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iv. The kinetic energy of the ejected electrons is directly proportional to the frequency of the incident light.
FIRST YEAR CHEMISTRY IMP MICRO MATERIAL i.e. Molality (m) = Number of moles of solute
Mass of solvent in kg 6. Give the different lines present in the line spectrum of hydrogen atom.
1. SOME BASIC CONCEPTS OF CHEMISTRY The hydrogen spectrum consists of mailnly five series of lines which are Lyman, Balmer, Paschen, Brackett
1. State Law of Multiple proportion. Who proposed this law? 12. Find the molarity of a solution prepared by dissolving 4g of NaOH dissolves in 250 mL solution. and Pfund series. Among these lines, the Balmer series is the only series that we can be visible.
It states that when two elements combine to form more than one compound, the different masses of one of the Series Spectral region
Molarity (M) = Number of moles of solute (n) Lyman Ultra violet
elements that combine with a fixed mass of the other, is in a simple whole number ratio. This law was proposed by John Balmer Visible
Volume of solution in litre (V)
Dalton.
No. of moles of NaOH = Given mass/ Molar mass = 4/40 = 0.1 mol Paschen Infra red
2. State Law of Definite (Constant) proportion. Who proposed this law? Volume of solution in L = 250/1000 = 0.25 L Brackett Infra red
It states that a given compound always contains exactly the same proportion of elements by weight. Or, the same Molarity = 0.1/0.25 = 0.4M Pfund Infra red
compound always contains the same elements combined in a fixed ratio by mass. This law was proposed by 2. STRUCTURE OF ATOM 7. Give the important postulates of Bohr Atom model.
Joseph Proust. 1. Find the number of protons, electrons and neutrons in the following. i. The electron in the hydrogen atom can move around the nucleus in a circular path of fixed radius and
3. State Law of conservation of mass (matter). Who proposed this law? 35 35 36 energy. These paths are called orbits or stationary states or allowed energy states.
17 Cl, 17 Cl-, 17 Cl-
ii. The energy of an electron in the orbit does not change with time.
It states that matter can neither be created nor destroyed. Or, in a chemical reaction, the total mass of reactants Ans: No. of Protons & electrons = Atomic number
iii. The frequency of radiation absorbed or emitted when transition occurs between two stationary states
is equal to the total mass of products. This law was proposed by Antoine Lavoisier. No. of electrons in an ion = Atomic number + charge of the ion (for –ve ions) or, Atomic number – charge on the ion
that differ in energy by ΔE, is given by:
4. Define a.m.u (for +ve ions)
ν=ΔE =E2–E1
th 12 No. of neutrons = Mass number – Atomic number
1/12 the mass of a C atom is called atomic mass unit (amu). h h
Species No. of Protons No. of electrons No. of neutrons
5. Define molar mass 35 iv. The angular momentum of an electron is an integral multiple of h/2π.
17 Cl 17 17 35-17 = 18
The mass of one mole of a substance in gram is called its molar mass. 35 8. What are the limitations of Bohr atom model?
17 Cl- 17 18 35-17 = 18
6. Define 1 mole. 36 i. It could not explain the fine spectrum of hydrogen atom.
17 Cl- 17 18 36-17 = 19
12 ii. It could not explain the spectrum of atoms other than hydrogen.
1 mole is the amount of substance that contains as many particles as there are atoms in exactly 12 g C isotope. 2. Give the scattering experiment conducted by Rutherford. What are the important observations and
23 iii. It was unable to explain Stark effect and Zeeman effect.
1 mole of any substance contains 6.022 x 10 atoms. This number is known as Avogadro number or Avogadro conclusions made by Rutherford? iv. It could not explain the ability of atoms to form molecules by chemical bonds.
constant (NA or N0). Rutherford proposed an atom model based on his α–particle scattering experiment. He bombarded a very 9. What do you mean by the dual nature of matter?
7. Define mass percentage. thin gold foil with α–particles. The gold foil had a circular fluorescent zinc sulphide screen around it.
Matter has two types of nature – particle nature and wave nature. This is known as the dual nature of matter.
It is the percentage of each elements present in 100g of a substance. 10. Give the de Broglies equation and explain the terms?
i. Most of the α– particles passed through the gold foil without any deviation.
i.e. percentage composition (mass percent) of an element = Mass of that element in the compound x 100
ii. A small fraction of the α–particles was deflected by small angles. An equation relating wavelength (λ) and momentum (p) of a material particle is known as de Broglies equation. The
Molar mass of the compound iii. A very few α– particles (∼1 in 20,000) bounced back, that is, were deflected by nearly 180°.
equation is:
Conclusions: From the above observations, Rutherford made the following conclusions: λ = h/mv Where m is the mass of the particle, v is the velocity and p is the momentum.
Or, Mass percent = Mass of solute × 100 i. Since most of the α–particles passed through the foil without any deviation, most space in the atom is empty. 11. State Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle. Give its mathematical form.
Mass of solution ii. A few positively charged α– particles were deflected. This is because the positive charge of the atom is concentrated It states that “it is impossible to determine simultaneously, the exact position and exact momentum
8. What are empirical and molecular formulae? in a very small volume at the centre called nucleus.
(or velocity) of a moving microscopic particle like electron”. Mathematically, it can be given as in equation:
iii. The volume occupied by the nucleus is negligibly small as compared to the total volume of the atom.
Empirical formula is the simplest formula which gives only the ratio of different elements present in the compound. 3. What are the postulates of Rutherford atom model?
But molecular formula is the actual formula that gives the exact number of different elements present in the sample. Δx. Δp ≥ h
4π
9. Find the number of moles and molecules present in 90 g water. i. All the positive charge and most of the mass of the atom were concentrated in the centre called nucleus. Where Δx is the uncertainty in position and Δp (or, Δv) is the uncertainty in momentum (or velocity) of the particle.
No. of moles(n) = Given mass in gram (w) = 90/18 = 5 moles ii. Electrons are revolving round the nucleus with a very high speed in circular paths called orbits. 12. What are Quantum numbers? Explain the different quantum numbers.
Molar mass (M) iii. Electrons and the nucleus are held together by electrostatic forces of attraction.
These are certain numbers used to explain the size, shape and orientation of orbitals. Or, Quantum numbers
23 23 4. What are the drawbacks of Rutherford atom model?
No. of molecules = no. of moles x 6.022x 10 = 5 x 6.022x 10 are the address of an electron. There are four quantum numbers which describe the electron in an atom. They are
i. He could not explain the stability of the atom. Principal Quantum number (n), Azimuthal Quantum number (Ɩ), Magnetic Quantum number (m or m Ɩ) and Spin
10. What is limiting reagent?
ii. He could not explain the electronic structure of atom. Quantum number (s)
The reagent which limits a reaction or the reagent which is completely consumed in a chemical reaction is 5. What is photoelectric effect? What are its characteristics?
called limiting reagent or limiting reactant. It is the phenomenon of ejection of electrons by certain metals (like potassium, rubidium, caesium etc.) when The following informations are obtained from n.
11. Define molarity and molality. light of suitable frequency incident on them. The electrons ejected are called photoelectrons. 1. It gives the size the orbit.
