapid snow melting in snow-prone

countries, heavy rainfalls, ocean waves or tsunamis, and tropical cyclones in coastal areas. Thus,

flood is known to be dangerous and destructive — causing significant short-term and long-term

disturbance to individuals, communities, economy, and environment thoroughly.

Correspondingly, flooding is the most common natural disaster that is occurring in

Southeast Asia. Its frequent occurrence impacted thirteen percent (13%) of the population in the

ASEAN region, as stated by Syifa, M. (2020). In accordance with it, an assessment conducted by

Chen, A. et al. (2020) using a DFO large flood data archive, shows that a large area in Southeast

Asia, particularly the Mainland Southeast Asia, experienced a significant increase in flood

occurrence from the year 1985 to 2018. Aside from that, the Philippines, a country made up of

islands located in the Pacific Ring of Fire, is also always at risk of experiencing natural disasters

too. As a matter of fact, 5.4 million people in the Philippines had been affected by a storm that

occurred in 2020, while 8,600 houses were roughly destroyed due to major natural disasters in the

year 2023 (Statista, 2024). In addition to that, Jha, S. et al. (2018) mentioned that typhoons in the

Philippines, as its most frequent natural hazard, occur twenty (20) times a year, with constant

flooding as well.

Floods in the Philippines is a common problem and it results from a mix of factors such as

intense rainfall, typhoons, and insufficient infrastructure. This affects different parts of the country
repeatedly — causing severe disturbance and complications, especially for vulnerable and

disadvantaged families — like most countries around the world often experience too.

The intense rainfall effects and worsening flooding incidents in the globe, including the

Philippines, have impacted a wide range of communities. Yet, it is evident that disadvantaged and

vulnerable groups such as low-income earners, students, business owners, employees, and priority

groups like persons with disability and senior citizens are the populations who happen to face the

most negative effects from flooding due to their frail capabilities, and inevitable damages and

disruptions to their activities and lives.

An international study by Hallegate S. et al. (2020) shows that most of the marginalized

groups experience more disturbing impacts on flooding in terms of hazards, exposure,

vulnerability, and socioeconomic resilience due to poverty and their economic status or social

class. These factors push the community to live in disaster-risk areas, exacerbate their

vulnerability, and decrease their ability to cope with and recover from asset and well-being losses

as disadvantaged and vulnerable groups. In relation to this, a local study of Israel, D. et al. (2014)

shows that the occurrence of frequent flooding and typhoons from Pasay City in Metro Manila

contributes to the worsening of poverty of the marginalized groups. This creates significant impact

and negative effects on the income of households — forcing the disadvantaged and vulnerable

groups to practice several coping strategies in response to the natural disaster they are

experiencing.

Furthermore, most natural disasters including floods, affect education for children and

adolescents by damaging school structures and displacing families. In these harsh conditions, most

children have no option but to discontinue their studies temporarily and even permanently to

provide and support for the immediate needs of their family, as mentioned by Kousky, C. (2016).
Likewise, a study conducted by Ardales, G. et al. (2017) concluded that the delivery of education

to the 84 percent of their respondents from the primary level and the 68 percent from the secondary

level are greatly affected by flood occurrence in different school areas in Los Baños and Bay

Laguna. Cancellation and disruption of regular classes, physical damages due to flood, and the

conversion of school grounds into evacuation are the main reasons influencing the response of the

respondents.

Also, floods can cause various negative impacts to business owners as well, particularly to

entrepreneurs that own small-and-medium-sized enterprises (SMEs). According to Wedawatta G.

et al. (2014), SMEs who may be unprepared and vulnerable to the range of both direct and indirect

impacts can experience direct and indirect impact of floods. This includes property and stock

damage, disrupted supply chains, access issues, and decreased sales; which may lead to increase

in operational costs, reduction of customer access, and loss of good income. This is supported by

Sarreal E. et al. (2021) stating that MSME or Micro, Small, and Medium Enterprise within the

Philippines which contribute to a large portion of the country's economic development is one of

the most vulnerable groups to frequent natural disasters including flood. Considering the MSMEs

are smaller and less capable compared to large multinational companies, it is evident that these

kinds of enterprises have lesser financial and technical resources that give them less protection in

natural disasters, and increase their chance of experiencing hazards.

Thus, according to the study conducted by Sun, Q. et al. (2022), several factors such as

impact to employment, labour income, gross regional domestic product, and work disruption can

be encountered by employees who work for local or large firms due to the unfavorable impact of

flooding such as business relocation. Additionally, employees who use public transportation

especially in urban areas like Metro Manila in the Philippines, were proven to face more difficulty
in commuting during the rainy season where flood is relevant. This causes them to adjust their

traveling or departure time affecting the travel behavior of the employees (Abad, R. et al., 2018).

Hence, this may affect not only the productivity of the employees and their job itself, but also their

other priorities and commitment outside the workplace.

Other than that, people living with disability (PWDs) and the elderly are included in the

population of the most affected during disasters. Their continuous pre-existing medical conditions

and disability in physical and mental aspects increase their risks during emergencies. These

challenges not only make them more vulnerable during the crisis; but also put them in a very poor

standing when it comes to recovery (Obnial, J. et al., 2023). Proportionately, a systematic review

of Mendis, K. et al. (2023) using the PRISMA guidelines identified that women, children, people

with disabilities, and intersectional groups of the vulnerable and disadvantaged community

experiences fifty-seven (57) challenges in social, health, political, economic, infrastructural, and

communication categories in post-disaster context. This study supports that the impact of natural

disasters like flood to marginalized groups does not only come in hand for a short period of time,

rather it also creates long-term effects for the group in different aspects.

While provinces within the Philippines, such as Bataan, equally suffers from different

effects of natural disasters, especially as a peninsula area that's prone from urban and coastal

flooding (Think Hazard). Several articles and news from different flooding events in Bataan were

written, addressing how often does its municipalities and lone city re-encounter floods and the

conflicts it brings.

In an article published by Philippine News Agency (PNA) and written by Esconde E.

(2018), during the heavy rains caused by Typhoons Josie on July 2018, the entire Province of

Bataan was declared under a state of calamity after its experienced flash floods brought by Habagat
or Southwest Monsoon. Different municipalities were submerged in flood including barangays

and villages under Samal, Hermosa, Mariveles, Dinalupihan and Balanga City. The flooding

incident resulted in suspension of classes and work in government offices in Bataan. Additionally,

in July 2024, the municipalities of Bagac, Mariveles, Abucay, Orani, and the city of Balanga

suffered and reported flooding incidents once again due to rainfall brought by Typhoon Carina and

Habagat. Esconde E. (2024) disclosed in an article of Punto! Central Luzon, where Bagac and

Mariveles experienced a more than 1-feet deep flood in some barangays. While some barangay in

Abucay and Balanga City encountered 2-3.75 feet of flood. Flooding was reported to Hermosa and

Samal as well, where some portions of rice fields had been submerged in water caused by heavy

rainfalls. These incidents caused a temporary electric power outage in some parts of Bataan during

the typhoon. Similarly, when Severe Tropical Storm Enteng entered the Philippine Area of

Responsibility (PAR) in September of 2024, some portions of Bataan were recorded to experience

chest-deep flooding based on the article authored by Serquina, M.C. (2024) and published by GMA

Integrated News. During the natural calamity, some areas of Hermosa and Dinalupihan were

severely flooded including Brgy. Almacen and another nine (9) barangays within Dinalupihan

town. The residents of Hermosa believe that the flood their barangay experienced was due to its

catch-basin location — where the flood that subsides on other areas flows to their area afterwards.

On the other hand, residents that were affected in Dinalupihan are convinced that it is not only the

storm that worsened the flood that they experienced, but it was the clogged drainage system on

their barangay. In response, the Local Government Unit of Dinalupihan was said to form a program

that would widen the problematic drainage system.

With the articles given, it is an apparent observation that Bataan really does suffer from the

hazards of flooding. However, assessing the impacts of it, primarily to disadvantaged and
vulnerable groups, have not yet clearly studied and identified, even to the most flood-affected

municipality or area. According to the Ecological Profile of Bataan Province created by CLSU in

"Project Safe", Hermosa has the largest flood-prone land area with 5,330.30 hectares susceptible

to floods. Thus, Barangay Almacen is one of the areas that is most exposed to flooding all over the

municipality of Hermosa.

In August 2018, Barangay Almacen including other barangays in Hermosa experienced a

more than neck-deep flood due to high tides and continuous rain. This forced the residents to use

fishing boats as their only transportation vehicle at that time, as stated by Esconde E. (2018) in a

Philippine News Agency (PNA) article. Similar event happened in July of 2021, where in Brgy.

Almacen experienced four-feet-deep water, and encountered the use of boats as their mode of

transportation. Nevertheless, there is no evacuation that occurs within the mentioned barangay, in

accordance with the article authored by Esconde E. (2021) in PNA. Then, in July 2023, severe

flood was reported once again in the barangay of Almacen caused by heavy rains that fall in the

Province of Bataan due to Southwest Monsoon that is strengthened by the former Philippine

typhoon, Egay. Residents temporarily left their homes and went to evacuation areas after the flood

reached their houses (GMA Integrated News, 2023).

Certainly, it is beyond doubt that people of Almacen know all too well the threat of flooding

in its barangay, especially when the rainy season arrives. In view of its flat terrain location and

close proximity to Almacen River, disadvantaged and vulnerable residents including the PWDs,

the elderly, the poor, the student populace, business persons and employees often throw their lives

into chaos in times when flood occurs or when the river bursts its banks. During flood, or anytime

the river floods, these groups are displaced, they have to run for their lives, for their property,

leaving their normal day activities and jobs. These damages hinder the running of various aspects
of people's lives, such as schools, hospitals, and markets affecting livelihood, education, and

health.

Apart from the health risks, the mental implications are huge. There is always that element

of fear and anxiety whenever there are floods that further stress the already pressured living among

the minority poor. There is a significant loss of income as well as property resulting in further

penetration into poverty especially with the desperation of those with reliance on the easily flooded

vulnerable small businesses.

Therefore, the goal of this study is to further analyze the existing socioeconomic impact of

floods to the vulnerable and disadvantaged households in Barangay Almacen, Hermosa, Bataan

— a locality that is infamous for its susceptibility to floods, and a community with a large

vulnerable population.

This study aims to assess and understand the social and economic impacts that the

disadvantaged and vulnerable group experiences during and after the occurrence of flood within

the barangay. It includes the (1) exploration of the group's resilience and their access to basic needs

and healthcare; (2) determining the income losses, property damage, and other economic impacts

associated to flood; (3) analyzing the households' coping mechanism and adaptation strategies; (4)

viewing of the perspective of the population to Local Government Unit (LGU) interventions; and

(5) formulating potential policy recommendation that the local government of Almacen can adapt

to address the socioeconomic impacts revealed in this study.

Objectives of the Study

Flooding in the Municipalities of Hermosa is a recurring problem specifically in Barangay

Almacen, Hermosa, Bataan that devastated the lives and houses of its people (Solmax, 2021).

Although all households are affected by floods, vulnerable and disadvantaged households are

much more exposed to the impacts (Erman, 2022). However, the impacts of flood specifically the

socioeconomic impacts on vulnerable and disadvantaged households have not been thoroughly

examined yet in areas heavily hit by floods particularly in areas like Barangay Almacen. Thus, this

study aims to fill this gap by examining the socioeconomic impact of flood during and after on

vulnerable and disadvantaged households. Specifically, it will address the following objectives:

1. Identify the socioeconomic profile of the vulnerable and disadvantaged households in

terms of:

1.1 Sex

1.2 Social Class

1.3 Type of Vulnerability

2. Analyze vulnerable and disadvantaged households lived experiences of flooding in

terms of impacts on physical and mental well-being, and access to basic needs.

3. Examine the economic consequences of floods: loss in income, employment disruption

and damage to property for vulnerable and disadvantaged households

4. Determine the coping mechanisms and adaptation strategies used by flood affected

vulnerable and disadvantaged households to minimize the socioeconomic impact of

floods.

5. Understand the perspectives of vulnerable and disadvantaged households in terms of

effectiveness of local government intervention to recovery efforts and relief programs.

 6. Based on the study findings, formulate potential policy recommendations which may

help address the socioeconomic impacts of floods on vulnerable and disadvantaged

households.

