1.

Quantitative & Qualitative Methodology

The most important methodological choice researchers make is based on the
distinction between qualitative and quantitative data. As mentioned
previously, qualitative data takes the form of descriptions based on language or images,
while quantitative data takes the form of numbers.
Qualitative data is richer and is generally grounded in a subjective and
interpretivist perspective. However, while this is generally the case, it is not always so.
Qualitative research supports an in-depth understanding of the situation investigated and,
due to time constraints, it generally involves a small sample of participants. For this
reason the findings are limited to the sample studied and cannot be generalised to other
contexts or to the wider population. Popular methods based on qualitative data include
semi-structured or unstructured interviews, participant observations and document
analysis. Qualitative analysis is generally more time-consuming than quantitative
analysis.
Quantitative data, on the other hand, might be easier to collect and analyse and it
is based on a large sample of participants. Quantitative methods are based on data that can
be ‘objectively’ measured with numbers. The data is analysed through numerical
comparisons and statistical analysis. For this reason it appears more ‘scientific’ and may
appeal to people who seek clear answers to specific causal questions. Quantitative
analysis is often quicker to carry out as it involves the use of software. Owing to the large
number of respondents it allows generalisation to a wider group than the research sample.
Popular methods based on quantitative data include questionnaires and organisational
statistical records among others.
The choice of which methodology to use will depend on your research questions,
the formulation of which is consequently informed by your research perspective.
Generally, unstructured or semi-structured interviews produce qualitative data and
questionnaires produce quantitative data, but such a distinction is not always applicable.
In fact, language-based data can often be translated into numbers; for example, by
reporting the frequency of certain key words. Questionnaires can produce quantitative as
well as qualitative data; for example, multiple choice questions produce quantitative data,
while open questions produce qualitative data.

2. Classroom Action Research (Adapted by Julian Hermida from Gwyn Mettetal, “The
What, Why and How of Classroom Action Research”, JoSoTL Vol. 2, Number 1
(2001).

Classroom Action Research is a method of finding out what works best in your
own classroom so that you can improve student learning. There are many ways to
improve knowledge about teaching. Many teachers practice personal reflection on
teaching, others conduct formal empirical studies on teaching and learning. Classroom
Action Research is more systematic than personal reflection but it is more informal and
personal than formal educational research.
The goal of Classroom Action Research is to improve your own teaching in your
own classroom, department, or school. While there is no requirement that the findings be
generalized to other situations the results can add to knowledge base. Classroom Action
Research goes beyond personal reflection to use informal research practices such as a
brief literature review, group comparisons, and data collection and analysis. Validity is
achieved through the triangulation of data. The focus is on the practical significance of
findings, rather than statistical or theoretical significance.
Findings are usually disseminated through brief reports or presentations to local
colleagues or administrators.
Steps to conduct Classroom Action Research
a. Identify a question or problem:
 What is the effect of X on student learning?
 The question or problem should look at something under the teaching control.
 The problem should also be an area which you are willing to change.
 It should also be feasible.
b. Review Literature
 You need to gather two types of information: background and data.
 It may be much less extensive than traditional research.
 The use of secondary sources is usually sufficient.
c. Plan a research strategy
 It may take many forms: pretest, posttest, a comparison of similar classes to a
descriptive case study of a single class or student.
 Both qualitative and quantitative methods are appropriate.
 It relies on triangulation of data to provide validity.
 To triangulate collect at least three types of data, e.g., student test scores,
teacher evaluations, and observation of student behavior). If all data point to
the same direction, you have some assurance of validity.
d. Gather data
 Make sense of the data
 Analyze your data, looking for findings with practical significance.
e. Take action (Use your findings to make decisions about your teaching strategies.)
f. Share your findings (There are many ways to share findings with your peers: journals,
conferences, workshops, teaching tips, websites, newsletters, etc.)

3. Experimental Research

Experimental Research is a systematic and scientific approach to research in

which the researcher manipulates one or more variables, and controls and measures
any change in other variables. A very wide definition of experimental research, or
a quasi experiment, is research where the scientist actively influences something to
observe the consequences. Experiments are conducted to be able to predict
phenomenons. Typically, an experiment is constructed to be able to explain some kind
of causation. Experimental research is important to society - it helps us to improve our
everyday lives.

Steps :
 a) Identifying the Research Problem
Defining the research problem helps you to formulate a research
hypothesis, which is tested against the null hypothesis. This helps the
researcher to focus on a more narrow research area to be able to study it
appropriately.
An ad hoc analysis is a hypothesis invented after testing is done, to try to
explain why the contrary evidence. A poor ad hoc analysis may be seen as
the researcher's inability to accept that his/her hypothesis is wrong, while a
great ad hoc analysis may lead to more testing and possibly a significant
discovery.
b) Constructing the Experiment
o Sampling Groups to Study
Sampling groups correctly is especially important when we have more
than one condition in the experiment. One sample group often serves as
a control group, whilst others are tested under the experimental
conditions. Reducing sampling errors is vital for getting valid results
from experiments. Researchers often adjust the sample size to
minimize chances of random errors.
 probability sampling  cluster sampling
 non-probability sampling  sequential sampling
 simple random sampling  disproportional sampling
 convenience sampling  judgmental sampling
 stratified sampling  snowball sampling
 systematic sampling  quota sampling
o Creating the Design
 Pretest-Posttest Design  Within Subject Design
 Control Group  Counterbalanced Measures Design
 Randomized Controlled Trials  Matched Subjects Design
 Solomon Four-Group Design  Double-Blind Experiment
 Between Subjects Design  Bayesian Probability
o Pilot Study
With a pilot study, you can get information about errors and problems,
and improve the design, before putting a lot of effort into the real
experiment. Minor errors, which could potentially destroy the
experiment, are often found during this process. This ensures that the
experiment measures what it should, and that everything is set up right.
c) Conducting the Experiment
Identifying and controlling non-experimental factors which the researcher
does not want to influence the effects, is crucial to drawing a valid
conclusion. This is often done by controlling variables, if possible, or
randomizing variables to minimize effects that can be traced back to third
variables. Researchers only want to measure the effect of the independent
variable(s) when conducting an experiment, allowing them to conclude
that this was the reason for the effect.
d) Analysis and Conclusions
 Experiments are more often of quantitative nature than qualitative nature,
although it happens. In quantitative research, the amount of data measured
can be enormous. Data not prepared to be analyzed is called "raw data".
The raw data is often summarized as something called "output data",
which typically consists of one line per subject (or item). A cell of the
output data is, for example, an average of an effect in many trials for a
subject. The output data is used for statistical analysis, e.g. significance
tests, to see if there really is an effect.
If the researcher suspects that the effect stems from a different variable
than the independent variable, further investigation is needed to gauge
the validity of the results. An experiment is often conducted because the
scientist wants to know if the independent variable is having any effect
upon the dependent variable. Variables correlating are not proof that there
is causation.

4. Research & Development