Molarity is defined as the number of moles of solute dissolved per litre of The important characteristics of photoelectric effect are:
2. It gives the energy of electron in an orbit.
solution. i.e. Molarity (M) = Number of moles of solute (n) i. The electrons are ejected from the metal surface as soon as the beam of light strikes the surface.
3. It gives the shell in which the electron is found.
Volume of solution in litre (V) ii. The number of electrons ejected is proportional to the intensity or brightness of light.
iii. For each metal, there is a minimum frequency (known as threshold frequency *ν0]) below which photoelectric effect 4. It also gives the average distance between the electron and the nucleus.
Molality is defined as the number of moles of the solute present per kilogram (kg) of the solvent. The possible values of n are 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 etc.
is not observed.
If n = 1 the electron is in K shell
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n = 2 the electron is in L shell b) If two orbitals have the same (n+Ɩ) values, the orbital with the lower n value is filled first.
n = 3 the electron is in M shell and so on. 2. Pauli’s Exclusion Principle iv. The f block elements
2. Azimuthal Quantum Number [Subsidiary or orbital angular momentum Quantum number] It states that no two electrons in an atom can have the same set of four quantum numbers. i.e. an orbital These are elements in which the last electron enters in the anti-penultimate f sub shell. They include lanthanides of
th th
(Ɩ) The following informations are obtained from Ɩ. can accommodate a maximum of only 2 electrons with opposite spin. 6 period and actinides of 7 period. They are also called Inner transition elements. Their general outer electronic
1. It gives the shape of the orbital. 3. Hund’s rule of maximum multiplicity configuration is (n-2)f
1 to 14
(n-1)d
0 to 1 2
ns . They are all metals.
2. It gives the sub shell or sub level in which the electron is located. It states that electron pairing takes place only after partially filling all the degenerate orbitals. 6. What are the characteristics of transition elements?
3. It also gives the orbital angular momentum of the electron. 16. Which of the following set of quantum numbers are not allowed? i. They are all metals
For a given value of n, the possible values of Ɩ are: Ɩ = 0, 1, 2, .......... (n-1). i) n = 3, l = 3, m = -3, s = +½ ii. They form coloured compounds or ions
For example, when n = 1, value of Ɩ is only 0. For n = 2, the possible value of Ɩ can be 0 and 1. For n = 3, the possible Ɩ ii) n = 2, l = 1, m = 0, s = -½ iii. They show variable oxidation states and valencies,
values are 0,1 and 2. iv. They show paramagnetism and catalytic properties.
iii) n = 1, l = 0, m = 0, s = +½
Ɩ= 0 represents s orbital, Ɩ = 1 represents p orbital, Ɩ = 2 represents d orbital and Ɩ = 3 represents f 7. How does atomic radius vary along a group and period and why?
orbital 3. Magnetic Quantum Number (m or mƖ) iv) n = 0, l = 0, m = 0, s = +½
The atomic size decreases from left to right in a period. This is because in a period, the electrons are added to the
It gives information about the orientation of orbitals in space. For a given ‘Ɩ’ value, there are 2Ɩ+1 possible values for m same shell. Thus the number of shells remains same, but the effective nuclear charge increases. So the atomic radius
Ans: Here i and iv are not allowed. In i n=3 and l = 3. The value of l is always less than n. i.e. if n=3, the possible l values are
and these values are given by m = – Ɩ to 0 to + Ɩ decreases.
0,1 and 2.
Thus for Ɩ = 0, mƖ = 0. i.e. s sub shell contains only one orbital called s orbital. In a group, the atomic radius increases from top to bottom. This is because of the increase in no. of shells
In iv, n = 0. It cannot be possible, because the values of n are 1,2,3,4,….
For Ɩ = 1, mƖ = –1, 0 and +1. i.e. p subshell contains three orbitals called p orbitals (px, py and pz). and shielding effect.
2 2 2
For Ɩ = 2, mƖ = –2, –1, 0, +1 and +2. i.e. d subshell contains five orbitals called d orbitals (dxy, dxz, dyz, dx - y and dz ) 8. What are isoelectronic species? Give examples.
3. CLASSIFICATION OF ELEMENTS AND PERIODICITY IN PROPERTIES 2- -
Atoms and ions having the same number of electrons are called isoelectronic species. E.g. O , F , Ne, Na , Mg
+ 2+
4. Spin Quantum Number (s or ms) etc. (All these contain 10 electrons). Among isoelectronic species, the cation with greater positive charge will have the
It is the only experimental Quantum number and it gives the spin of electrons. The values for s may be +½ or -½. 1. Write a note on Mendeleev’s periodic table. smaller radius. The anion with greater negative charge will have the larger radius.
+½ represents clock-wise spin and-½ represents anticlock-wise spin. Dimitri Mendeleev classified the elements in the increasing order of their atomic weights. He proposed a periodic 9. Define ionisation enthalpy.
13. Draw the shapes of different p-orbitals. law which states that “The properties of elements are the periodic functions of their atomic weights.” That is, when It is defined as the energy required to remove an electron from the outer most shell of an isolated gaseous atom in
There are 3 types of p-orbitals – px, py and pz. Each p-orbitals has a dumb-bell shape. elements are arranged in the increasing order of their atomic weights, their properties repeat after a regular interval. its ground state. Its unit is kJ/mol or J/mol.
Mendeleev arranged elements in horizontal rows (periods) and vertical columns (groups). The elements with similar The important factors which affect ionisation enthalpy are atomic size, nuclear charge, shielding effect etc.
properties are arranged in the same group. He arranged elements mainly based on the similarities in the empirical 10. How does ionisation enthalpy vary along a period and group? Justify your answer.
formulae and the properties of the compounds formed by the elements. Along a period, ionisation enthalpy increases from left to right. This is because of the decrease in atomic radius
2. What are the Merits of Mendeleev’s periodic table and increase in nuclear charge. Thus alkali metals have the least ∆iH and noble gases have the most.
1) It was the first comprehensive classification of elements. Down a group, ∆iH decreases due to increase in atomic radius and shielding effect. Thus among alkali metals,
2) He corrected the wrong atomic weights of some elements and placed them in correct position in the periodic table. lithium has the least ∆iH and francium has the most.
3) He left vacant places for undiscovered elements and predicted some of their properties. 11. The first ionisation enthalpy of Boron is slightly less than that of Beryllium.
4) Elements with similar properties are placed in the same group. 2 2
Why? This is because of the completely filled orbitals in Be (1s 2s ).
3. What are the drawbacks of Mendeleev’s periodic table? 12. The first ionisation enthalpy of N is greater than that of Oxygen. Why?
i. Elements with dissimilar properties are found in same group. 2 2 3
14. Which are the different types of d=orbitals? Draw their shapes. This is because N has half filled electronic configuration (1s 2s 2p ), which is more stable and so more energy
2 2 2 ii. He could not give an exact position for hydrogen. is required to remove an electron.
There are 5 types of d-orbitals. They are dxy, dxz, dyz, dx -y and dz . The shapes of the first four d-orbitals are
2 iii. He could not give exact position for Lanthanoids and Actinoids and also for isotopes. 13. Define electron gain enthalpy (∆egH).
double dumb-bell and that of the fifth one, dz , is dumb-bell having a circular collar in the xy-plane.
iv. Mendeleev’s periodic table did not strictly obey the increasing order of atomic weights. It is the heat change (enthalpy change) when an electron is added to the outer most shell of an isolated
4. State Modern Periodic law. Who proposed this law? gaseous atom. Its unit is kJ/mol. It may be positive or negative depending on the nature of the element.