Significance of the Study

At its core, this research primarily benefits the disadvantaged and vulnerable households

of Barangay Almacen, Hermosa, Bataan, who are significantly impacted by floods. By focusing

on the socioeconomic impact of floods on these households, with an emphasis on building

resilience, the study aims to provide practical insights that can enhance community capacity to

withstand and recover from disasters. The findings will ensure that the needs for resilience-

building are prioritized in disaster response and recovery efforts, promoting effective strategies for

these households. The insights gained will be relevant for the following beneficiaries:

Disadvantaged and Vulnerable Households. The research will offer a clear

understanding of how floods affect the resilience of these households, allowing for the

development of feasible interventions. Recommendations may include providing access to

affordable training programs on disaster preparedness and basic first aid, establishing community

networks for sharing resources during emergencies, and creating local savings groups to support

financial recovery. These initiatives will empower households to effectively rebuild and enhance

their resilience against future floods.

Local Government Units (LGUs). The study will aid LGUs, particularly the Municipal

Disaster Risk Reduction and Management Office (MDRRMO) and Barangay Almacen officials,

in developing targeted flood resilience strategies. Practical recommendations may include

enhancing local infrastructure, such as improving drainage systems and ensuring that evacuation

routes are clear and well-maintained. The research may also suggest organizing community drills
and workshops to raise awareness about flood preparedness and response, engaging local residents

in resilience-building activities.

Policymakers. Policymakers will gain access to localized data that can inform the

development of policies focused on enhancing community resilience. The study will support the

formulation of realistic policies aimed at disaster risk reduction, such as allocating funds for

community-level preparedness initiatives and integrating resilience measures into local

development plans. Recommendations may also include simplifying application processes for

disaster aid to ensure swift assistance for affected households.

Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs). NGOs involved in disaster response and

recovery can utilize the research findings to design effective and practical resilience-building

programs. The study may recommend initiatives such as establishing community gardens to

improve food security, providing workshops on sustainable practices, and facilitating access to

low-cost insurance for households. These efforts will ensure that both immediate relief and long-

term resilience are addressed, benefiting the community as a whole.

Future Researchers. This study will serve as a valuable reference for future research on

the resilience of communities facing natural disasters. It contributes to the growing body of

literature on practical disaster preparedness and recovery strategies. Additionally, it draws

attention to areas that need further exploration, motivating future researchers to fill gaps in

resilience-enhancing strategies and investigate creative solutions suited for flood-prone areas. The

study may also inspire comparative research on successful resilience-building efforts in other

regions, promoting knowledge sharing and collaboration among researchers and practitioners.
Scope and Delimitation of the Study

This research will focus on finding the socio-economic impacts of floods on the vulnerable

and disadvantaged households in Barangay Almacen, Hermosa, Bataan, with direct emphasis to

the permanent resident of Barangay Almacen Hermosa, Bataan including the priority groups

(persons with disability and senior citizen), low-income earners, students, micro-small and

medium enterprise (MSME) owners, and employees, as they were the most affected by the recent

flooding. Moreover, this research study will exclude the non-resident of Barangay Almacen since

they are not belonging to the community group of Barangay Almacen they might have different

experiences, opinions, or knowledge compared to actual residents. Also, informants that could not

provide data due to their circumstances; some are not literate, while others are impaired or mute

are not considered in this particular research study. Also, informants who refuse to grant

permission or supply data inadequate to be interpreted meaningfully are not included to ensure the

reliability and validity of findings.

The key socioeconomic impacts shall be looked into. The economic parameters of income

lost, disruption to employment, and destruction of property and assets shall be the subjects of

investigation. There will also be consideration of social parameters such as health problems and

the availability of basic resource use like healthcare and education, clean water, and food security.

Local government efforts at relief and recovery shall also be assessed on how effectively they can

attend to the short-term and long-term requirements of the households.

The research will be limited to a sample of 15 key informants, selected through systematic

random sampling in Barangay Almacen until saturation data is reached, when fresh interviews no

longer provide new ideas and perspectives. It will concentrate on a specific time period including

recent flood events and their immediate aftermath. Interviews will be used as sources of collecting
data to be thematically analysed, with qualitative research approaches in order to provide a

comprehensive analysis of the socioeconomic impact of floods on vulnerable and disadvantaged

households within the barangay.

 Notes in Chapter I

World Health Organization: WHO. (2019). Floods. World Health Organization. https://www.
who.int/health-topics/floods#tab=tab_1

Syifa, M. (2020). ASEAN Risk Monitor and Disaster Management Review 2nd Edition
2020 - AHA Centre. AHA Centre. https://ahacentre.org/publication/armor- 2nd-20
20/#

Chen A, Giese M, Chen D. (2020). Flood impact on Mainland Southeast Asia between 1985
and 2018—The role of tropical cyclones. J Flood Risk Management. 2020; 13: e12598.
https://doi.org/10.1111/jfr3.12598

Statista. (2024). Number of people affected by storm Philippines 2011-2020. Statista.

https://www.statista.com/statistics/1307205/philippines-number-of-people-affected-by
-storm/

Statista. (2024, March 26). Number of totally damaged houses due to natural disasters
Philippines 2012-2023. Statista. https://www.statista.com/statistics/1264058/philippin
es-number-of-totally-damaged-houses-during-natural-disasters/

Jha, S.; Martinez, A., Jr.; Quising, P.; Ardaniel, Z.; Wang, L. Natural Disasters, Public
Spending, and Creative Destruction: A Case Study of the Philippines. SSRN Electron.
J. 2018, 817, 1–26

Hallegatte, S., Vogt-Schilb, A., Rozenberg, J., Bangalore, M., & Beaudet, C. (2020). From
Poverty to Disaster and Back: A Review of the Literature. Economics of Disasters and
Climate Change, 4(1), 223–247. https://doi.org/10.1007/s41885-020-00060-5

Israel, D. C., & Briones, R. M. (2014). Disasters, poverty, and coping strategies: The
framework and empirical evidence from micro/household data - Philippine case
(Discussion Paper Series No. 2014-06). Philippine Institute for Development Studies.
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92.

Ardales, G. Y., Espaldon, M. V. O., Lasco, R. D., Quimbo, M. A. T., & Zamora, O. B. (2016).
Impacts of floods on public schools in the municipalities of Los Baños and Bay,
Laguna, Philippines. Journal of Nature Studies, 15(1), 19-40.

Wedawatta, G., Ingirige, B. and Proverbs, D. (2014), SMEs and flood impacts. J. Flood Risk
Manage, 7: 42-53. https://doi.org/10.1111/jfr3.12031

Sarreal, E. R., Fernandez, P. F. B., & Orbeta, C. M. P. (2021). Flooding Experiences and
Dimensions of Organizational Resilience of MSMEs in CAMANAVA Cities in the
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Sun, Q., Mann, J., & Skidmore, M. (2022). The impacts of flooding and business activity and
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Metro Manila, Philippines. In Conference Paper.

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Marginalized Communities in a Post-Disaster Context: A Systematic Review of the
literature. Sustainability, 15(14), 10754. https://doi.org/10.3390/su151410754

Think Hazard - Bataan - Coastal flood. (n.d.). https://www.thinkhazard.org/en/report/24220-

philippines-region-iii-central-luzon-bataan/CF?fbclid=IwY2xjawGFtxdleHRuA2FlbQ
IxMAABHTs84hAksrfKHf5naiqW DDgOPgtXO8K-IY5jiEHh_fmCzXP4aPPmKT
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Bataan placed under state of calamity. (n.d.). Philippine News Agency.
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MAABHYinX-lIqfFE3-
QkSHl28kZE3f5z1GI8eZrJAyne_cSMwcyg87NTs0zEVQ_aem_LV2C_i5GohU29p
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Esconde, E. (2024). Bataan experiences heavy flooding - Punto! Central Luzon. Punto!
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2xjawGFuPdleHRuA2FlbQIxMAABHcV9LJcAIIuyCHvIuKkruMr8R29okgNAuvrd
6phYyoLIoMOcI-SDmpKkAQ_aem_BufSVHTFOmORfVf0mV2wag

Serquina, M.C. (2024). Residents blame drainage clogging for Bataan flood. GMA Integrated
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drainage-clogging-for-bataan-flood/story/?amp&fbclid=IwY2xjawGFuWRleHRuA2Flb
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Esconde, E. (2018). Floods hit 15 Bataan villages due to heavy rain, high tide. Philippine News
Agency.
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 CHAPTER 2

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE AND STUDIES

This chapter presents the relevant theories, literature, and studies that the researchers

considered in strengthening the importance of the present study. It also presents the synthesis of

the art, conceptual framework, and definition of terms to fully understand the research for better

comprehension of the study.

Relevant Theories

This section outlines three fundamental theories relevant to the research focus: Social

Capital Theory, Vulnerability Theory, and Resilience Theory.

The first theoretical foundation of this study is Social Capital Theory. Social Capital

Theory posits that social networks are essential resources during crises. In a document published

by Taylor and Francis group (2018) stated that Pierre Bourdieu 1986 first introduced social capital

as the value derived from relationships, which supports individuals in accessing resources,

emotional support, and collective action. Strong community bonds are instrumental in providing

mutual aid and facilitating disaster recovery. Bourdieu's concept of social capital as a community

asset has been foundational, with Aldrich and Meyer (2015) later emphasizing its importance in

disaster resilience. They highlighted how social capital fosters cooperation and resource sharing,

which is critical for communities facing crises.

In Barangay Almacen, community networks play a vital role in helping households secure

resources and support during floods. Many residents rely on neighbors and family members to

share information, provide shelter, and offer other assistance. Applying Social Capital Theory

allows this study to investigate how these relationships contribute to resilience by enabling access

to crucial resources and fostering a sense of solidarity that sustains community well-being amid
crisis. This approach emphasizes the social dynamics in Barangay Almacen, where community

bonds often offset limitations in formal aid.

Thus, Social capital directly influences vulnerability by either mitigating or amplifying

disparities within communities. Households with strong social ties may demonstrate lower

vulnerability, as social networks can provide access to essential resources. Meanwhile, social

capital enhances resilience by empowering collective action and resource mobilization, illustrating

how social cohesion can act as a buffer against vulnerabilities and help communities adapt to

recurring floods. Moreover, Social Capital Theory offers a robust perspective on community

resilience; however, it may not capture the challenges faced by households lacking solid social

ties, who may need help to access necessary support. This study accounts for this by evaluating

isolated households and recognizing potential biases in self-reported data on social networks.

Understanding these limitations is vital in accurately gauging the diverse responses within

Barangay Almacen's community.

In line with this, the recent applications of Social Capital Theory have expanded its

relevance in various fields, particularly in disaster management and community resilience. For

instance, Aldrich and Meyer (2015) highlighted that communities with cohesive social networks

are better equipped to recover from disasters, as these networks facilitate information sharing,

resource mobilization, and emotional support. Additionally, research has shown that social capital

can enhance adaptive capacities, enabling communities to implement effective responses to

environmental challenges, such as floods. Studies in diverse settings, including urban and rural

areas, underscore the importance of social ties in fostering resilience, emphasizing that strong

community connections can mitigate the impacts of crises and promote recovery.
 The second theoretical foundation is the Vulnerability Theory. Vulnerability Theory

emphasizes that social, economic, and environmental factors determine a community's disaster

susceptibility. In an eBook published by the Taylor and Francis Group (2014) stated that this theory

was introduced by Blaikie et al. in 1994, and subsequent research, such as Wisner et al. (2014) and

Cutter (2016), has expanded on this foundation, emphasizing that vulnerability is socially

constructed, often exacerbated by limited access to resources, poor infrastructure, and inequities

within communities. Cutter's work has specifically focused on the “Social Vulnerability Index,”

which assesses how different social factors contribute to vulnerability in disaster-prone areas,

offering valuable insights for evaluating Barangay Almacen’s flood resilience.

In Barangay Almacen, factors such as economic instability, lack of access to resources,

and inadequate infrastructure exacerbate the vulnerability of specific households. Vulnerability

Theory allows this study to examine how these conditions shape flood impacts and affect

households' capacity to cope. By recognizing the unique vulnerabilities present in Barangay

Almacen, the study provides insights into the challenges disadvantaged households face and

underscores the need for targeted local government interventions.

Eventually, Vulnerability Theory complements Social Capital Theory by highlighting the

structural disparities that influence access to social networks and resources. Additionally,

vulnerability directly impacts resilience, as households with limited resources and social

connections often experience longer recovery periods and more profound economic setbacks. The

integration of these theories provides a holistic view of how both structural inequalities and social

networks shape flood resilience. Furthermore, Vulnerability Theory effectively addresses

structural inequalities and social conditions driving disaster impacts. However, it may overlook

individual resilience factors, such as personal resourcefulness or informal support systems. These
elements are crucial in Barangay Almacen's context, as resource limitations and socioeconomic

disparities vary across households. This study considers these limitations by analyzing individual

household capacities alongside broader structural challenges.

Regarding this, Cutter's Social Vulnerability Index (2016) applied Vulnerability Theory to

measure and map vulnerability at the community level across the United States. The Social

Vulnerability Index (SoVI) assesses factors like age, income, and housing conditions, allowing

communities to identify high-risk areas and prioritize interventions. Cutter’s application is used

widely by local governments for disaster preparedness and resource allocation, providing an

evidence-based method to pinpoint where interventions are most needed to reduce vulnerability.

Lastly, the third theoretical foundation of this study is Resilience Theory. Resilience

Theory explores the capacity of communities to adapt and recover from disruptions, emphasizing

adaptability and the ability to absorb shocks. Although, in a related study by Svenning et al. (2021)

stated that CS Holling in 1973 originally introduced resilience in ecological contexts, recent

studies have expanded it to address social resilience and community adaptation to disasters. For

example, recent work by Berkes and Ross (2016) emphasized "community resilience" as an

evolving concept that incorporates local resources, governance, and self-organization, with

adaptability as a core focus. Berkes and Ross highlight that resilience involves not only bouncing

back from crises but also using the event to drive social learning and transformation. Their work

underscores the importance of integrating social dynamics with formal disaster response

frameworks.

In Barangay Almacen, Resilience Theory is applied to evaluate how local government

interventions affect disaster preparedness and recovery efforts. The theory’s emphasis on adaptive

capacities allows the study to assess both community-wide resilience and individual household
adaptability, especially in the context of limited resources. By examining these resilience factors

at both community and household levels, the study identifies potential pathways to strengthen

flood resilience and long-term recovery. This perspective emphasizes the role of the Barangay

Almacen LGU in facilitating adaptive strategies and enhancing community-wide resilience to

future floods.

Altogether, Resilience Theory ties into both Social Capital and Vulnerability Theories by

linking community adaptability with social networks and resource inequalities. While resilience

depends on social capital for effective community response, it also reflects the level of

vulnerability, as the most resilient communities often face fewer resource gaps and structural

inequalities. This integration offers a comprehensive view of how Barangay Almacen’s

households navigate resilience within the constraints of local socio-economic realities. Although

Resilience Theory’s holistic approach is beneficial in analyzing adaptability across multiple levels,

it may not capture the systemic limitations faced by disadvantaged communities. This study

acknowledges that resilience alone cannot fully address underlying vulnerabilities, and thus, it

requires combined support from social capital networks and structural improvements. By

recognizing these limitations, the study better accounts for contextual factors that impact resilience

efforts in Barangay Almacen.

In light with this, Berkes and Ross (2016) applied Resilience Theory to disaster contexts,

where community resilience and self-organization played a crucial role in recovery processes.

Their framework informs this study’s approach to evaluating LGU-led interventions in Barangay

Almacen, helping to support recommendations for enhancing resilience.

The socioeconomic impact of floods on vulnerable and disadvantaged households will be

examined through Social Capital Theory, Vulnerability Theory, and Resilience Theory. These
theories provide a framework to analyse how social networks, structural inequalities, and adaptive

capacities influence the experiences and recovery of households in Barangay Almacen during

flooding events.

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE AND STUDIES

This section presents a review of related literature and studies relevant to the current study.

By using related literature and studies, researchers can gain a significant understanding of the

subject at hand.

Related Literature

Social Impacts of Floods

According to Ochoa et al. (2017), social impacts of flooding are extensive beyond the

physical effects inflicted on the infrastructure. The authors cite resilience in communities affected

by floods by pointing out how social networks and community cohesion facilitate recovery. The

argument follows that strong social ties make communities more resilient to the disaster as such

contacts provide emotional support and resource sharing. More importantly, it stresses that the

more involved the community is in the effective management of disasters, the greater the

resilience, and thus, the outcomes after the flood event are better. In this way, the general societal

impacts of flooding are deep and reach beyond the physical landscape to the social fabric of the

affected communities.

In addition to that, in the work of Melillo et al., (2020), the authors provide detailed

understanding of the links between flooding, social vulnerability, and resilience. They submit that

those who experience floods are likely to have their existing disparities in a society made worse

through impacts on their health. In this context, the authors state that individuals belonging to the

vulnerable population are less likely to have access to necessary resources and services for coming
out of the floods. This study also identifies the psychological losses such as, raised stress and

anxiety levels among those who have experienced flooding. Regarding the impact of floods, the

authors underline the need to address the existing disparities in access to the basic human needs,

including food, shelter, and healthcare, hence enhancing social resilience for vulnerable

populations.

Likewise, flooding in the Philippines has enormous social concerns as it dramatically

impacts the strength of the society, their health state, and even mental conditions. As noted by

Alcantara (2019), floods force families out of their homes and reduce the social capital essential

for recovery among affected communities. This disruption mostly worsens the mental health of

individuals who have anxiety and depression among other mental health disorders. The general

needs of the communities, most importantly the basic necessities such as food, water, shelter, and

health care are often affected as highlighted in the report. Poor and marginalized groups and

especially those living in flood prone and slum areas are at high risk since their resource base is

negligible and they cannot easily rebuild. Mitigation of these social impacts demands disaster

management frameworks that encourage engagement of community members and ensure

provision of support to the targeted vulnerable groups.

Chaudhary and Timsina (2017) observed the impact of floods on students’ attendance,

enrolment and academic performance. This report identified several devastating effects caused by

floods affecting food, Migration, Infectious diseases, school infrastructure, students learning

attendance truancy and absenteeism, poor sanitation and toilet conditions, and psychological

impacts on both teachers and students. This study focuses on the view that flooding presents a

severe threat to the provision and receipt of education and that early warning, other educational
arrangements and adequate funding are vital to minimize the negative impacts on students and

their learning.

Quaill Barker, and West (2018) described several features that are relevant to the social

effects of floods on the elderly. The study finds out that elderly physically disabled people are

more exposed to floods because of their low mobility status, possibly depending on caregiver

assistance and generally poor health status. Concerning the safety and security of the elderly

persons during floods, the study underlines the importance of existence and access of the

evacuation routes, availability of safe evacuation shelters, and reliable information sources. In

addition, the assessment underlines the role of friends, families and the neighbours’ associations

in evacuation, rehabilitation and other forms of continual support for the older persons in the course

of floods.

A study by Headwaters Economics of the year 2023 shows that flood impacts renters in

the US low-income earners signalling social injustice that floods worsen. As it revealed in the

survey, low-income groups are worst hit in cases of floods as they often reside in areas which are

least provided with infrastructure and stocks. Some of the reasons include past economic

disadvantages, restricted flood insurance and inferior housing. The paper also presents a focus on

the social impact of floods on the livelihoods of low-income earners, displacement, loss of income,

and long periods of recovery. It increases support for fundamental reforms in availability and

affordability of housing, flood insurance, and disaster preparedness services; AND it appoints

specific efforts to respond to unique challenges faced by low-income communities. The paper also

highlights the importance and calls for a non-compensated approach to flood risk management that

succeeds the current elite-focused, governmental traditionalism and technical modernisation in

providing vulnerable communities with a long overdue protection from further catastrophe by the

climate or through other means.

Davlasheridze and Geylani (2017) focus on the nature of floods and the effectiveness of

SBA disaster loans to mitigate that impact it has on companies. They do not have short-term

adaptation measures in their study, and it could be seen that firms, especially small businesses, are

very much at the mercy of flood disasters. Based on the study prepared for the project, subsidized

disaster loans are necessary for aiding the economy, more so the small businesses with less than

50 employee population. Analyzing the results, the authors stated that four small companies are

sustained for every catastrophe loan dollar per company in a county. The authors thus conclude

that local economic activity and generation of employment opportunities across the country is

highly likely to be in danger if increase in both number and intensity as well as the increased

susceptibility of small firms.

Dulawan, Imamura, Amaguchi, and Ohara (2024) examined family attitudes and the

persistence of residing in flood zones as social drivers of flood vulnerability in Metro Manila,

Philippines. The study offers insights into the experiences of employees who live in flood-prone

locations, despite its primary focus on household decisions. According to the study, variables like

closeness to places of employment, ease of access to basic facilities, and financial limitations all

affect workers' decisions to stay in flood-prone locations. Notably, the study discovered that

workers frequently put access to vital services and means of subsistence ahead of any flood

hazards, underscoring the difficult trade-offs they must make when juggling safety considerations

with financial demands. Accordingly, flood mitigation initiatives must take into account the unique

requirements and preferences of workers residing in flood zones, addressing their financial

vulnerabilities and fostering workplace resilience.

 Economic Impacts of Floods

Brucal et al. (2020), analyzes the economic consequences of flooding in the Philippines,

mainly through the lens of income, employment, and property damages. The report further notes

that income loss commonly occurs among the affected households with most of their income from

agriculture and the informal sector being at risk. This disruption is felt significantly in the

employment sector especially in the urban areas because businesses may be closed for a period of

time or permanently due to flood. Further, there are significant financial impacts due to property

damage which creates long-term economic loss for families and the local economy. In her paper,

Brucal also underlines that disaster financing and recovery, which need to be organized well, can

minimize these effects and prevent communities from staying in a state of crisis for a long time,

which will help them rebuild and recover economically.

Furthermore, Kurata et al. (2023), examines the economic costs of flooding and how

communities in the flood-prone areas in the Philippines can prevent and cope with flooding.

According to this study, flooding results in a significant loss of income through disruptions in

business as well as agricultural production. Loss of jobs is widespread especially in rural regions,

where a significant number of citizens depend on farming. Also, many families suffer from

property damage which in most cases leads to the high costs of repairs or complete loss of property

hence increasing poverty levels. Kurata underscores the need for protective and socio-

organizational solutions to increase community flood resistance and minimize the financial impact

of floods.

Along with it is a study by Badamosi et al. (2024), that investigated the effects of flooding

on the socioeconomic structures in Nigeria; this research addresses the various effects of rising

flood disasters. In the course of the study, it is established that income loss results from flooding
because it alters normal business and farming activities. This has an impact on employment as

those who are in the flood prone areas lose their jobs or are incurred to work for some days during

the event. Another important factor is damage to the property which is devastating to many homes

and can take people years to repair or replace financially. Based on this study, there is a need to

identify and develop sound coping strategies and economic interventions programmes that can

facilitate reconstruction and sustain livelihoods of the affected communities after flood

occurrences.

Adebayo, and Oguntunde (2024) investigates how flooding affects Nigerian students'

finances. The study emphasizes the substantial financial strain that flood-related disruptions place

on students, including lost revenue from part-time jobs, damaged educational materials, and higher

transportation expenses. According to the study, flooding has a major effect on students' capacity

to pay for needs like food and housing, which raises stress and anxiety levels. The results highlight

the necessity of focused interventions, such as financial aid, scholarship access, and support

programs to guarantee academic continuity, to lessen the financial hardships experienced by

students in flood-prone areas.

Maltais (2019) thus conducted a literature study to explore the nature of elderly people’s

vulnerability to disaster-related risks, especially where quasi-disasters like floods, rail accidents,

fire in residences for the elderly are concerned. As anyone who has read the calamity report for

people over 65 would attest to, seniors are especially squarely at the impact of these misfortunes

since they are extremely sensitive to developing major wounds, anxiety, and depression due to the

inability of NGOs and public agencies to provide them with requisite support. The review also

looks at the factors specific to making elders more vulnerable for this social harm including;

isolation, resource deficiency, physical and mental frailty. This is why the results stress the need
to provide senior citizens with targeted efforts as well as disaster response plans that meet their

needs to minimize their likelihood of getting hurt as well ensure that their wellbeing is taken care

of if a disaster strikes.

According to Mohd Rozaimy Ridzuan, Jamal Rizal Razali, Soon-Yew Ju, Noor Amira

Syazwani Abd Rahman, and Lai-Kuan Kong (2022), flood catastrophes have a negative effect on

poverty and wage inequality in Malaysia. Floods disproportionately affect the poor, the study

shows, aggravating already-existing income disparities and impeding the government's efforts to

realize the Shared Prosperity Vision 2030. Since floods are becoming more frequent, the study

emphasizes the necessity of focused actions and policies to address low-income communities'

vulnerabilities to climate change-induced disasters. The results highlight the connections between

poverty, income inequality, and climate change, and they urge a comprehensive strategy to lessen

the effects of natural disasters and advance sustainable development in Malaysia.