Modern periodic law states that “the physical and chemical properties of elements are the periodic functions of 14. How does electron gain enthalpy vary along a period and group? Justify.
their atomic numbers”. This is law was proposed by Moseley. From left to right across a period, electron gain enthalpy become more negative. This is because of decrease in
5. Explain the different blocks in Modern periodic table. atomic radius and increase in nuclear charge. Down a group, electron gain enthalpy becomes less negative. This is due
There are 4 blocks in modern periodic table. They are s block, p block, d block and f block. to increase in atomic radius and shielding effect.
i. The s block elements 15. Arrange halogens in the decreasing order of –ve electron gain enthalpy?
These are elements in which the last electron enters in the outer most s sub shell. They include elements of the groups 1 and Among halogens, the negative ∆egH decreases as follows. Cl> F > Br > I
1 2
2. Their general outer electronic configuration is ns or ns . They are all reactive metals with low ionization enthalpies. 16. Chlorine has higher negative electron gain enthalpy than fluorine. Why?
15. Which are the different rules for filling electrons in orbitals? State them. ii. The p block elements Or, Electron gain enthalpy of fluorine is less negative than chlorine. Why?
The filling of electrons into the orbitals of different atoms takes place according to the 3 rules - aufbau principle, nd
These are elements in which the last electron enters in the outer most p sub shell. They include elements of the groups 13 This is because, when an electron is added to F, it enters into the smaller 2 shell. Due to the smaller size, the
Pauli’s exclusion principle and the Hund’s rule of maximum multiplicity. to 18. They are also called Representative elements. Their general outer electronic configuration is ns np
2 1 to 6
.
rd
electron suffers more repulsion from the other electrons. But for Cl, the incoming electron goes to the larger 3 shell. So
1. Aufbau principle: iii. The d block elements the electronic repulsion is low and hence Cl adds electron more easily than F.
It states that the orbitals are filled in order of their increasing energies. These are elements in which the last electron enters in the penultimate d sub shell. They include elements of the groups 17. Electron gain enthalpy values of noble gases are zero. Why?
This rule has two sub rules: 3 to 12. They are also called Trasition elements, since they show a transition (change) from the most electropositive s block This is because of their completely filled (stable) electronic configuration.
a) The various orbitals are filled in the increasing order of their (n+Ɩ) value. elements to the least electropositive p block elements. Their general outer electronic configuration is (n-1)d
1 to 10 0 to 2
ns . 18. Define electronegativity. How does it vary along a group and period?

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Electronegativity of an atom in a compound is the ability of the atom to attract shared pair of electron of 2) The greater the charge on the cation, the greater the covalent character of the ionic bond.
n 0
electrons. It increases across a period and decreases along a group. So in modern periodic table, F has the maximum 3) For cations of the same size and charge, the ion with electronic configuration (n-1)d ns is more polarising than the
electronegativity and Fr has the minimum electronegativity. 2 6
ion with a noble gas configuration (ns np ).
7. What are the main postulates of valence shell electron pair repulsion (VSEPR) theory?
This theory was proposed by Sidgwick and Powell and later modified by Nyholm and Gillespie. The
4. CHEMICAL BONDING AND MOLECULAR STRUCTURE important postulates of this theory are:
1. State octet rule. What are its limitations? 1) The shape of the molecule depends on the number of valence shell electron pairs (VSEPRs) around the central atom.
This rule was proposed by Lewis and Kossel. According to this rule, atoms undergo chemical reaction in order 2) The valence shell electron pairs repel each other.
to attain octet of electrons in the valence shell. Or, atoms containing 8 electrons in their valence shell are stable. 3) In order to reduce the repulsion, the electron pairs stay at maximum distance.
4) Presence of lone pairs of electron causes distortion in the expected geometry of the molecule.
1) It could not explain the stability of compounds containing less than 8 electrons around the central atom. E.g. 5) The repulsion between two lone pairs of electrons is different from those between two bond pairs or between a
LiCl, BeH2, BCl3 etc. lone pair and bond pair. The repulsion decreases in the order lone pair - lone pair > lone pair - bond pair > bond pair
2) It could not explain the stability of molecules containing odd number of electrons like NO, NO2 etc. - bond pair.
6) As the angle between the electron pairs increases, the repulsion decreases. 12. Molecular orbitals are formed by the linear combination of atomic orbitals (LCAO). Give the salient features
3) It could not explain the stability of molecules containing more than 8 electrons around the central atom of molecular orbital theory.
(i.e. expanded octet). E.g. PF5, SF6, H2SO4, IF7 etc. 8. Explain the shape ammonia and water molecules on the basis of VSEPR theory.
i) In molecules, the electrons are present in some special type of orbitals called molecular orbitals (M.Os).
4) Octet rule is based upon the chemical inertness of noble gases. But some noble gases like xenon and krypton In ammonia, the central atom N has 5 valence electrons (7N – 2,5). Among these electrons, three are used for the ii) The atomic orbitals (A.Os) of comparable energy and proper symmetry combine to form molecular orbitals.
form compounds with F and O. formation of bonds with hydrogen atoms and the remaining 2 electrons stay as lone pairs. So there are 4 VSEPs. Hence the
iii) Atomic orbitals are monocentric, while molecular orbitals are polycentric.
5) This theory does not account for the shape of molecules. expected shape of the molecule is tetrahedral. But due to the presence of lone pairs, the shape is distorted to triangular
0 iv) The number of molecular orbitals formed = the number of atomic orbitals combined. i.e. if 2 atomic orbitals combined, 2
6) It does not explain the relative stability of the molecules. pyramid and the bond angle changes to 107 .
molecular orbitals are formed. One is called bonding molecular orbital (BMO) and the other is called anti-bonding
2. Define Dipole moment. Give its unit. In water, the central atom O has 6 valence electrons (8O – 2,6). Two of them are used for the formation of molecular orbitals (ABMO)
The polarity of a molecule is expressed in terms of dipole moment (μ). It is defined as the product of the bonds with hydrogen atoms and the remaining 4 electrons stay as lone pairs. So there are 4 VSEPs. Hence the expected
v) The BMO has lower energy and greater stability than the corresponding ABMO.
magnitude of charge at one end (Q) and the distance between the charges (r). shape of the molecule is tetrahedral. But due to the presence of 2 lone pairs, the shape is distorted bent or angular or
0 vi) The molecular orbitals give the electron probability distribution around a group of nuclei.
Mathematically, μ = Q x r. inverted ‘v’ shape and the bond angle changes to 104.5 . vii) The molecular orbitals are filled according to 3 rules – Aufbau principle, Pauli’s exclusion principle and Hund’s rule.
The unit of dipole moment is Coulomb metre (Cm). But it is usually expressed in the unit Debye (D). 9. Define Hybridisation. What are the important characteristics of Hybridisation?
13. Define bond order. How is bond order related to bond length?
3. The dipole moment of BeF2 is zero. Why? It is the process of inter mixing of atomic orbitals having slightly different energies to form new orbitals having
equivalent energy and identical shape. The new orbitals formed are called hybrid orbitals. It is defined as the half of the difference between the number of bonding electrons (Nb) and the number of
BeF2, the net dipole moment is zero, since the two equal bond dipoles are in opposite directions and cancel each
The important characteristics of hybridisation are: anti-bonding electrons (Na). i.e. Bond order (B.O) = ½ [Nb – Na] As the bond order increases, bond length
other.
1) The number of hybrid orbitals formed is equal to the number of atomic orbitals undergo hybridization. decreases.
2) The hybrid orbitals are always equivalent in energy and identical in shape.
14. He2 does not exist. Why?
4. The dipole moment of BF3 is zero. Why? 3) The hybrid orbitals are more effective in forming stable bonds than the pure atomic orbitals.
For He2 molecule, bond order = 0, the molecule cannot exist.
In BF3, the net dipole moment is zero. Here the resultant of any 2 bond dipoles is equal and opposite to the third. 4) The hybrid orbitals are directed to some fixed positions in space. So the type of hybridization gives the shape of the 15. Ne2 does not exist. Why?
molecule.
For Ne2 molecule bond order = 0, the molecule cannot exist.
10. Explain the geometry of PCl5 molecule and account for its high reactivity.
3 16. Draw the M.O diagram for oxygen molecule (O2). Give its magnetic character.
In PCl5, phosphorus atom is in sp d hybridisation. So the molecule has trigonal bipyramidal shape with bond In O2 there are 16 electrons.
0 0
angles 120 and 90 . 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 1 1
The M.O configuration for O2 is σ1s σ* 1s σ2s σ*2s σ2pz π2px = π2py π*2px = π*2py

5. Ammonia (NH3) has higher dipole moment than NF3, eventhough F is more electronegative than H. why?
This is because in the case of NH3, the orbital dipole due to lone pair is in the same direction as the resultant dipole
moment of the three N – H bonds. But in NF3, the orbital dipole is in the opposite direction to the resultant dipole moment
of the three N-F bonds. So the dipole moments get partially cancelled.

0
In PCl5, three P-Cl bonds lie in one plane, at an angle of 120 . These three bonds are called equatorial bonds. The
other two P-Cl bonds lie one above and one below this plane. They are called axial bonds. The axial bond pairs suffer
more repulsion from the equatorial bond pairs. So the axial bond length is greater than the equatorial bond length. So
6. State Fajan’s rule regarding the partial covalent character of an ionic bond. PCl5 is highly unstable and is very reactive.
The partial covalent character of ionic bonds was explained by Fajans in terms of the following rules: 11. Draw the potential energy curve for the formation of a hydrogen molecule on the basis of inter nuclear distance of
1) The smaller the size of the cation and the larger the size of the anion, the greater the covalent character of an the hydrogen atoms.
ionic bond.
Here there are 2 unpaired electrons. So it is paramagnetic in nature.
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17. Define hydrogen bonding with example. Explain the different types of H-bonding. 1. Write the expression for equilibrium constant for the reaction i) H2 + I2 2HI and ii) N2 + 3H2 2NH3.
The weak attractive force between Hydrogen atom of one molecule and electronegative atom (like F, O or N) of the i. Conversion of solid sodium atom to gaseous sodium atom. The energy change involved in this process is called 2
i) Kc = [HI]
same or different molecule is termed as Hydrogen bond. sublimation energy. [H2][I2]
0
e.g. Hydrogen bonding in water Na(s) → Na(g); ΔsubH ii) Kc = [NH3]
2
ii. Conversion gaseous sodium atom to gaseous sodium ion. The energy change in this process is called ionisation enthalpy. 3
+ 0 [N2][H2]
H–O ….. H–O…….H–O……H–O… Na(g)→ Na (g); ΔiH 2. What is the relation between Kc and Kp?
H H H H iii. Conversion of gaseous chlorine molecule to gaseous chlorine atom. The energy change during this process is called ∆n
Kp = Kc.(RT)
There are two types of H bonds- inter molecular H-bonding and intra molecular H-bonding. bond dissociation enthalpy.
0 3. Give any 3 characteristics of equilibrium constant.
a) Inter molecular H bonding: It is the H bond formed by H atom of one molecule and the electronegative atom of another Cl2(g)→ 2Cl(g); ΔbondH
0 i. Equilibrium constant is applicable only when the concentrations of the reactants and products have attained
molecule. ½ Cl2(g) → Cl(g); ½ ΔbondH their equilibrium state.
iv. Conversion of chlorine atom to chloride ion. The energy change involved in this process is called electron gain ii. The value of equilibrium constant is independent of the initial concentrations of reactants and products.
0
b) Intra molecular H bonding: It is the H bond formed between H atom and the electronegative atom of the same enthalpy (ΔegH ).
molecule. - 0 iii. The value of equilibrium constant depends on temperature.
2-
Cl(g) → Cl (g); ΔegH
+ - 0
18. Based on bond order compare the relative stability of O2 and O2 . v. Packing of Na (g)and Cl (g) to form NaCl(s). the energy change in this process is called lattice enthalpy (ΔlatticeH )
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 1 1
The M.O configuration of O2 is σ1s σ* 1s σ2s σ*2s σ2pz π2px = π2py π*2px = π*2py + -
Na (g) + Cl (g) → NaCl(s); ΔlatticeH
0 4. State Le-Chatlier Principle.
B.O = ½ [Nb – Na] = ½ [10 – 6] = ½ x 4 = 2 It states that whenever there is a change in concentration, pressure or temperature of a system at
Since bond order is positive, it is stable. equilibrium, the system will try to readjust in such a way so as to cancel the effect of that change.
- 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 The different steps can be represented in a cyclic for as follows:
The M.O configuration of O2 is σ1s σ* 1s σ2s σ*2s σ2pz π2px = π2py π*2px = 0 5. How do the effect of change in concentration, temperature and pressure affect the rate of chemical reaction? An
1 ΔfH
π*2py B.O = ½ [Nb – Na] = ½ [10 –7] = ½ x 3= 1.5 + - increase in concentration of reactants increases the rate of forward reaction (i.e. the equilibrium is shifted
Since bond order is positive, it is stable. Na(s) + ½ Cl2(g) Na Cl (s)
to the forward direction) and an increase in concentration of products increase the rate of backward reaction.
6. THERMODYNAMICS 0 0 According to Le Chatlier’s principle, increase in temperature favours endothermic process and decrease in
∆subH ½∆bondH
1. What are extensive and intensive properties? Give examples. temperature favours exothermic process.
Extensive properties are properties which depend on the amount of matter present in the system. Na(g) Cl(g) When the pressure increases, the equilibrium is shifted to that direction in which no. of moles decreases.
E.g.: Volume (v), length (l), breadth (b), height (h), internal energy (U), enthalpy (H), entropy (S), Gibb’s energy (G), heat 6. Write the Arrhenius concept of acids and bases.
0 - - 0 0
capacity etc. ∆iH -e +e ∆egH ΔlatticeH + +
According to this concept acids are substances which give hydrogen ion (H ) or hydronium ion (H3O ) in
-
Intensive properties are properties which are independent of the amount of matter present in the system. aqueous solution and bases are substances which give hydroxyl ion (OH ) in aqueous solution.
+
E.g. : Temperature (T), Pressure (P), Volume (V), density, refractive index, molar heat capacity, viscosity, surface tension + - e.g. HCl is an acid since it produces H3O in aqueous solution.