Brownfeld (2024) Catastrophic economic impacts of flood in the US are assessed in this

article from Garrison Flood Control. It focuses on the economic losses that organisations, local

and nationwide, and households face in the short and long term, thus making the world’s

populations more aware of the flood risks inherent in their societies. The paper states how

important it is to have an adequate amount of flood insurance as a means to minimize the loss, at

the same time it points out that NFIP is struggling to meet the increasing number of people seeking

flood insurance. The paper then progresses by analysing how climate change enhances

vulnerability to floods and how it supports comprehensive management of floods risk bearing in

mind the economical, ecological and social implications of floods. Thus, it underlines the need in

developing a long-term forecast, protection and utilisation measures, and works on reconstruction

and reinforcement of the disaster-affected infrastructure. To encourage and promote flood

preparedness, therefore, enhance, and protect community resilience against such disastrous

economic impacts of flooding, the article concludes by highlighting the importance of embracing

flood control technologies.

Jia, Ma, and Xie (2022) estimate the short-run and long-run local economic impacts of a

higher interaction rate of floods in the United States from 1998 to 2018 by using data at the county

level and zip code level. According to their research, while flood generates short-term output

decline without affecting entry and employment of firms, the risk of flood exerts significant

adverse long-run effect on entry and employment, and output of industries. To understand these

dynamics better, the authors develop a spatial equilibrium model that incorporates effects of flood

risk on employment decisions of workers and location decisions of firms. Having analysed their

data, they concluded that flood risk led to a 0.52% decline in the US total output in 2018, and

direct losses accounted for 20%, while the anticipated impacts, 80%. The study brings into focus

how managerial decisions and innovation by both businesses and employees need to be considered

when assessing for example the economic impacts of floods.

Effectiveness of Local Government Unit Interventions

In their research Haug et al. (2020), discuss the efficacy of the respective governmental

measures during the COVID-19 outbreak, which may be useful in reviewing the parallels of the

local governments’ actions during the flood disaster. The study shows that timely and effective

responses and co-ordinated efforts dramatically reduce the severity of the crisis. This study found

that local government units (LGU’s) that demonstrated specific communication plans and well-

coordinated and well-articulated relief operations saw better results in responding to the necessities

of the affected communities. It is a framework for examining intervention effectiveness that

reinforces the significance of strategic and progressive measures in regional administration

regarding the community’s crisis preparedness and reconstruction.

Moreover, Sharma et al. (2021), consider the measures implemented by the governments

of European countries during the second wave of the COVID-19. Even though the interventions

are health related, the study emphasizes on the need for early and effective government response

in handling crises. Another interesting finding of the study is that owing to the differences in

community vulnerabilities, the relief and recovery programs of the local governments that

underwent changes according to the needs of different communities were more effective in

attaining better outcomes. This versatility is critical for local authorities to make sure that delivered

and funded programs, may they be situated in a health emergency or a natural disaster, such as

floods, reach those in need and help them recover.

Thus, Camay and Nitafan (2020), examines work motivation and job satisfaction of local

government employees in Matalam, Cotabato, Philippines to explore the impact of local

government in implementing relief and recovery interventions. This paper finds out that the level

of motivation and job satisfaction is paramount in the execution of organizational disaster response

measures. Local government employees that have positive attitudes towards support and

engagement are more equipped in positive relief and recovery programs implementation thus

strengthening the local government unit during emergencies. As a result, it underlines the

importance of both training and support for Local Government personnel to enhance their

capability and preparedness in managing disasters.

All Hands and Hearts (AHAH) 2024 presents their Hurricane Relief Efforts in the

Philippines and gives importance on rebuilding students’ education again after being affected by

natural calamities. Their program started in 2007 and has addressed several typhoons including
Mangkhut- Ompong, Haiyan-Yolanda and Rai- Odette. Implemented through school

reconstructions as well as the development of Transitional Learning Spaces (TLS), its approach

has a specific emphasis on specific needs of affected communities – states AHAH’s strategy. On-

going in Southern Leyte, their construction of resilient school buildings equipped with classrooms,

playgrounds and WASH aim to provide safe and healthy learning spaces to affected students in

Typhoon Rai. Also, part of the program is WASH and Child Protection for students, teachers,

parents, community members, and DRR. To ensure a safer education for these Filipino learners,

this endeavor proves that AHAH is committed not just in reconstructing buildings but also in

teaching communities what they need to learn for better preparedness in the next disasters that

come their way.

Pelone and Arellano (2024) evaluated early warning system use and family readiness for

floods in Barangay San Miguel, Tagum City, Davao del Norte, Philippines. Because of their

increased vulnerability to the effects of floods, their research primarily focused on the special

vulnerabilities of the elderly and people with disabilities. With an average score of 3.75, the study

discovered that households were remarkably well-prepared overall. A mean score of 2.74,

however, also indicated notable shortcomings in training and seminars, underscoring the urgent

need for focused interventions to improve these vulnerable groups' knowledge and abilities. The

researchers stress that in order to guarantee that vital information reaches these groups in a timely

and easily accessible way, adequate funds and resources must be allocated to support the efficacy

of early warning systems, especially in the distribution of information via flyers and leaflets. Their

results highlight the significance of a thorough approach to disaster preparedness that takes into

account the unique requirements and vulnerabilities of marginalized groups, especially the elderly

and those with disabilities, in order to create more resilient and inclusive communities.
 Diokno-Sicat et al. (2020) draw attention to the difficulties low-income local government

units (LGUs) in the Philippines encounter, especially when trying to obtain and make use of

resources for development. The Performance Challenge Fund (PCF), an incentive program

intended to assist high-impact capital investment projects, was not available to a large number of

low-income municipalities, especially those in Bicol and Central and Eastern Visayas, according

to their research. The structural obstacles that low-income LGUs encounter in obtaining essential

development financing are highlighted by this study, which limits their ability to provide for the

fundamental needs of their residents. The paper also highlights how municipalities' insufficient

use of required development funding has caused development to be delayed. In order to address

the unique difficulties faced by low-income LGUs and guarantee a fairer distribution of resources

and development opportunities among all Philippine towns, these findings highlight the necessity

of focused interventions and legislative changes.

The PreventionWeb.net article "Empowering Local Governments for Effective Disaster

Management and Climate Resilience" outlines the difficulties local governments in the Philippines

confront in reducing the risk of disasters and fostering climate resilience. The 2024 paper

highlights the necessity of focused interventions and legislative changes to meet the unique

difficulties local governments encounter, especially when it comes to obtaining and applying

resources for growth. The paper emphasizes how important it is for business owners to help local

governments improve their preparedness and resilience for disasters. In order to assist local

governments in taking on more responsibility in accordance with decentralization, the article uses

the example of the Agence Française de Développement, which developed a comprehensive

policy-based loan and technical assistance framework in partnership with the Department of the

Interior and Local Government. By addressing present vulnerabilities and potential hazards, this
program expands on earlier attempts to strengthen local capacities for disaster resilience. It is

intended to include disaster risk reduction and management into local planning and infrastructure

investment. This illustration highlights how important it is for members of the private sector, such

as entrepreneurs, to collaborate with local authorities in order to create more resilient and

sustainable communities.

The 2020 SEEK Philippines article "We heal as one: How you can support employees

during natural disasters and calamities" offers helpful guidance for companies on how to assist

their staff during natural disasters and calamities. The significance of being the initial point of

contact for staff members and providing them with prompt assistance and comfort in an emergency

is emphasized in the article. In order to support employees with their immediate financial needs

and recovery efforts, it highlights the necessity for employers to offer financial assistance options,

including salary loans, calamity loans, mutual assistance programs, emergency company funds,

cash advances, early release of 13th-month pay, and government loan options. To help workers

who have been badly impacted by the disaster, the article also exhorts businesses to hold donation

campaigns and offer care packages that include essentials. Recognizing the special conditions and

difficulties that employees encounter during natural catastrophes, the article highlights the

significance of re-evaluating the filing of employee leaves and exhorts employers to adopt a

thoughtful and accommodating posture. It also emphasizes how crucial it is to inform staff

members of pertinent news and reports, keep them informed about the situation, and remind them

of their benefits as employees that can support them at this time. The article's conclusion highlights

the value of demonstrating compassion and understanding for workers, reminding businesses that

natural disasters are painful events and that workers require help and support.
 Coping Mechanisms and Adaptation Strategies

In Eligue (2023), the author explores resilience factors in a group of island households in

Barangay, Cebu, particularly, vulnerable households and their ability to cope and adapt. The study

reveals that the families use several methods to overcome the difficulties that appear due to the

intensification of the floods and other calamities. Some of the existing strategies are; operation of

more than one source of income, an example is practicing in different economic activities in order

to reduce the impacts of disasters in the economy. The role of the community networks is also

significant in this regard because households depend on social relations in emergencies. Eligue

underscores the method of Coping Landscape which argues that environmental contexts determine

the coping techniques that can be useful in the handling of the coping issues by the various

vulnerable groups and sub groups thus implying the need to adopt specific approaches in the

handling of the coping issues.

Additionally, to precisely understand the coping strategies of the disadvantaged families,

this study will adopt Albert and Vizmanos (2020) with focus on vulnerability to income poverty

trends in the Philippines between 2003 and 2015. The research also reveals that vulnerable

households are forced to seek informal employment and social relationships for managing the

adverse economic shocks and disasters. Such coping mechanisms normally encompass the use of

cash remittances from the members of the households, who live in another country as a means of

coping in the event of a disaster. Thereby, the findings highlight the importance of social protection

programs that can help increase the adaptive mechanisms of these households, in order to better

cope with the economic shocks.

Accordingly, See and Wilmsen (2020), examines the climate-related displacements in a

coastal city of the Philippines and reveals that the adaptation measures make new risks for
disadvantaged households. This paper finds out that though there is relief from the hazards, most

of the resettlement comes with the severing of social networks and economic livelihoods. Such

matters as using government support or participating in local adaptation activities are discussed as

the ways to overcome these difficulties. Wilmsen also underlines the fact that there is a need to

consider various political aspects of the processes of resettlement and adaptation for avoiding

further deepening of the existing vulnerabilities due to the interventions made.

Policy Recommendations and Gaps

Aubert et al. (2021) performed a narrative review to identify the trends of PA in children

and adolescents globally, but the study pointed out that the existing literature lacks comparability

due to the methodological differences. To support the development of more extensive physical

activity policies for this population segment the authors call for adaptation of identical monitoring

protocols for the purpose of physical activity assessment. Further, they emphasize the need for

appropriate initiatives to be taken for children of all classes, and all children should have equal

chances to be active. This study also reveals that little is known how factors influence participation

of physical activities especially among the low-income earners, thus suggesting that these are areas

of research that need to be explored further in order to inform policy on the best strategies to adopt

on this issue.

Correspondingly, when critically considering both flooding and the adaptation measures

required to avert the effects of flooding, Bruns and Trzebitzky (2019), identified the barriers and

policies lacking, to ensure for a success, flood risk management in the Densu Delta in Accra

Ghana. Key findings from Bruns’ work focusing on policy implementation for adaptation indicate

that there is a gap in the actual implementation of the policy recommendations because of resource

constraints, weak institutional support and differences in stakeholder participation. This is

supported by what has been referred to as the ‘implementation deficit’ where otherwise good

policies and blueprints for disaster risk reduction do not get implemented or where these remain

weak or patchy across different communities, thereby preserving and even deepening vulnerability

among occupants. Talking about the same point, Bruns and Trzebitzky (2019) argues that

adaptation policies do not adequately take into account local socio-economic factors when it comes

to community-based approaches and practices. These gaps in policy implementation indicate that

flood risk management does not just entail policy formulation, but enhanced commitment to

resource distribution, institutionalization of capacity improvements, and involvement of the

community to close vulnerability gaps.

In the same way, Alcantara (2019) provides policy actions that would improve adaptation

against flood and fill the gaps on disaster risk reduction currently in the country. Another is the

implementation of sound land-use planning measures complemented by flood prone locations to

contain and ensure sustainable development of flood prone areas. This includes more stringent

rules placed on construction in risk areas, as well as the utilization of principles in green

infrastructure including re- establishment of wetlands, and drainage management. Therefore, in an

extensive manner, the role of community in risk reduction measures as embraced in the report is

underscored. When local populations participate in the training and planning of preparedness and

response, there is community improvement. However, a way is left open in the delivery of mental

health support in disaster response policies. Several social psychological effects of flooding are

not well considered and require policy formulation to include mental health interventions to treat

post-disaster trauma and stress.