Na (g) Cl (g) + -
etc. HCl(l) + H2O(l) ═ H3O (aq) + Cl (aq)
2. Define state function and path function.
0 0 0 0 0 0 7. Write Bronsted concept of acids and bases?
A function or a property that depends only on the initial and final state of a system and not on the path followed By applying Hess’s law we can write: ΔfH = ΔsubH + ΔiH + ½ ΔbondH + ΔegH + ΔlatticeH + +
According to this concept acids are proton (H ) donors and bases are (H ) acceptors.
is called a state function. E.g.: T, P, V, U, H, S, G etc. Form this lattice enthalpy can be determined as: + -
0 0 0 0 0 0 For example in the reaction NH3(l) + H2O(l) ═ NH4 (aq) + OH (aq)
Path functions are properties which depend on the path followed also. E.g. heat (q) and work (w) ΔlatticeH = ΔfH – *ΔsubH + ΔiH + ½ ΔbondH + ΔegH ] + + + -
Here NH3 is a base since it accepts an H ion to form NH4 and H2O is an acid since it donates an H ion to form OH .
Lattice enthalpy of NaCl is determined using Born-Haber cycle as follows: + -
3. State the first law of thermodynamics. Give its mathematical form. 0 0 0 0 0 0
In the reverse reaction, NH4 is an acid and OH is a base.
It states that energy can neither be created nor be destroyed. Or, the total energy in the universe is always a ΔlatticeH = ΔfH – *ΔsubH + ΔiH + ½ ΔbondH + ΔegH ] 8. What are conjugate acid – base pairs?
9. What are spontaneous processes? Give examples. Acid- base pair that differs by only one proton is called a conjugate acid – base pair.
constant. Mathematically ΔU = q + w
It is a process that takes place without the help of any external agency. All natural processes are spontaneous. E.g. flow An acid formed from a base is called conjugate acid and a base formed from an acid is called conjugate base.
4. Give the relationship between ΔH and ΔU.
of water from high level to low level, flow of heat from hot body to cold body, inter mixing of gases, burning of fuels, In general, Acid – H+ → Conjugate base
ΔH is related to ΔU as ΔH= ΔU + PΔV Base + H+ → Conjugate acid
melting of ice, evaporation of water etc.
5. Define std. enthalpy of formation. Give the std. enthalpy of formation of O2 molecule.
The enthalpy of formation in the standard state (298K T, 1 bar P and at stable state of aggregation) is called std. 10. What are the criteria for spontaneous process? 9. State Lewis concept of acids and bases.
0 Decrease in energy and increase in disorderness. According to this concept acids are electron pair acceptors and bases are electron pair donors.
enthalpy of formation. By convention, standard enthalpy for formation, ΔfH , of an element in its reference state is taken
11. Define entropy. What is its unit? Substances which donate electron pair are called Lewis bases and substances which accept electron pair are called
as zero. So the std. enthalpy of formation of O2 is zero.
It is a measure of degree of disorderness or randomness of a system. The unit of entropy and entropy change is Lewis acids.
+ 3+ 2+
6. State Hess’s law of constant summation. Give any 2 applications. J/K/mol. Example for Lewis acids are BF3, AlCl3, H , Co , Mg etc.
- - -
The law states that the total enthalpy change for a physical or chemical process is the same whether the reaction 12. Define Gibb’s energy. Give the criteria for spontaneity of a process in terms of free energy change (∆G). Example for Lewis bases are NH3, H2O, OH , Cl , Br etc.
taking place in a single step or in several steps. Or, the total enthalpy change for a process is independent of the path 10. Define ionisation constant of water or ionic product of water. What is its value at 298K?
It is defined as the maximum amount of available energy that can be converted to useful work. For a process to be
followed. It is used for determining std. enthalpy of combustion and bond enthalpy. It is defined as the product of the molar concentration of hydrogen ion (hydronium ion) and hydroxyl ion in water
spontaneous, its ∆G should be negative. -14
or in any aqueous solution. At 298K, Kw = 10
13. What are the conditions for ∆G to be negative? H
7. Define lattice enthalpy. 11. Define P .
i) If ∆H is negative and ∆S is +ve, ∆G is always –ve and the process is always spontaneous. It is defined as the negative logarithm of the hydrogen ion or hydronium ion concentration in moles per litre
The lattice enthalpy of an ionic compound is the enthalpy change when one mole of an ionic compound dissociates into
gaseous ions. ii) If both ∆H and ∆S are positive, ∆G will be –ve when T∆S > ∆H. This is possible at high temperature. (i.e. molarity).
H +
8. Construct an enthalpy diagram for the determination of lattice enthalpy of sodium chloride. iii) If both ∆H and ∆S are negative, ∆G will be –ve when T∆S < ∆H. This is possible at low temperature. i.e. p = -log[H ]
H +
L attice enthalpy of NaCl is determined by Born-Haber cycle. or p = -log[H3O ]

12. Define common ion effect. 7. In the reaction Pb(s) + PbO2(s) + 2H2SO4(aq) 2 PbSO4(s) + 2 H2O(l) Identify the following: i) Substance Write its condensed formula and give the IUPAC name.
It is the suppression of the dissociation of a weak electrolyte by the addition of a strong electrolyte oxidised ii) Substance reduced iii) Oxidising agent iv) Reducing agent. Ans: Condensed formula is HO-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH(CH3)-CH(CH3)2
containing a common ion.
13. What is Buffer solution? Ans: Here the Oxidation number of Pb increases from zero to +2. So Pb is oxidised and it is the reducing agent.
IUPAC Name is 4,5-Dimethylhexan-1-o
Solution which resists the change in pH on dilution or with the addition of small amount of acid or alkali is called 2. Give the IUPAC names of the following compounds:
Also the oxidation number of PbO2 decreases from +4 to +2. So PbO2 is reduced and hence it is the oxidising agent.
Buffer solution. There are two types of buffer solutions – acidic buffer and basic buffer. i) CH3-CH2-CH-CH2-CH2-CH-CH2-CH3
14. Define solubility product. 8. Chemical reactions which involve oxidation and reduction are called redox reactions. The unbalanced equation
It is defined as the product of the molar concentration of ions of a sparingly soluble salt or in a saturated in the ionic form of a redox reaction is shown below.
solution. For a general salt AxBy, its dissociation can be denoted as: AxBy(s) ═ xAy+ (aq) + yBx- (aq); Ksp = [Ay+]x[Bx-]y 2+ 2-
Fe (aq) + Cr2O7 (aq) acidic medium
3+ 3+
Fe (aq) + Cr (aq). Balance this equation by oxidation number ii) CH3-CH2-CH=CH-CH2-COOH
-3
15. If the concentration of hydrogen ion in a soft drink is 3 x 10 M, calculate its method. Ans: i) 6-Methyloctan-3-ol ii) Hex-3-en-1-oic acid
+ -3
pH [H3O ] = 3 x 10 M Ans: Step 1: Assign the oxidation number of each element and identify the atoms which undergo change 3. Draw the structures of the following compounds.