Flooding is considered to bring about serious social and economic impacts particularly to

persons who are most susceptible. The impact of floods on social aspects is described in the
following ways in the literature: floods destabilize communities and increase vulnerabilities, and

worsen mental conditions especially among the affected vulnerable groups. Speaking of Ochoa et

al. (2017), stress is laid upon social networks and community engagement as the key factors

influencing the resilience degree, whereas, according to Melillo et al. (2020) and Alcantara (2019),

flooding acts symmetrically to deepen social differences, diminish health, and limit access to the

basics. As well, Chaudhary and Timsina (2017) explain the effects of floods on education while

Quaill Barker and West (2018) on elderly population.

Moreover, socio – economically floods cause loss of income, interruption of business and

damage to property, affecting the poor and the small sector ventures. Financial considerations of

affected communities and disaster financing are reviewed by Brucal et al., (2020) and Kurata et

al., (2023). In Nigeria, using a cross-sectional study, Badamosi et al. (2024) and in Malaysia,

Ridzuan et al. (2022) suggested poverty and wage disaggregate as focal areas most negatively

impacted by flood; hence, promising specific economic measures and policies.

Furthermore, flood impacts are considerably influenced by the local government

interventions as well as disaster management practices. Crisis response can also be timely and

coordinated, as suggested by Haug et al. (2020), or centre on motivated personnel, according to

Camay and Nitafan (2020). Such community-centered strategies into disaster engagement include

All Hands and Hearts (2024) focus on restoring education and incorporating disaster resilience

into contexts.

Support and coping or survival strategies do play a key role in the production of resilience.

According to Eligue, (2023) and Albert & Vizmanos, (2020) It has been established that through

social networks, households in vulnerable positions use informal employment and cash remittance.

See and Wilmsen (2020) suggested that there are problems with organized resettlement efforts that
lead to the removal of new social contacts and sources of income, and that politically oriented

approaches to resettlement should be the ones promoted, especially since they tend to make such

positions only deeper.

There are still policy gaps according to Bruns and Trzebitzky (2019) and Alcantara (2019)

proposing respective improvements in resource allocation, in strengthening institutional capacity,

and in involving the communities in disaster management. These works emphasize the need for

linking behavioral health interventions, green infrastructure and sustainable land-use planning as

measures aimed at enhancing the accountability in disaster risk reduction.

Related Studies

Social Impacts of Floods

According to Lloyd et al. (2022), the mapped social vulnerability at the municipal level in

Brazil, and the fact that the Philippines is one of over 200 non-federal entities around the world

most susceptible to flooding, and in other respects such as natural disasters and meteorological-

related incidents it ranks third among all countries concerning disaster risk. Social vulnerability

parameters were identified from literature review, while relevant census data was obtained from

the Philippines Statistics Authority (PSA). All those important data were collected using Principal

Component Analysis (PCA) and Social Vulnerability Index (SVI) in the study. Among the

findings, researchers performed a study using these social vulnerability factors and found that they

could be pulled into 4 different elements: status in terms of social and economic; status of homes;

availability of facilities, then urbanization. Thankfully, it's the very first study to report on socially

vulnerable individuals throughout Philippine society during the framework's Sendai benchmark

phase at the local level.

 Firstly, the study of Khayyam and Noureen (2020), focuses on vulnerability assessment

caused by floods in Hazara Division, Pakistan. The study indicated that floods have a considerable

adverse effect on income, social prestige notability and on the physical strength and financial

condition of rural communities causing poverty proportions to intensify. An increase in

vulnerability levels of communities that are already at risk is reported to contribute more towards

existing risks and hazards, accompanied by rising poverty too.

Furthermore, De Silva et al. (2018) also had another way of interpretation in their study of

poverty, climate variability, and water-related disasters in a rural Sri Lankan community. The data

showed that more than two-fifths of all households make extensive use of natural resources for

their livelihoods, with adverse impacts on floods and drought being significantly more significant

in the homes with low income still compared to higher pay. This study suggests the poorest

community rely most dependently on basic materials as a means of support, this also are hit hardest

by flood or drought casualty. As this study confirms, low-income families relying solely on natural

resources for their subsistence can be affected by disasters with greater frequency and suffer the

most financial damage in case of floods or droughts. Combined with scarce alternative income

sources, this creates a vicious compound vulnerability.

Additionally, those individuals who belong to low-income households, usually residing in

flood-prone areas or having limited resources, tend to be more exposed and vulnerable to floods

(Patankar, 2015). The ability of these households to cope with floods and their aftermath is also

somewhat doubled as a consequence of such homes being typically poor or low-income

individuals: rents tend to be far cheaper in flood-prone areas than elsewhere, so very few private

renters can afford safer properties. Though floods may not permanently harm assets directly, the

disruption of vital services such as transportation and logistics can lead to direct and indirect losses.
Monsoon season accelerates the outbursts of vector-borne and waterborne diseases, such as

malaria, dengue, and other deadly epidemics. Disease conditions, thus putting intense financial

strain on families due to treatment costs such as hospitalization and productivity loss. The poor

communities are vulnerable already, and adding these health consequences makes things more

difficult for them, leading to a poverty trap.

However, Lamond et al. (2015) highlighted the under-researched long-term psychological

effects of flooding, particularly in communities prone to recurrent flooding. According to the

study, the main variables influencing a long period of mental health of devastated communities

include income levels, the extent of the flooding, displacement after reemployment, and mitigation

efforts. These variables were associated with reported levels of anxiety, depression, stress, and

decline in mental health. Results indicated that psycho-social difficulties after a flood were more

common in groups with a lower income, those that had deeper floods, ones that were forced to

move during reconstruction, and those that adopted mitigating measures. This research

underscores the importance of addressing the long-term mental health consequences of flooding

and developing strategies to support affected communities.

The study of Ardales et al. (2016), “Impacts of floods on public schools in the

municipalities of Los Baños and Bay, Laguna, Philippines,” examined the impacts of floods on

education service delivery and student schooling in two lakeshore municipalities in Laguna Lake,

Philippines. Researchers gathered data through teacher surveys, key informant interviews with

government and education officials, focused group discussions with students, parents, and

stakeholders, and reports on flood damage and dropout rates. Floods cancelled classes and

disrupted school routines, caused damage to the schools themselves, and created negative impacts

on the teachers at both home and school. The teaching challenges were insufficient time to cover
the lessons, low motivation and low concentration of students, shortfalls in classrooms, availability

of teaching materials, and difficulties in preparing lessons. Student enrolment and performance

declined, and there was no increase in dropout among students due to floods as in previous studies.

The author recommends adaptation measures to overcome the effects of floods on school

operations.

The study by Abad et al. (2019), titled “Commuting behavior adaptation to flooding: An

analysis of transit users’ choices in Metro Manila,” investigates how commuters in Metro Manila

adapt their travel behavior when experiencing floods. Using data from a questionnaire for

employees, the study finds that commute adaptations occur more frequently during the trip to work

than during the return trip, mainly due to changes in departure time. Binary logit models suggest

that commute and employment situations are the strongest predictors of adaptive behavior.

Perceived flood characteristics, sociodemographic factors, and beliefs about flood frequency also

influence adaptation but to a lesser extent. The study concludes with recommendations for transit

agencies and employers to help commuters adapt to flood-related travel disruptions without

impacting work or household commitments.

According to Headwaters Economics (2023), in the United States, flooding

disproportionately impacts vulnerable populations and exacerbates existing inequities. Over 53

million Americans live in high-risk flood areas, but people of color, Hispanics, mobile home

residents, and people with disabilities will be even more likely to be affected. Factors that

determine community vulnerability include flood exposure, the quality of infrastructure, the

capacity of the local government, and the ability of the community to prepare for, respond to, and

recover from floods (social vulnerability). Socially vulnerable groups experience greater exposure

to floods and suffer both in the short and long run. These unequal impacts arise from historical
economic, political, and land-use decisions that concentrate risk in areas with limited resources

and political influence for affected groups. Moreover, disaster recovery systems often perpetuate

these inequities. Headwaters Economics’ analysis of flood and socioeconomic data identifies areas

where flood risks disproportionately affect vulnerable populations, particularly in communities

with limited local government capacity. An interactive map (not included here) allows users to

filter counties based on flood risk, community capacity, and demographic characteristics to

identify areas that need increased resources, technical assistance, and long-term investments to

reduce flood risks and protect vulnerable communities.

According to Floodinfo.ie (n.d.), flooding produces significant immediate and long-term

impacts on individuals and communities. Beyond the immediate physical dangers, the stress and

trauma associated with flooding, or even the threat of flooding, can cause immense psychological

distress, potentially leading to chronic illnesses. Recovery can be a lengthy and stressful process,

further impacting well-being. In general, the most vulnerable people affected by floods are old

people, disabled people, and those with long-term illnesses. Such people suffer significantly from

flooding, as their ability to replace damaged possessions or restore acceptable living conditions

may be severely impaired by limited finance. Floods also interfere with community services and

infrastructures, including schools, health facilities, and community centers, thus causing partial or

total interruption of services either temporarily or for a prolonged time.

Economic Impacts of Floods

A study from Jago-on (2017), describing the impacts of floods in KAMANAVA area stated

that when it comes to the socio-economic aspect of life, these floods do not only affect health but

also livelihood. But his findings indicate that the economic toll caused by floods in Navotas had

been heavy for its residents. Household property damage, expenses on medicine, transportation
cost and evacuation efforts are only a few that take its toll financially. Many lose their livelihood

because the roads are inaccessible and transport is disrupted. The costs of flooding each year

increase in line with the severity of the flood itself, but are somewhat counter-balanced by

household expenditure on prevention and coping strategies against flooding. Nonetheless, the

amount of flood impacts that occurred each year is equivalent to about 28% of an average family

income in Navotas. This substantial cost often takes away money from other priorities for many

households in the region, such as food, clothing and education, health and sanitation.

Also, the study of Asuero et al. (2014) describes the characteristics of the disaster-prone

communities in Infanta, Quezon and determines the level of vulnerabilities. The study revealed

that the level of vulnerability of the selected communities were caused by its socioeconomic status.

Despite living in almost the same geographical location, the poor remained the most affected and

vulnerable in floods. Moreover, these communities were living in an area openly exposed in

disasters, like near coastal areas. Thus, according to the study, the vulnerability is selective of

social class, the few resources of the poor easily put them at a disadvantage. The lack of resources

limited their choices and made starting anew more difficult.

In addition, in the study of Pakantar (2017), it investigates the impact of floods on

households in Colombo, Sri Lanka, focusing on their exposure, vulnerability, and ability to

respond. The study found that floods disproportionately burden poor households, who experience

significant damage to their homes, assets, and vehicles. Furthermore, they face indirect impacts

due to disruptions in transportation, power, water, food, and essential supplies, leading to lost

workdays, income, and productivity. Numerous low-income households think about moving to

locations that are flood-free, but they don't have sufficient funds to undertake such. The study

suggests that a government-supported relocation program, offering factors like job opportunities,
clean environments, access to healthcare, transportation, and social networks, could encourage

relocation for those willing to move.

Furthermore, a very large proportion of the population exposed to floods was near areas

with persistently recurrent, low-lying flooding and more than half of the affected populations are

extremely poor such as informal and slum households (Patankar, 2015). According to his analysis,

floods impose a greater economic burden on impoverished households in India. They suffer huge

losses as their homes and other essentials such as appliances and furniture are damaged, which is

a big investment using their little earnings. This risk exposes the danger floods are posing to the

asset base of the poor. These damages the pockets of low-income families who have scant savings.

In addition, Patanker also used qualitative design focusing mainly on the marginalized households

and this is why it creates a connection with our research. But the question arose – context, to which

the study of Patanker is contextualizing in the largest city of India, in contrast with the locality of

barangay Almacen. Also, Almacen has less population so it is not in a slum area or informal

settlement but still flooding occurs and lastly, the Philippines and India have differences in

adopting policies to tackle the floods, making both study gaps. Hence, this study is an important

one for the analysis and understanding of the effects of continuous flooding in barangay Almacen

to make what possible ways or solution may be possibly made to finally solve the given

phenomenon and so that a given locality would have an idea on how they would properly react or

respond to it and totally eliminate its vulnerability.