H +
P = -log[H3O ] in oxidation number. i) 2,3-Dibromo-1-phenylpentane
-3
= -log(3 x 10 ) = 2.5229
+ - -5
Ag (aq) + Cl (aq). The solubility of AgCl is 1.06 x 10 mol/L at 298K. Step 2: Calculate the change in oxidation number per atom and equate them by multiplying with ii) 4-Ethyl-1-fluoro-2-nitrobenzene F
16. Consider the equilibrium, AgCl(s)
Find out its Ksp at this temperature. suitable coefficients. Here the oxidation number of iron is increased by 1 and that of Cr is decreased by Ans: i) CH2-CH(Br)-CH(Br)-CH2-CH3 ii) NO2
+ -
Ans: AgCl(s) Ag (aq) + Cl (aq). Let S be the solubility of AgCl. 3.
2+ 2-
(since there are two Cr atoms, oxidation number decresed by 6). So multiply Fe by 6 and Cr2O7 by 1.
S S S 2+ 2- 3+ 3+
+ - 6 Fe (aq) + Cr2O7 (aq) Fe (aq) + Cr (aq). C2H5
Ksp = [Ag ][Cl ]
2 Step 3: Balance all the atoms except oxygen and hydrogen. 4. Write the complete, condensed and bond line structural formulae of 2-bromobutane.
=SxS=S 2+ 2- 3+ 3+
-5 -5 2 -10 2 6 Fe (aq) + Cr2O7 (aq) 6 Fe (aq) + 2 Cr (aq). H HHH
Since S = 1.06 x 10 , Ksp = (1.06 x 10 ) = 1.1236 x 10 M
Step 4: Now equate the ionic charges on both sides of the equation. Since the reaction takes place in Ans: Complete structural formula: H-C-C-C-C-H
8. REDOX REACTIONS + +
acidic medium, use H ions to balance charges. Here the net ionic charge on LHS is 10 and that at RHS H Br H H
+ +
1. Define the electronic concept of oxidation and reduction. is 24. So add 14 H on LHS to equate ionic charge. Condensed structural formula: CH3-CHBr-CH2-CH3
2+ 2- + 3+ 3+
6 Fe (aq) + Cr2O7 (aq) + 14H 6Fe (aq) +2 Cr (aq). Br
According to this concept oxidation is the process of removal (losing) of electron and reduction is
Step 5: Now make the numbers of hydrogen atoms in the expression on the two sides equal by adding
the process of addition (gaining) of electron. Bond line structure:
water (H2O) molecules to the reactants or products. Now, also check the number of oxygen atoms.
2. Define the oxidation number concept of oxidation and reduction. 2+ 2- + 3+ 3+ 5. Write the structures of the following organic compounds.
6 Fe (aq) + Cr2O7 (aq) + 14 H 6 Fe (aq) + Cr (aq) + 7 H2O
According to this concept, oxidation is the process of increase in the oxidation number of an a) 2,5,6 – Trimethyloctane
9. What are the rules for assigning oxidation number of an element?
element and reduction is the process of decrease in the oxidation number of an element. b) Hexane-2,4-dione
3. What are Stock notations? Using Stock notation, represent the following compounds: i) HAuCl 4 ii) MnO2 a) The oxidation number of all elements in the free or the uncombined state is zero. For e.g. oxidation c) 5-oxohexanoic
number of H2, O2, Cl2, O3, P4, S8, Na, Mg, Al etc. is zero. acid Ans:
Stock notations are some notations used to represent the oxidation number of a metal in a +
b) For simple ions, the oxidation number is equal to the charge on the ion. Thus Na ion has an a) CH3-CH(CH3)-CH2-CH2-CH(CH3)-CH(CH3)-CH2-CH3
compound. According to this, the oxidation number is represented in Roman numeral in brackets after 2+ 3+ + – – 2– –
oxidation number of +1, Mg ion +2, Fe ion 3, Cl ion 1, O ion 2 and so on. b) CH3-CO-CH2-CO-CH2-CH3
the symbol of the metal in the molecular formula. Stock notations for HAuCl4 is HAu(III)Cl4 and that for MnO2 + +
c) All alkali metals have oxidation number of 1 and all alkaline earth metals have an oxidation number of 2.
is + c) CH3-CO-CH2-CH2-CH2-COOH
Aluminium shows an oxidation number of 3 in all of its compounds.
Mn(IV)O2. – 6. The IUPAC names of alkanes are based on their chain structure.
4. What is a disproportionation reaction? Give an example. d) The common oxidation number of oxygen is 2. But in peroxides (e.g., H2O2, Na2O2), oxidation number of
– – a) Give the IUPAC name of
oxygen is 1 and in superoxides (e.g., KO2, RbO2), it is ½. In oxygen difluoride (OF2) and dioxygen difluoride
Disproportionation reaction is a special type of redox reaction in which an element in + +
(O2F2), the oxygen is assigned an oxidation number of 2 and 1 respectively.
one oxidation state is simultaneously oxidised and reduced. +
e) The common oxidation number of hydrogen is 1. But in hydrides, H shows an oxidation number of -1.
f) The common oxidation number of halogens is -1. Fluorine shows only -1 oxidation number in all of its b) Represent 1-Methyl-3-propylcyclohexane using bond line notation.
E.g. The decomposition of hydrogen peroxide.
compounds. But other halogens show positive oxidation numbers also in their oxides and oxoacids. +
g) The algebraic sum of the oxidation number of all the atoms in a compound is zero. c) What is the type of hybridization of C in CH3 ? Also predict its shape.
h) In polyatomic ion, the sum of the oxidation numbers all the atoms is equal to the charge on the ion. d) Name the type of bond fission resulting in the formation of free
Here the oxygen of peroxide is in –1 state and it is converted to zero oxidation state in O2 and –2 radicals? Ans: a) 3-Ethyl-5-methylhexane
oxidation state in H2O. b)
5. Fluorine reacts with ice as given below: H2O(s) + F2(g) HF(g) + HOF(g). Justify that this is a redox 12. ORGANIC CHEMISTRY – SOME BASIC PRINCIPLES AND TECHNIQUES
reaction.
1. The bond-line formula of a compound is given below.
Ans: Here the oxidation number of Oxygen increases from -2 to +1 and that of F is decreased from zero to -1. So 2
this is a redox reaction. c) Hybridisation: sp shape: planar triangular
6. Write the redox reaction involved when metallic cobalt is placed in a nickel sulphate solution. d) Homolysis or homolytic bond fission
HO 7. Give the IUPAC names of the following:
Co + NiSO4 CoSO4 + Ni
OH CH3

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a) CH3–CH–CH2–CH2–C–CH3 CH2-
CH3 iii) OH 21. Write the metamers corresponding to the molecular formula
b) CH3–CH2–CH2–C–CH3 C4H10O. Ans: CH3-O-CH2-CH2-CH3 and CH3-CH2-O-CH2-CH3
O 22. What do you mean by the following terms?
c) OH Ans: i) 2,4-dimethylhexane a) Homolytic fission b) Heterolytic fission c) Nucleophiles d) electrophiles
Ans:
ii) 2-chloro-4-methylpentane Homolysis: It is a type of bond fission in which each of the bonded atoms gets one of the electrons of
Br Br
iii) Cyclohexenol the shared pair.