In “Homeless and looking for help – why people with disability and their carers fare worse

after floods,” Bailie et al. (2022) examines the disproportionate impact of flooding on people with

disabilities and their carers’, especially in the context of the 2022 New South Wales and

Queensland floods that damaged thousands of homes. This paper continues the work following the
2017 Northern Rivers floods by reporting that people with disabilities and their carers have a

greater chance of experiencing house flooding, evacuation, and longer displacement periods. In

addition, their risk for developing PTSD is increased. Socioeconomic disadvantage plays a further

role in the vulnerability by having individuals with disabilities being overrepresented within lower

socioeconomic groups and therefore having a greater chance of being housed in cheaper, more

flood-prone accommodation. The study highlights that flood exposure interacts with social,

cultural, and economic factors, further exposing people to risk and constraining preparedness,

response, and recovery for people with disabilities. For instance, in Lismore, a high percentage of

flood zone residents in 2017 belonged to the lowest socioeconomic group.

According to Entrusted (2023), the immediate impact on human lives of disastrous flooding

is frequently mentioned, whereas the effects on businesses go unaccounted for often. Just like

homes, businesses are badly damaged by flooding and closed for days, weeks, or even months

after such flooding. Monetary damage may be extreme, even considering insurance. Four key

ways in which business is affected include: 1) loss of stock and assets (inventory, vehicles,

equipment), leading to operational disruption and financial losses; 2) business premises being

closed, leading to lost revenue and ongoing expenses; 3) loss of power and data, damaging

equipment and causing potentially irretrievable loss of data; and 4) loss of revenue due to closure

and potential employee absences. This effect in aggregate can create a protracted financial crisis

for the concerned business firms. The conclusion emphasizes the urgency of getting the

professional disaster clean-up services at an early date to restore businesses.

 Effectiveness of Local Government Unit Interventions

According to the study of Gaudiel (2023), there is no difference in the extent of

implementation of disaster risk reduction management in the area of prevention and mitigation,

preparedness, response and recovery when respondents are grouped according to level of income,

population, and land area. Moreover, according to the responders, the most frequent issue with

preventive and mitigation is inadequate waste material separation by the residents of the area, also

respondents noted a delay for the execution of local government unit’s mitigation of disaster risks

initiatives as well as readiness difficulty. In response, delayed responsive action after the

phenomena has been identified by the respondents. Lastly, in recovery, romanticizing resiliency

by the LGU and lack of immediate assessment of damage is the main challenge.

In addition, according to Thanvisitthpon (2017), study on the impacts of repetitive flooding

in Ayutthaya province, Thailand, employed a qualitative approach to examine the experiences of

residents in four flood-prone districts. The research revealed that residents have adapted to the

recurring floods, with many elevating their homes to mitigate the impact. However, the study

found that the flood-recovery financial aid often fell short of actual expenditures, leading to low

satisfaction with the post-flood repair and restoration assistance. Furthermore, the study identified

disparities in satisfaction levels across districts, attributing these differences to the extent of

resident and local leader involvement in flood-related measures. This research underscores the

importance of understanding local adaptation strategies, the effectiveness of flood relief efforts,

and the role of community participation in mitigating the impacts of recurrent flooding.

Also, in Khan’s (2018) study in Swat, Pakistan, investigated local perceptions of post-

conflict and post-flood livelihood interventions. Through qualitative interviews with beneficiaries,

non-beneficiaries, government representatives, and program officials, the study found that the
response to the disaster was hampered by a lack of coordination, weak institutional support, and a

failure to prioritize local needs. This resulted in targeted aid that was often ineffective and

susceptible to elite co-opting. The study concludes that promoting local ownership of response and

recovery programs is crucial for effective development policy and practice. These findings support

the focus of this research on Effectiveness of LGU Interventions in terms relief and recovery. The

study found that the lack of coordination between relief, recovery, and development programs,

coupled with weak institutional support and a disregard for local needs, significantly hindered the

effectiveness of the response. To improve development policy and practice, the article advocates

for promoting local ownership of response and recovery programs.

While according to Ajijola et al. (2023), showed the investigated household adaptation to

flooding in Kosofe, Lagos, Nigeria, a highly flood-vulnerable area, using a positivist approach and

a cross-sectional survey of 324 households, the study found that despite high flood risk awareness,

there is limited pre-disaster preparedness and use of building-based adaptation strategies.

Government support is minimal, with households primarily relying on prayers, savings, and family

assistance during and after floods. The study emphasizes the need for investments in pre-disaster

preparation, adaptive building strategies, and increased government involvement to enhance the

resilience of vulnerable households in urbanized floodplain areas.

Coping Mechanisms and Adaptation Strategies

The Philippines is known for its resiliency, its ability to recover to every challenge that the

people encounter. According to Francisco (2015) in his study entitled Property damage recovery

and coping behavior of households affected by an extreme flood event in Marikina City, Metro

Manila, Philippines, it identified some coping mechanisms often shown by the people. The study

surveyed 400 respondent’s and used multinomial logistic model (1) reactive and short-term
anticipatory behavior (2) reactive and anticipatory behavior plus general long-term preventive

measures, and (3) reactive and anticipatory behavior plus preventive and proactive measures.

Results indicate that the family's decision was significantly influenced by socioeconomic position,

previous incidents, news reports, and expectations of individuals regarding catastrophic events.

People also coped up because of floods in an immediate manner because of different factors such

as loans, income/savings, accessibility to reliable housing, involvement in a neighbourhood group,

implementation of preparedness measures tailored to disasters, meanwhile there were no notable

impacts from relocation, government assistance, dwelling type, schooling, size of household, or

the area's frequency of floods.

Also, according to Ofosu et al. (2021), investigated flood coping mechanisms among

households in Aboabo, Ghana, highlighting the need for balanced adaptation strategies. While

structural methods offer temporary relief, over-reliance on them leaves households vulnerable to

future floods. The study emphasizes the importance of incorporating non-structural flood control

measures alongside structural ones for effective adaptation. This research underscores the need for

a comprehensive approach to flood management, considering both short-term coping strategies

and long-term adaptation plans.

Additionally, in accordance to Danso, et al. (2015), the study of Coping strategies of

households affected by flooding: A case study of Sekondi-Takoradi Metropolis in Ghana, their

study stated that annually, rivers close to communities within Sekondi-Takoradi Metropolis

overflow their banks, especially during the rainy seasons; displacing thousands of residents.

Compared to our research, they use the Mixed Method. It assesses the coping strategies of three

at-risk communities through a sample of two hundred and seven heads of households of Eshiem,

Kansawurodo, and Whindo selected using random sampling. Six important sources of information,
including heads then leaders from disaster prevention organizations, were interviewed in-depth

and given questionnaires. Results also demonstrate that the most common coping mechanisms

used by inhabitants in all communities were installing flooding stairs, transferring pertinent assets

to fellow citizens, and temporarily vacationing residences. Therefore, this finding supports this

research’s focus on residents’ coping mechanisms and their adaptation strategies in Ghana. In this

study, data suggests that building flood stairs, temporarily abandoning homes, and transferring

pertinent property to neighbours were the most widely used coping strategies across all

communities. Despite ways to cope used by locals differed from one community to the next, most

of them depended on independent recovery techniques for their setbacks.

Okaka et al. (2019) investigated the health vulnerability of households in flood-prone

informal settlements in Mombasa, Kenya. The study, which involved a random sample from three

informal settlements, assessed vulnerability based on flood exposure, sensitivity, and adaptive

capacity. Group interviews and survey forms are used to collect the data. According to the findings,

a considerable percentage of households—48 percent—experience the highest level of risk, with

46 percent experiencing the greatest degree of susceptibility and having a medium level, and only

12.3% having a low level. The study also explored the autonomous adaptation measures employed

by households in response to flooding. Additionally, researchers discovered that hazards to the

environment, water quality and hygiene disorders and family composition all had a substantial

impact on the degree of individual susceptibility. Families were adapting through employing sand

bags for safeguarding their houses and cleaning paths for drainage as coping techniques. The study

concludes that it is essential to strengthen flood early warning systems, preventive measures, and

long-term mitigation strategies for impoverished communities living in flood-prone urban areas,

as they face heightened health risks. They are intended for use in helping support local
organizations and communities identify weaknesses, especially in capacity for adaptation, as well

as offer recommendations for lowering foreseeable medical risks, associated with flooding for

residents of informal settlements.

Furthermore, according to Doris et al. (2018), in their study entitled Assessment of the

Coping Strategies of Flood Victims in the Builsa District, which stated that Flooding can pose

substantial social and welfare problems that may continue over extended periods of time that

include economic stress associated with re-building that arise as people try to recover their lives,

property and relationships. The purpose of this study is to identify flood-related coping techniques

utilized by the community and investigate the factors that influence their selection of methods of

coping and municipal decisions about flood catastrophe management. According to the report, the

biggest disasters to hit the region recently happened in the year 2007, 2010, 2012, and the previous

year. Wherein, heavy rain as well as the opening of the Bagre dam's floods' gate by nearby Burkina

Faso, were causes, as it released a massive volume of river's like water through the White Volta

River, as subsequently overflowed in Ghanaian. Crops are buried or washed away by floods, as

well as livestock drowning. Sheep, goats, as well as calves, for example, endure hours lacking feed

and frequently contract hoof and mouth illnesses, which ultimately lead to their deaths. Flood

victims in the Builsa District employed various coping strategies to survive the flood season. While

some exchanged goods or relocated loved ones to reside alongside family somewhere else, others

took out loans as well as foodstuffs. Some resorted to taking children out of school for work. To

generate income, residents engaged in activities like pastoral farming, selling firewood or charcoal,

petty trading, traveling to work in southern Ghana and sending food home, and weaving thatch or

twine. Policies aimed at mitigating flood vulnerability should prioritize marginalized groups,

including women, children, the elderly, people with disabilities, and the poor, as they are
disproportionately affected. Building resilience in communities also requires promoting ways to

help oneself to lessen the anxiety and loss of goods brought on by floods.

Policy Recommendations and Gaps

Iyabode et al. (2022), investigated the impact of flooding on the impoverished Makoko

community in Lagos State, Nigeria, employing an environmental structured audio interview

questionnaire (ESAIQ) with 358 participants. Their findings highlight the detrimental effects of

flooding on socioeconomic outcomes, exacerbating poverty and hindering community

development. While the study emphasizes the need for community-based approaches to raise

awareness and develop interventions that enhance resilience, it lacks specific policy

recommendations and relies primarily on qualitative data. Further research is needed to incorporate

quantitative data, investigate long-term impacts, explore effective policy interventions, and

compare findings with other vulnerable communities. This would provide a more comprehensive

understanding of the issue and inform more effective policy solutions to address the challenges

faced by communities like Makoko.

Also, according to Ajibade & McBean (2014), the slum communities in Lagos, Nigeria,

are vulnerable to the potential impact of climate change, such as contemporary flooding. Through

an administrative ecological structure, it illustrates both of the key elements where it drove urban

residents to dangerous geographic areas such as restricted property availability as well as

inadequate availability of housing and the adoption of unsustainable adaptation as well as

economic practices compromise the environmental stability of natural resources as well as urban

areas, weakening their ability to withstand floodwaters. A mixed-method approach was utilized to

collect data in this research, indicating that conventional flood regulation strategies conceal social

biases and inequalities, thereby increasing vulnerability and hindering adaptability among people.
To enhance adaptation efforts, various measures should be implemented, such as eliminating

abandoned properties and addressing residential discrimination, encouraging effective urban

governance, and promoting collaborative environmental management within urban communities.

While, Rehman et al. (2019) examined Pakistan’s vulnerability to flood disasters,

highlighting how rapid urbanization and environmental imbalances have strained the country’s

organizational capacity for response and relief efforts. The paper makes policy recommendations

for a long-time flooding catastrophe response method based on existing research on flooding and

catastrophe prevention as well as professional conversations with politicians. The suggestions

emphasize enhancing flood management and mitigation approaches to bolster resilience against

flood events. This involves increasing community awareness and reinforcing institutional

capabilities at federal, provincial, and district tiers, especially in countries such as Pakistan and

other developing nations encountering significant flood threats.

In addition, according to Nofal et al. (2021) in their study titled “High-resolution flood risk

approach to quantify the impact of policy change on flood losses at community-level,”

communities are adapting their flood risk management strategies in response to climate change,

which is increasing both the intensity and frequency of flood hazards. This heightened exposure

of the built environment necessitates a standardized approach for quantifying the feasibility of

policy changes. Although current research on disaster danger reduction frequently uses qualitative

techniques that decrease flooding danger at both residential and neighborhood levels, to support

policy makers' decision-making, a statistical method is required to evaluate the effect of policies

on the real estate at the element or structure scale. Through the integration of creating models of

information and local layout, this work suggests an excellent quality quantitative method to

ascertain the impact of policy changes upon flooding damages on an individual level. The method
allows the evaluation of total building damage in regards to exceeding probability for a variety of

damage states by methodically propagating the uncertainty of damage from floods across every

structure component using an inventory of building archetypal. The study explored various

community-level strategies to manage both flood risks and the vulnerability of communities to

those risks. The analysis of a sample community demonstrated that a single mitigation policy is

insufficient for effective flood protection. For significant safeguarding against floods a variety of

mitigating strategies acting in tandem are more effective. Therefore, the researchers will fill this

insufficient policy by conducting this study to recommend a comprehensive policy that adequately

addresses the impacts of flooding.

Similar previous studies on the social and economic consequences of floods reveal that the

negative effects are worse experienced by susceptible communities. Floods in particular intensify

various risks, for instance, poor income groups, individuals living in the affected areas and other

forma minority groups. Lloyd et al. (2022) and Khayyam and Noureen (2020) note that poor people

are hit more by floods and end up in poverty cycles and prison. De Silva et al. (2018), Lamond et

al. (2015) observe that these impacts also have psychological and chronic health outcomes on

people especially vulnerable populations with limited means and high risk to floods. Floods also

affect education, as Ardales et al. (2016) notes, whereby education delivery channels experience

structural and operational errors leading to poor performance and demoralized learners.

Floods economically have a very high cost; these impacts are more or less inflicted on the

poor households and firms. Jago-on (2017) and Pakantar (2017) explain that property loss, income

loss, and additional costs for medical treatment and repair exhaust already scarce resources. In

particular, the already marginalized groups, being residents in food inadequate informal
settlements, are confronted with loss of their assets and seriously limited ways of re-establishing

what they once possessed, as pointed out by Patankar (2015) & Bailie et al. (2022).

In this case, various forms of research likewise highlight failings in the management of

disaster, wherein Entrusted (2023) and other mammals state that businesses and households are

still in managing long-term financial recovery.

With regard to actions taken by the local governments, the reviewed studies emphasize the

relevance of efficient and timely disaster risk reduction. Gaudiel, (2023) and Thanvisitthpon

(2017), list problems related with local government response as delay and inadequate resources

while Ajijola et al. (2023) and Khan (2018) call for enhanced coordination and participation from

the communities. These studies thus draw the attention to: implementing interventions that are

appropriate to a given community and strengthening institutional recovery capabilities.

Coping and adaptation strategies are problem specific and hence do not generalise across

settings. Francisco (2015) and Danso et al. (2015) provide examples of how households engage

structural adaptations like construction of flood stairs or social non-structural ones that include

social networks. However, the strategies as seen from literature such as Okaka et al (2019) and

Doris et al (2018) argue that such strategies fail to adequately address long-term risk and hence

there is need for systems-based solutions for better resilience.

Most policy recommendations point at huge gaps in dealing with flood risks. According to

Iyabode et al. (2022) and Ajibade & McBean (2014), women and other relevant stakeholders need

social policies responsive to the effects of floods on socioeconomic status. Nofal et al. (2021)

supports the use of quantitative approaches to assess policy shifts and points out that flood risk

mitigation requires integrated approaches where several measures are needed to be implemented

efficiently.
Conceptual Framework

This research study entitled “The Socioeconomic Impact of Floods on Vulnerable and

Disadvantaged Households: A Case Study of Barangay Almacen, Hermosa, Bataan” objectifies

the intricate relationship between flood occurrence and its socioeconomic impacts on the

participants. This study aims to assess and understand the social and economic impacts that the

disadvantaged and vulnerable group experiences during and after the occurrence of flood within

Barangay Almacen—the research locale. Based on insights from the Review of Related Literature

and Studies, a conceptual framework was formulated that guided the researchers to evaluate this.

This framework outlined the main variables, their interrelations, and the control factors

considered in the research.

Figure 1. Paradigm of the Study

 This study focuses on the relationship between flood occurrence and its socioeconomic

impact on vulnerable and disadvantaged households in Barangay Almacen, Hermosa, Bataan.

Hence, the framework classifies "Flood Occurrence" as the independent variable of the study, as

it will directly affect the lives of households concerned. Such a variable is characterized by

frequency, intensity, and geographic factors, given that the respondents were actually exposed to

several degrees of danger and economic disruption, given their proximity to rivers and low-lying

areas.

The dependent variable of this framework is the "Socioeconomic Impacts of Floods" on

these households. The impacts on these participants are multifaceted and will affect the

participants economically and socially. The economic impacts to be determined within this

framework are the loss of income, employment interruption, destruction of property, and how the

flood further exacerbates poverty among these disadvantaged households. The impacts cut across

into social effects, including the household's basic and essential needs, where education and

healthcare are included. Additionally, coping mechanisms and resilience strategies employed by

vulnerable and disadvantaged households to adapt to these challenges are other dependent

variables under the social impact evaluated in this framework.

However, the relation between both variables is mediated through two crucial intervening

variables. First, the "Vulnerability of Households" is shaped by multiple factors, including the

socioeconomic status of the participants, demographic profile such as age and gender, and physical

house conditions of the vulnerable and disadvantaged households since these groups are more

likely to live in structurally unsound housing in a flood-prone area. The second is "Government

Response," which entails the initiatives of Local Government Units as another intervening variable

in this framework. These responses range from improving infrastructures, relief efforts, and long-
term policies for resilience that lessen the impacts of future floods. These interventions and their

effectiveness significantly affect how well the households can mitigate the immediate and long-

term consequences of flooding.

Correspondingly, "Access to Resources and Support" is the moderating variable of this

framework. This will moderate how the most vulnerable and disadvantaged households encounter

and recover from flood impacts. Access to government aid, financial support, and even community

solidarity could help households rebuild after such disasters and recover from future flood events.

Conversely, limited access to these resources may more readily open households to repeated

floods, which can lock them into a cycle of poverty and vulnerability.

Definition of Terms

To facilitate the understanding of this study, different terms are defined herein.

Barangay Almacen, Hermosa Bataan — this will pertain to a location of intended

conduct by the study which is in flood. This locality has a low-lying area and adjacent to the river

it has several vulnerable and disadvantaged households in this region which are highly susceptible

from flood impact.

Vulnerable and Disadvantaged Households - a particular member of a community in

Barangay Almacen which this research aims to explore the socioeconomic impact of floods. This

group is vulnerable to the impacts of floods; in this study they are classified as priority groups

including persons with disabilities and senior citizens, low-income earners, students, business

owners, and employees.

Floods - it refers to a recent flood that this study wants to investigate its impact on the

socioeconomic aspects of the vulnerable and disadvantaged households.

 Socioeconomic Impact - it refers to the impact of floods on social and economic aspects

of vulnerable and disadvantaged households. In social, it covers the challenges in accessing basic

needs such as food, clean water, healthcare, and education, it also covers the impact of floods on

their physical and mental well-being. In economic, it covers the income loss, employment

disruption, and damage to property of the vulnerable and disadvantaged households.

Coping Mechanisms - these refers to the short-term actions taken by the vulnerable and

disadvantaged households to deal with the immediate socioeconomic impacts of floods.

Adaptation Strategies - these refers to the long-term adjustments made by the vulnerable

and disadvantaged households to reduce their vulnerability to future flood events, such as elevating

their homes, diversifying income sources, or relocating to less flood-prone areas.

Local Government Intervention - this refers to the actions by the Local Government Unit

to address the impacts of floods on the vulnerable and disadvantaged households. This action

includes providing relief and assistance, also supporting reconstruction of damaged property and

infrastructure.
 Notes in Chapter II

Taylor and Francis Group. (2018). The Forms of Capital. Taylor and Francis Group.
https://www.taylorfrancis.com/chapters/edit/10.4324/9780429494338-6/forms-capital
- pierre-bourdieu

Aldrich, D. P., & Meyer, M. A. (2015). Social capital and community resilience. American
Behavioral Scientist. https://doi.org/10.1177/0002764214550299

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 CHAPTER 3

METHODS OF RESEARCH

This chapter clearly defines the research methods used to conduct the study. The

researchers explain how the necessary data and information to address the research objectives were

collected, presented and analysed. Reasons and justifications for study's methods and techniques,

population and sample of the study, research setting/locale, research instruments, validation of the

questionnaire, data gathering procedures, data analysis, trustworthiness of the study, ethical

considerations, and limitations are given.

Methods and Techniques of the Study

The researchers used a qualitative design to examine the socioeconomic impact of floods

on vulnerable and disadvantaged households in Barangay Almacen, Hermosa, and Bataan.

According to Girardin (2024), qualitative research data are not numerical data or quantitative

information; they are ordinarily not amenable to mathematical calculation. On the other hand, they

are an accumulation of visions, idioms, behavioural observations, emotional descriptions, and

chronicle prehistory. Further, data collection involves secondary research, focus groups,

questionnaires, interviews, and observations.

Similarly, in the work of Tenny et al. (2022), Qualitative research, on the other hand, aims

to understand more about real-life phenomena in the real world through research. Hypotheses are

formulated in qualitative research to analyse and understand qualitative data as opposed to

quantitative research, which samples numerical values and interposes or imposes treatments.

Qualitative research is the collection of an individual's experiences, views, and behaviour.

Correspondingly, in the study of McCombes (2019), a case study is the appropriate

research design when you wish to learn more about a particular real-world topic in-depth and with
concrete context. It allows you to investigate the case's main characteristics, interpretations, and

outcomes. It is an in-depth investigation of a particular topic, such as an individual, group, location,

occasion, institution, or phenomena. Case studies usually focus on qualitative data, applied through

approaches that include observations, interviews, and examining primary and secondary sources-

such as newspaper articles, photos, and government documents.

Therefore, this research employs qualitative research, particularly the case study method,

which is most appropriate. Qualitative research studies societal concerns and develops hypotheses

on the research findings. Furthermore, the case study is a form of qualitative research that promotes

human understanding in terms of when you wish to learn deeper, more detailed, and contextual

knowledge on a particular real-world subject. It may assist the researchers in collecting pertinent

information and facilitate the beneficiaries of this study in understanding the socioeconomic

impact of floods on the vulnerable and disadvantaged households from the side of the key opinion-

makers in their respective social environment by interview method.

Population and Sample of the Study

The key informants in this study are from the vulnerable and disadvantaged households in

Barangay Almacen, Hermosa, Bataan, particularly priority groups including persons with

disabilities and senior citizens, low-income earners, students, MSME’s owners, and employees.

The recent floods affected these groups and experienced different socioeconomic consequences,

such as poverty, health, resource availability, and population welfare.

This study employed systematic random sampling and according to Third Learning Space

(n.d), the members in the population are assigned a number. Once a first member is selected, the

remaining members are chosen from an interval.

 To determine the interval to be used in sample data selection, the researchers are first

expected to divide the population size by the sample size.

Interval = Population size

Sample size

The sample size was set to fifteen (15) key informants selected through systematic random

sampling until thematic data indicated that the saturation point had been reached. However, to

determine data saturation, the key informants’ answers indicated that it does not provide new

perspectives or insights. This approach allowed the researchers to comprehensively understand the

experiences and needs of vulnerable and disadvantaged households in Barangay Almacen,

Hermosa, Bataan.

Research Setting/Locale

The study was conducted in Barangay Almacen, a rural community of Hermosa, Bataan,

situated near the Almacen River. This barangay is highly vulnerable to flooding due to its low-

lying location and close proximity to the river. During the rainy season, heavy rains cause the river

to overflow, flooding many parts of the barangay and affecting homes, fishponds, and local

infrastructure.

Furthermore, the study was focused on vulnerable households such as the priority groups

including persons with disabilities and senior citizens, low-income earners, students, MSME’s

owners, and employees. This locale was selected to further analyse how floods affect these

vulnerable households, also how they cope, and what local government intervention they received

during and after flooding. Information will be collected in this study and locale will be used to

address the needs of vulnerable households and improve their resilience in the face of subsequent

disasters.
Research Instruments

The primary instrument chosen for this study is an interview to gather extensive qualitative

data directly from the households affected by flooding in Barangay Almacen under the

municipality of Hermosa, Bataan. This method will enable the researchers to capture detailed

personal experiences and insights into how vulnerable and disadvantaged households experience

various flood effects on their social and economic status—including financial stability, access to

resources, health, and social well-being—which affect people’s daily lives and communities’

viability.