Br 12. Draw the structure of the molecules represented by the IUPAC names :
Ans: a) 5,5-Dimethyl-2-heptanol Heterolysis: It is a type of bond fission in which the shared pair of electrons remains with one of
a) pent-4-en-2-ol the parts.
b) 2-pentanone b) 3-nitrocyclohexane. Nucleophile: A reagent that brings an electron pair is called a nucleophile.
c) 2,4,6-trinitrophenol Ans: a) CH2=CH-CH-CH(OH)-CH3 Electrophile: A reagent that takes away an electron pair is called an electrophile.
8. The bond line representation of cyclopropane is . Write the bond line structures of NO2
23. Explain the different types electron displacement effects in covalent bonds.
a) Cyclohexane b) Ans:
b) CH3 – CH(OH) – CH2 – CHBr – CH3 13. How many ‘σ’ and ‘π’ bonds are present in the following compounds?
Inductive effect (I effect): It is the shifting of sigma electrons through a carbon chain in presence of
CH2=C=CH-CH3 an atom or group of atom attached to a carbon chain. It is a permanent effect.
Ans: a) Ans. 9 σ bonds and 2 π bonds.
Electromeric effect (E effect): It is the shifting of π-electrons of a multiple bond in presence of an
OH Br 14. Write the IUPAC name of the following compounds: attacking reagent. It is a temporary effect.
b)
CH3 - CH2 – CH - CH2 - CHO and CH3 – CH = CH - CH2 - C ≡ C - Resonance Effect (R effect): It is defined as ‘the polarity (charge) produced in the molecule by the interaction
CH3 OH of two π-bonds or between a π-bond and lone pair of electrons present on an adjacent atom’.
9. Write the IUPAC name of the following: Ans: 3-hydroxypentanal and hept-2-en-5-yne
Hyper conjugation: It is a permanent effect. Here the σ electrons of C—H bond of the alkyl group enter
15. Give the IUPAC name of the following compound: CH3-CH2-CO-CH2-CH2-COOH into partial conjugation with the unsaturated system or with the unshared p orbital.
i) CH3–C–CH2–CH-CH3 CH3 Ans: 4-oxohexanoic acid 24. Hyper conjugation is a general stabilizing interaction. Write the hyper-conjugative structures of CH3-
16. What is homologous series? +
CH2 (ethyl cation)
ii) CH3 – CH = CH – CH2 – CH2 – COOH Ans: A series or group of organic compounds in which adjacent members are differed by a –CH2 group Ans:
Ans: i) 2,2,4-trimethylpentane is called a homologous series.
ii) Hex-4-en-1-oic acid 17. Classify the following into homologous series and name the series.
10. Give the structures of the following compounds: C3H8, C2H5Cl, C6H14, C4H9Cl, C2H5OH, CH3-CH2-CH2-Cl, CH3-CHOH-CH3
i) 3–Ethyl-4,4-dimethylpentane Ans: Alkane – C3H8 and C6H14
ii) 6-Methyloctan-3-ol Alkyl halides – C2H5Cl, C4H9Cl and CH3-CH2-CH2-Cl
Alcohols – C2H5OH and CH3-CHOH-CH3
+ + + +
Ans: i) 18. Write the general formulae of the following homologous series. 25. Arrange the following carbocations in the increasing order of stability: (CH 3)2CH , CH3 , (CH3)3C , CH3-CH2
i) Alkynes ii) Alcohols iii) Chloroalkanes
+ + + +
ii) CH3-CH2-CH(CH3)-CH2-CH2-CH(OH)-CH2-CH3 Ans: Alkynes: i) CnH2n-2, ii) Alcohols: CnH2n+1OH iii)Chloroalkanes - CnH2n+1Cl Ans: CH3 < CH3-CH2 < (CH3)2CH < (CH3)3C
11. Write the IUPAC name of the following compounds : 19. Write all the possible chain isomers of the compound with molecular formula C 5H12. 26. Categorize the following functional groups into those having +R effect and –R effect: -NH2, -NO2, -COOH,
-OH
Ans: CH3-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH3, CH3-CH(CH3)-CH2-CH3, (CH3)2CH-CH2-CH3 and (CH3)4C
i) CH3–CH–CH2–CH–CH3 20. Give any three types of structural isomers. Give examples.
Ans:
ii) (CH3)2CH – CH2 – CH – CH3 +R effect: -NH2, -OH
Ans: i) Position isomerism: CH3-CH2-CH2-CH2-OH CH3-CHOH-CH2-CH3
Cl 1-Butanol 2-Butanol -R effect: -NO2, -COOH
Functional group isomerism: ethanol (CH3-CH2OH) or an ether methoxy methane (CH3-O-CH3) 27. Various methods for the purification of organic compounds are based on the nature of the compound
and the impurity present in it. Explain the principle involved in the following methods of purification:
+1 CHEMISTRY SIMPLIFIED NOTES – PREPARED BY ANIL KUMAR K L, APHSS ADICHANALLOOR, KOLLAM Page
Chain isomerism: CH3-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH3 CH3-CH(CH3)-CH2-CH3 a) Distillation b) Steam distillation
25
n-pentane isopentane
+1 CHEMISTRY SIMPLIFIED NOTES – PREPARED BY ANIL KUMAR K L, APHSS ADICHANALLOOR, Page +1 CHEMISTRY SIMPLIFIED NOTES – PREPARED BY ANIL KUMAR K L, APHSS ADICHANALLOOR, Page
KOLLAM 26 KOLLAM 27
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Ans: b) i) Column chromatography, and

a) Distillation: This method is used to separate (i) volatile liquids from non-volatile impurities and (ii) the ii) Thin layer chromatography.
liquids having sufficient difference in their boiling points. The principle of this method is that liquids
c) Silver halides (AgX) 13. HYDROCARBONS
d) Molecular nitrogen (N2) 1. What is Wurtz reaction?
having different boiling points vaporise at different temperatures. The vapours are cooled and the
31. Name the method for estimation of Alkyl halides react with metallic sodium in dry ether to form alkanes. This reaction is known as
liquids so formed are collected separately.
Halogen. Ans: Carius method Wurtz reaction.
b) Steam distillation: This technique is applied to separate substances which are steam volatile and are 32. Explain any one method for the estimation of nitrogen present in an organic compound.
immiscible with water. In steam distillation, steam from a steam generator is passed through a heated 2 R-X + 2Na dry ether R-R + 2NaX
Ans: Dumas method: Here the organic compound is heated with copper oxide in an atmosphere of carbon
flask containing the liquid to be distilled. The mixture of steam and the volatile organic compound is dioxide so that free nitrogen, carbon dioxide and water are produced. This mixture of gases is collected over
condensed and collected. The compound is later separated from water using a separating funnel. an aqueous solution of potassium hydroxide which absorbs carbon dioxide. Nitrogen is collected in the CH3-Br + 2Na + Br-CH3 dry ether CH3-CH3 + 2 NaBr
Aniline – water mixture is separated by this method. upper part of the graduated tube. From the volume of nitrogen collected, we can determine the % of Bromomethane Ethane
28. How is sodium fusion extract prepared? Using this, how will you detect the presence of Nitrogen. 2. How will you convert sodium acetate to methane?
Nitrogen, Sulphur and Halogen in an organic compound? 33. In the Carius method of estimation of halogen, 0.15g of an organic compound gave 0.12g of AgBr. Sodium acetate on heating with soda lime (a mixture of NaOH and CaO), it undergoes decarboxylation to
Find the percentage of Br in the compound. form methane.