As mentioned by Marshall, C. (2016), the interview, one of the oldest and most commonly

used primary research methods, allows a more in-depth collection of data and a better

comprehensive understanding. In particular, interviews are potent when the goal is to apprehend

sensitive responses. Furthermore, Pessoa A. et al. (2019) mentioned that an interview is also a

convenient instrument for working with people who want to avoid completing questionnaires and

rather tell the observer how they stand toward some issues. This includes hard-to-reach populations

such as people from refugee backgrounds and marginalized groups, as mentioned by Jiang, W.

(2021) and Nardon, L. et al. (2021).

In line with this, by using interviews, this study aims to collect first-hand narratives from

vulnerable and disadvantaged groups that will reveal the effects of flooding in aspects with which

this research is concerned. Thus, the structure of the interview is divided into four main sections:

(1) Demographic Information, (2) Flood Impact, (3) Coping Mechanisms and Adaptation for a

comprehensive exploration of the experience of the key informants, and (4) Government and

Community Response.
 First, “Demographic Information” aims to gather basic background details that will

contextualize the response of each key informant. Second, “Flood Impact” delves into the

socioeconomic impacts of floods, such as disruption to employment, access to basic needs,

implications for health, and other related matters. The third section, “Coping Mechanism and

Adaptation” examines how households adopt and manage repetitive flooding, examining their

resiliency, strategies, and support systems. “Government and Community Response”, contains

questions that will allow the key informants to share their perspectives or views on the

effectiveness of Local Government Unit (LGU) intervention and initiative.

Interviews with key informants will be conducted using a semi-structured approach to

balance guiding the conversation towards the research objective, maintaining consistency across

the topics, and allowing the key informants to deliver in detail their unique experiences.

In addition, as specified by Bhandari, P. (2021), to uphold ethical consideration, all

informants will be well-informed about the study's objectives, assured of confidentiality, and given

the right to withdraw at any interview stage. This fosters a respectful environment for open

conversation and ensures the informants gather their responses in a safe space.

Validation of the Questionnaire

The researchers used an interview questionnaire that would be subjected to a Google meet

or face-to-face validation process to assure the effectiveness of the data collection of the study.

The researcher consults with the research advisor and the researcher's professor/instructor

to validate and polish the questionnaires. Before distribution, the adviser reviewed the

questionnaires for accuracy in the study's field.

Data Gathering Procedure

In accordance with the title and the objective of this research, the initial phase of this study

was to gather data pertaining to the socioeconomic impacts of flooding to the vulnerable and

disadvantaged households in Barangay Almacen, Hermosa, Bataan.

For the data gathering process, a data triangulation will be used to gather important data

which are needed to achieve the objective of the study. As mentioned by Noble, N. et al. (2019),

research triangulation is a concept that aims at enhancing the reliability and credibility of its

findings. Additionally, it provides more insights that enables the researcher to explain a

phenomenon well, as supported by Bans-Akutey, A, et al. (2021). This method includes collecting

data through interviews, having access to specific government documents and records, and

gathering reports related to the research locale.

To commence the process, a formal letter will be submitted to respective agencies to

request for access for particular information. Data for the total population of Barangay Almacen

will be requested from its local barangay to determine the percentage of the affected residents or

households of the flood occurrence. In addition, a record for the number of different social-classes

will also be requested in the Municipal Planning and Development Office (MPDO) of Hermosa to

assess the specific number of the disadvantaged group who were affected by flooding in Barangay

Almacen. Moreover, the researchers will request to have access to the Dream Plan of Municipal

Planning and Development Office (MDRRMO) of Hermosa, and a legal document stating the

flood frequency of the barangay. Then, in the Municipal Social Welfare and Development Office

(MSWD) of Hermosa, a letter will be submitted as well to gather information regarding

government reliefs and assistance provided to the residents of Barangay Almacen to evaluate the

effectiveness of government intervention to flood-prone areas like the research locale.

 Subsequently, written reports from reliable sources will be collected by the researchers to

enhance the trustworthiness of this study. Alongside, the interview that will be conducted

personally to the residents of Barangay Almacen that were included in the population of this study.

To begin with the interview, a formal authorization from the local government unit of

Barangay Almacen will be secured for the approval to conduct a research concerning

socioeconomic effects of the unvaried flood occurrences in the said area. Afterwards, the

researchers will ask for a consent on selected households within the research locale to conduct an

interview; subsequently informing them about the goals and the objectives of the study before

proceeding to the actual oral cross-examination.

An interview guide is outlined in accordance with the key topics of this research, to ensure

consistency across interviews while allowing room for flexibility based on key informant

responses. This will cover the four key areas identified as Demographic Information, Flood

Impact, Government and Community Response, and Coping Mechanisms and Adaptation, which

are previously discussed in the study.

Systematic Random Sampling Approach will be used for the selection of key informants,

randomly selecting fifteen (15) key informants from the vulnerable and disadvantaged households

in Brgy. Almacen; which will continue until the thematic saturation is reached. The sample size is

chosen to provide a diverse perspective among the population while allowing detailed and in-depth

interviews. The researchers will select the key informants based on criteria related to flood

exposure and socioeconomic status, and will eventually be invited to participate in face-to-face

interviews. Conducting this type of interview encourages openness with regards to the insights and

opinions of the key informants on various issues.

 Interviews will be conducted at a location that is comfortable and convenient for the key

informants to reduce any pressure and additional stress for them. Furthermore, a semi-structured

format of interview approach will be used to question the interviewees, allowing the researchers

to prepare guide questions on hand, but will also create an opportunity to make follow up questions

on the basis of certain detail provided by the key informants (Adeoye‐Olatunde, O. et al, 2021).

This format will enable the key informants to form a more authentic response, helping the

researchers to have a deeper understanding on the impacts of flood in the population of the

vulnerable and disadvantaged households.

Additionally, key informants will be asked to provide oral consent for the interviews to be

audio recorded in each session for the purpose of providing an actual account and later allow a

word-by-word transcription to retain the original words and meaning of the key informants.

Subsequently, the transcription provided will be used in data analysis, since it is essential for an

accurate analyzation of data, according to Miles, M., et al. (2014).

This comprehensive procedure guarantees that the data obtained is genuine, and evident,

and captures the diversity of the community on the subject of socioeconomic effects of flooding

in Barangay Almacen, Hermosa, Bataan; and will assist in the conduction of the later data analysis.

Data Analysis

This study used thematic analysis to analyse and interpret the data from the informants. As

Dechalert (2024) depicts, thematic analysis is implemented to determine patterns amongst data

sets. Thematic analysis makes it possible to look at patterns in qualitative data and thereby

confirms its application in focused studies when point of view, experience, or social constructs are

being studied (Villegas, 2024).

 Moreover, thematic analysis is an iterative and systematic approach that can be analysed

in six (6) phases; in this study, the researchers followed all six phases of thematic analysis to

analyse and interpret the data. The first phase is familiarization; they repeatedly recommend

reading all transcripts and data and taking notes about what is written there, including the first and

possible themes that might be identified in the data. The second phase is to generate first-time

codes; it recommends that we seek significant keywords, expressions and concepts which reflect

the information. Label these items in as consistent and systematic a manner as possible should be

done. The third phase is coding for themes; in this stage, the researchers compile the codes within

themes of similar ideas or concepts. Rotate and operationalize themes; they should be precise,

data-driven, and identify obvious patterns or messages. The fourth process is the organization of

the themes, whereby all themes have to be specific, exhaustive and reflective of the study findings.

Think about how themes are similar and different when it comes down to how the themes can be

connected in some way or not at all. The fifth phase is naming themes, defining the theme, and

elaborating on the richness of the meaning of each theme. Provide proper name tags to every theme

that should distinctly represent the specific theme's content. Lastly, the sixth phase is thematic

writing; the researchers should present the themes coherently and concisely in the final phase.

Therefore, thematic analysis was conducted to analyse the qualitative information collected

from the interviewed vulnerable and disadvantaged households. The thematic analysis also offers

a systematic and precise approach to analyzing the qualitative data in this study. The six-phase

procedure will help us properly understand the data, which will be very helpful and valuable for

suggesting the impact of floods that vulnerable and disadvantaged households in Barangay

Almacen, Hermosa, Bataan have been facing.

Trustworthiness of the Study

According to Premier Dissertation (2024), Trustworthiness in qualitative research means

the degree of credibility, reliability and correctness of the observation made. Trustworthiness is

vital in providing quality reliability to qualitative studies, mainly because of their inherently

philosophical approach (Dodgson, 2019). Trustworthiness in qualitative research includes several

critical aspects, and in this study, the researchers strictly followed these aspects: credibility,

transferability, dependability, and confirmability. The following is a discussion of how the

researchers maintained the validity of data, accuracy of results and authenticity of interpretation

throughout the research process. Data triangulation was adopted to ensure credibility and involved

interviews with key informants, observations made during the interview, and records regarding

flood control measures. To increase the transferability of the study results, this paper analysed

Barangay Almacen in terms of its geographic location, the recent flood to which it was exposed,

and its socioeconomic context, including financial stability, access to resources, health, and social

well-being. This study also offered a comprehensive description of 15 key informants along with

their income levels, households and vulnerability factors. To enhance the dependability of the

results, the researchers documented all the study decisions down to discussions held; informants

selected, data collection instruments used, and the employed analysis tools. Lastly, to reduce the

level of researchers’ bias and increase the confirmability of the interpretations made by the

researchers, this study used reflexive journals to report assumptions and possible impacts which

can influence the research process.

Ethical Considerations

This research study is dedicated to upholding the highest ethical principles to safeguard

informants’ rights, privacy, and well-being throughout the research process. Participation in this
research is completely voluntary. Before any data collection occurs, informed consent will be

secured from all informants. They will receive clear and detailed information regarding the study's

aims, methodologies, potential risks, and their rights as informants. The consent process will be

carried out through both written and verbal means to ensure that informants fully grasp the study

and are comfortable with their involvement. Adjustments will be made to accommodate the

informant's language or literacy needs to guarantee full understanding.

Confidentiality is a core element of this research. All personal and socio-demographic

information will be treated confidentially and anonymized. Data will only be utilized for the study's

purposes, and no identifying information will be disclosed. All research activities will adhere to

Republic Act No. 10173 (Data Privacy Act of 2002) to protect informants’ data throughout the

study. Secure data management practices will be established to prevent unauthorized access.

The research team will approach the interview process with care and respect to alleviate

any discomfort or risk. Informants will be encouraged to share their experiences at their own

rhythm and reminded that they have the right to withdraw from the study at any point without

facing negative consequences. If any informants feel uneasy during the interview, they will be

offered the opportunity to halt or withdraw without repercussions.

Transparency will be upheld throughout the research. Informants will be kept informed

about the purpose of the study, how their data will be utilized, and any potential results once the

research concludes. No financial or material rewards will be provided for participation, ensuring

that involvement is entirely based on the voluntary and informed consent of the informants.

This research will be conducted with the guidance and approval of a faculty advisor to

ensure that all research procedures conform to ethical standards and guidelines. By adhering to

these practices, the research aims to protect informants’ rights and offer valuable insights into the
socio-economic impact of floods on vulnerable communities in Barangay Almacen, Hermosa,

Bataan.

Limitations

This study on the Socioeconomic Impact of Floods on Vulnerable and Disadvantaged

Households: A Case Study of Barangay Almacen, Hermosa, Bataan, faces certain limitations that

may affect the generalizability and scope of its findings. First, the sample size was limited to a

specific group of households within Barangay Almacen due to resource constraints. This restricted

scope may limit the applicability of the findings to other flood-prone regions with different

demographics or socioeconomic profiles. Future research could expand the study to include a

broader geographic area, allowing comparisons across regions with diverse population groups and

varying degrees of flood exposure.

Another limitation of this study is the subjectivity of the data. Since the study primarily

relies on self-reported information from informants, there is a possibility of bias in their responses.

Informants may unintentionally alter their accounts due to personal perceptions, memory recall

errors, or a desire to present themselves favourably. This subjectivity can impact the accuracy of

the findings, as informants might need to fully capture the true extent of the socioeconomic impacts

they face. Future studies on the topic can be done using a mixed-method approach in order to

integrate qualitative data with quantitative surveys to provide for an enhanced understanding of

socioeconomic impacts of floods. Thus, by addressing these limitations, future research can

contribute to a more nuanced and extensive understanding of the socioeconomic impacts of floods

on vulnerable and disadvantaged households.

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