Ans: Nitrogen, sulphur and halogens present in an organic compound are detected by “Lassaigne’s test”. CH3COONa + NaOH CaO CH4 + Na2CO3
Here the organic compound is fused with metallic sodium in a fusion tube. It is then plunged into distilled Ans: From Carius method,
Sodium acetate methane
water taken in a china dish. The solution is boiled and filtered. The filtrate is known as sodium fusion Percentage of halogen = Atomic mass of halogen x m1 x 100 % 3. How will you convert sodium acetate to ethane?
extract. By using sodium fusion extract, elements like N, S and halogens can be detected as follows: Molecular mass of AgX x m An aqueous solution of Sodium acetate on Kolbe’s electrolysis, we get ethane
= 80 x 0.12 x 100 = 34% 2CH3COONa + 2H2O CH3 – CH3 + 2CO2 + 2NaOH + H2
No. Experiment Observation Inference 188 x 0.15 Sod. Acetate ethane
1. To one part of sodium fusion extract add freshly Blue or green Presence of 4. What are conformations?
34. Different methods are used to purify organic compounds. Name any three methods of
prepared ferrous sulphate (FeSO4) solution. Heated coloration or nitrogen The different spatial arrangements of atoms arising due to free rotation around a C-C single bond
purification. Ans: Sublimation, Crystallisation and Distillation.
to boiling, cooled and acidified with dil. H2SO4. precipitate (ppt) are called conformations or conformers.
2. A little of the sodium fusion extract is acidified with White ppt soluble in Presence of 35. On complete combustion, 0.246g of an organic compound gave 0.198g of CO 2 and 0.1014g of H2O.
5. Which are the different types of conformations of ethane? Among these which is most stable
Determine the percentage composition of carbon and hydrogen in the compound.
dil. HNO3 and then silver nitrate (AgNO3) is added. ammonium Chlorine Ethane has mainly two types of conformations – Eclipsed conformation and staggered
hydroxide (NH4OH) Percentage of hydrogen = 2 x m1 x 100 = 2 x 0.1014 x 100 = 4.6% conformation. Among these, staggered conformation is more stable. This is because here the electron
Pale yellow ppt 18 x m 18 x 0.246 clouds of carbon-hydrogen bonds are very far apart. So there is minimum repulsive forces and maximum
slightly soluble in Presence of Percentage of carbon = 12 x m2 x 100 % = 12 x 0.198 x 100 = 21.95% stability.
NH4OH Bromine 44 x m 44 x 0.246 6. Draw the Newman projection formula for the conformations of ethane?
Yellow ppt insoluble
in NH4OH Presence of Iodine 36. Different techniques are used for the purification of organic compounds based on their nature.
3. To a little of the sodium fusion extract, add sodium Violet colouration
Presence of sulphur a) Suggest a suitable method for the separation of a mixture of aniline and water.
nitroprusside solution
b) Give the chemical name of the compound responsible for the blue colour in the Lessaigne’s test for
29. Write the name of the test used to detect nitrogen, sulphur, halogens and phosphorous present in an nitrogen.
organic compound.
c) Briefly explain the principle involved in Kjeldahl’s method for the estimation of nitrogen.
Ans: Lessaigne’s test
30. Organic compounds have to be purified before analysis. 7. What is mean by Geometrical isomerism? Draw the geometrical isomers for 2-butene.
b) Ferriferrocyanide
a) Which type of liquids can be purified using distillation under reduced pressure? Suggest an example. The isomerism arising due to the difference in the spatial arrangement of atoms around carbon-carbon
c) Kjeldahl’s method: Here the organic compound containing nitrogen is heated with concentrated double bond is called geometrical isomerism. There are two types of geometrical isomers – cis isomer and
b) Name the two main types of chromatographic techniques based on the principle of
sulphuric acid. Nitrogen in the compound gets converted to ammonium sulphate. The resulting acid trans isomer.
differential adsorption.
mixture is then heated with excess of sodium hydroxide. The liberated ammonia gas is absorbed in e.g. 2-butene
c) In the Lassaigne’s test for halogens, they are precipitated as ………….
an excess of standard solution of sulphuric acid. The amount of ammonia produced is determined by
d) In what form is nitrogen estimated in the Dumas method?
estimating the amount of sulphuric acid consumed in the reaction. It is done by estimating unreacted
Ans: a) Liquids having very high boiling points and those, which decompose at or below their sulphuric acid left after the absorption of ammonia by titrating it with standard alkali solution.
boiling points. Glycerol can be separated from spent-lye in soap industry by using this technique.

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8. What is Lindlar’s catalyst? Give its use. 15. How will you convert phenol tobenzene?
Partially deactivated palladised charcoal is known as Lindlar’s catalyst. Phenol is reduced to benzene by passing its vapours over heated zinc dust.
Alkynes on reduction with Lindlar’s catalyst, we get cis-alkene.

16. What are electrophilic substitution reactions? Give eamples.

9. What is the major product formed on the addition of HBr to 1-propene? Name the rule you used These are reactions in which a weak electrophile is replaced by a strong electrophile. The important
to choose the major product. State it. electrophilic substitution reactions are Nitration, Sulphonation, Halogenation and Friedel-Crafts alkylation and
When HBr is added to propene, we get 2 products – 1-bromopropane and 2-bromopropane. acylation.
Nitration: It is the introduction of nitro (-NO2) group to a benzene ring. For this benzene is heated with a
mixture of conc. HNO3 and conc. H2SO4 (nitrating mixture).

17. Convert benzene to acetophenone and toluene.

Here the major product is determined by a rule called Markownikoff’s rule. The rule states that “when an
unsymmetrical reagent is added to an unsymmetrical alkene, the negative part of the addendum
(adding molecule) gets attached to the carbon containing lesser number of hydrogen atoms”
10. What is peroxide or Kharasch effect? Give an example.
In the presence of peroxide, addition of HBr to unsymmetrical alkenes takes place against Benzene Acetophenone
Markovnikov rule. This is known as peroxide or Kharash effect or anti-Markovnikov addition
reaction. e.g. CH3-CH= CH2 + HBr Org. peroxide CH3-CH2-CH2Br
Propene 1-bromopropane
11. Give the preparation of acetone (C2H2) from calcium
carbide? On treating calcium carbide with water, we get
acetylene gas. Benzene
CaC2 + 2H2O → Ca(OH)2 + C2H2 18. What is gammexane or BHC? Give its preparation.
(acetylene) Benzene adds chlorine in presence of uv light to form benzene hexachloride (BHC). It is also known
12. How will you convert acetylene to benzene? as Gammexane or Lindane or 666.
Ethyne (acetylene) on passing through red hot iron tube at 873K, undergoes cyclic
polymerisation to form benzene (C6H6).

= 19. How will you convert benzene to cyclohexane?

13. State Hickel’s (4n + 2) π electron rule. Benzene add hydrogen in presence of nickel catalyst at high temperature and pressure to form
According to this rule, “cyclic, planar, conjugated systems containing (4n+2) π electrons cyclohexane.
are aromatic”. Where n is the number of rings. n may be 1,2,3,….
14. How will you convert sodium benzoate to benzene ?

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